Running Head: MINI LITERATURE REVIEW 1

Mini Literature Review

Background:
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Freshmen students have traditionally underperformed in high school due to their lack of

skills and preparation for high school. Many high school freshmen do not earn enough credits to

keep them on track for graduating within the four years they are in high school. This topic was

chosen to explore the interventions needed to support freshmen students as they transition to the

high school and during their freshmen year to ensure that they complete their A-G graduation

requirements and complete their diploma with their graduating class.

Problem Statement:

Culver City High School (CCHS) is the sole feeder high school for Culver City Middle

School (CCMS) and they are physically next door to one another. Therefore, administrators have

easy access to one another. CCHS identified that there is a high failure rate amongst freshmen

with over 60% of students earning at least one F in their freshmen year. Four years ago, CCHS

identified their school-wide goals which include: all freshmen will earn 60 credits. Through

anecdotal discussions between the CCHS and CCMS administrative staffs and informal

conversations with staff, concerns regarding freshmen preparedness for high school have been

identified - specifically for incoming high school freshmen that did not culminate from middle

school to ensure their success in high school.

CCHS has implemented a Summer Bridge Program from middle school to high school

and a Team 9 Study Skills course for students who did not culminate from middle school to high

school. However, neither of these programs have been evaluated to understand their

effectiveness. Thus, we do not know which interventions would best support these students in

completing their A-G requirements and graduating on time. Furthermore, middle school

culmination rates and freshmen course completion rates have not been reviewed.
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Therefore, a need exists to study appropriate interventions for freshmen high school

students to support them in completing their A-G requirements [i.e. The University of California

(UC) and California State University (CSU) course requirements for entering freshmen] and

graduating on time.

Participatory Action Research (PAR) Purpose:

The purpose of this study is to investigate the interventions needed for freshmen students

who did not culminate from middle school to ensure that they remain on track for completing 60

credits aligned with A-G requirements, so they will stay on track for graduating on time.

Qualitative data in the form of surveys and interviews will be conducted. Quantitative

data, such as student grades and course passage rates, will be used to evaluate the effectiveness

of the interventions.

PAR Research questions:

What interventions are needed to support freshmen students who did not culminate from

middle school in completing 60 credits aligned with A-G requirements, so they will stay on track

for graduating on time?

Cycle One:

During Cycle One of the PAR process, research on high school interventions specifically

focusing on interventions for freshmen students was reviewed. Questionnaires were developed

and administered to current freshmen students in CCHS Team 9 support class. Questionnaires

were also developed and are currently being administered to the parents of current Team 9

students and for former Team 9 students to determine the impact of the program.
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A focus group that included the current Team 9 teacher, the former Team 9 teacher, and

the Intervention Coordinator was held to discuss the program, its successes, and changes that

could be implemented to strengthen the program.

Finally, a parent information night took place at a local restaurant. Team 9 students, their

Chiron upperclassmen mentors, and the Team 9 students were invited to learn about the program,

meet the teachers and administrator over the program, and most importantly for the Team 9

parent and the Chiron to meet to discuss the progress the Team 9 student made over the school

year.

Reviewing the Literature

Four themes emerged from the research on interventions to assist students as they

transition from middle school through their freshmen year in high school. Successful

interventions include a type of freshman academy, peer mentors, summer bridge programs,

teacher/counselor supports, and additional supports. Schools imbedding at minimum one of

these strategies show increased engagement and success with their freshmen students.

McCallumore and Sparapani (2010) state increased graduation requirements and rocky

transitions from middle school to high school seem to comprise a majority of the reasons for

students struggling, failing, and dropping out (p. 447). Students who fail to pass all of their

classes in ninth grades have an elevated risk of dropping out (Neild, 2009). Providing

interventions to high school students, specifically as they transition from middle to high school,

contributes to the success of students towards earning their high school diploma.

Neild (2009) discusses that freshmen students have reduced parental supervision as they

transition to high school, many are unprepared for the demands of high school, and that breaking

the bonds with their middle school teachers and peers also have an impact on the transition to
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high school. On average, freshmen students attend high school with 60% of their middle school

classmates. Neild argues that each of these factors require different programs or responses to

support the students to remain on track for graduation. Should a ninth grade student not earn

enough credits, he will not promote to the sophomore class requiring the student to stay longer in

high school and creating social complexities.

For the first time in their academic career, freshmen students face the reality of rigorous

classes that one must pass to earn credits towards graduation. Social promotion is no longer in

practice. Fritzer and Herbst (1996) point out that that students have declining academic

performance, increased absences, increased behavioral disturbances, and decreased participation

in extracurricular programs during the transition to a new school (p.7). Ninth-graders have a

22% repeat rate due to these factors. Struggling high school readers fall behind their peers and

have difficulty in understanding the graded-level texts (Lang et al., 2009).

After reviewing data at West High School in Bakersfield, California, Emmett and McGee

(2012) found that 22% of freshman in that school did not promote to the sophomore status as

they had not earned enough credits to promote. Behavior problems have a great impact on

academic success. McIntosh, Flannery, Sugai, Braun, and Cochrane (2008) stated,...the

presences of low academic skills often interferes with social behavior, but the presence of

problem behavior nearly always interferes with academic learning (p. 251). Hence, supporting

the students in all aspects of their life is important.

Neild (2009) states ...ultimately, it is the high schools that bear the most immediate

responsibility for putting in place the curriculum, school organizational feature, and strong

teachers who will increase a ninth graders chances of making a good transition to high school
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(p. 72). One high school had a 43 percent discipline referrals rate for their 9th-grade students

during the 2006-07 school year (Frank, 2011).

During their freshmen year, students not only face biological changes as their body is

changing, but they also meet new friends, may face social problems such as bullying, and must

pass rigorous courses to stay on track for earning their diploma (McCallumore and Sparapani,

2010). These changes, combined with reduced parental supervision and a change in school

setting, contribute to transition problems. Programs implemented in some school show success

in supporting freshmen students.

Theme 1 Freshmen-type academies

Whereas many middle schools have a school schedule that meets with a few subjects

each day, typical high schools include six periods a day. Managing this new schedule and a large

campus overwhelms students. Morgan and Hertzog (2001) suggest providing freshmen with a

copy of the school map and schedule to ease the transition to the new school. Freshmen will use

these resources to navigate the campus and arrive at classes on time.

Freshmen-type academies appear in different formats across the research. They are

designed to personalize the support for the social and emotional needs of the students and to

provide targeted remediation for the students who have academic deficiencies (Emmett and

McGee, 2012). The overarching theme amongst these academies is to support freshmen students

through their transition and to meet the social, emotional and academic needs of the students.

West High School implemented a freshman academy that was a concept rather than a physical

space (Emmett and McGee, 2012). Fritzer and Herbst (1996) present the idea of a ninth grade

House concept which includes a separate physical area for the students.
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Remediation of subjects is necessary sometimes to prepare the students for advancement

in school. Incoming freshmen at West High School took the STAR Diagnostic Reading

Assessment. Fifty percent of the students were reading at the sixth-grade level, and only 18

percent of the incoming freshmen at were reading at or above grade level (Emmett and McGee,

2012). Hence, the students were at a disadvantage by not possessing the reading ability to

understand the grade-level textbooks. Neild (2009) discusses the academic skills that freshmen

need to be successful in high school and the need to read at grade level. For students who enter

high school below grade level, trying to read and comprehend standard high school texts is

deeply frustrating, and many simply give up (Neild, 2009, p. 61).

Emmett and McGee (2012) discuss a Freshmen Academy that is a concept rather than an

identified space. This allows for freshmen students to mix amongst the rest of the students in the

school and make the transition to the next school year easier. Teachers share a group of students

and offer a double period of English which embeds Scholastics Read 180 program to focus on

developing English skills (Emmett and McGee, 2012). Class size is maxed at 30 students per

class to foster relationship building. The idea was to offer smaller classes where teachers could

have more one-on-one time with students. This would also help with maintaining control of

student behavior (Emmett and McGee, 2012, p. 76).

Fritzer and Herbst (1996) present the idea of a Ninth Grade House in a separate physical

area of campus from the other students. A faculty team, including counselors, work with the

freshmen to ease their transition to the high school. An interdisciplinary, themed curriculum is

planned during a common planning period and presented by the team of teachers to assist

students in connecting the ideas across the curricula (Fitzer and Herbst, 1996). The teacher team

uses the common planning period to meet with students, their colleagues, and to hold parent-
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student-teacher conferences during the school day. The House assigned counselor and

administrator work directly with their students to support and guide them as their transition into

high school. The suburban school that implemented the Freshmen House had success with their

program and extended it the following year to include a freshmen school orientation and a

weekly motivational assembly for the freshmen class during the first three weeks of school. This

not only motivated the students but also ingrained in them the school expectations and rules.

Project Transition provides for a personalized school environment for teachers and

students (Neild, 2009, p. 64). Students and teachers are placed in interdisciplinary teams to

create lessons, facilitate meetings, coordinate professional development and to coach the teachers

on the lessons. Common planning time for the teachers is effective as the teachers use the time

to work on lessons and discuss student progress. This collaborative instruction focus leads to a

more personalized learning environment at one school where students earned higher GPAs and

more credits (Neild, 2009). The Ninth Grade Success Academy, another freshman academy

model, placed their students in physical proximity to one another to facilitate communication and

problem-solving amongst the students (Neild, 2009). Talent Development Schools use a block

schedule with their freshmen students to limit the courses freshmen take to four at a time.

Additionally, students take two English classes and two math classes to catch up on academic

skills (Neild, 2009). The second class is a supplement to accelerate the learning and prepare

them for college preparatory course sequences.

Theme 2 Summer Bridge programs

Some districts are providing a Summer Bridge program during the summer from eighth

to ninth grade. Students are introduced to the physical campus at the high school, focus on skill

development in math and reading before starting the school year, and are introduced to high
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school personnel and their peers (Neild, 2009). The Step Up to High School program in Chicago

targeted students who ranked in the 35th to 29th percentiles in reading and math for their

summer bridge program (Neild, 2009). This district focused on these students as there was a

high probability that they would struggle in high school. A study found that students who

participated in this program had significantly and substantially higher rates of being on track

after ninth grade (Neild, 2009).

At another school, a summer orientation for 26 identified at-risk students took place a

week before school started where ninth-grade students were paired with upperclassmen mentors.

Students planned joint activities and fundraisers to cement the time they would work together

(Frank, 2011). These activities established the bond between the students and created a

connection to the school.

Theme 3 Peer Mentors

Peer mentoring frequently appears in the research as an effective intervention for

freshmen students. Fritzer and Herbst (1996) discuss the value of using upperclassmen as peer

mentors in school clubs and sports. Freshmen students have an easier time becoming involved in

school activities when teamed with an upperclassmen student. Pairing the freshmen students

with active and influential members of the Senior class helps to encourage the students to

become involved in their school (Fritzer and Herbst, 1996, p. 8).

State, Harrison, Kern and Lewis (2017) present information about a Check and

Connect program where mentor students collect weekly data (i.e., absences, suspensions,

grades, missing assignments, and office discipline referrals) and meet with their mentees to

review the information and problem-solve on how to improve upon it (p. 29). Mentors work
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with the students after securing appropriate permissions due to the sensitive and confidential data

with which they work.

Creating a buddy system for freshmen by teaming them with upperclassmen has eased

the transition for the ninth graders. Some districts implement a one-day orientation before

school students to create this bond (Neild, 2009). Link Crew leaders, upperclassmen nominated

by their teachers, receive a two-day training to work with the underclassmen. The Link Crew

members participate in a freshmen orientation and implement freshmen activities throughout the

school year. At one school, they worked as peer tutors with freshmen English classes (Emmett

and McGee, 2012).

A peer mentoring club existed at a high school that encompassed individualized meetings

with at-risk freshmen students and their senior mentors. The frequency of the meetings

contributed to the 65% success rate of the freshmen student earning the credits to advance to

sophomore status (Frank, 2011). Each mentoring meeting lasted 43 minutes, sometimes meeting

daily and was under the supervision of the librarian. Students focused on organizational and

study skills. Mentors monitored their mentees grades to determine where to focus their efforts.

Mentors also accompanied their mentees to discuss problems with their teachers (Frank, 2011).

At the end of the school year, mentees and mentors participated in a trip to a theme park as a

reward. Students were not required to spend the day together at the theme park; most pairs did

thus demonstrating the bond the students had formed. More than anything, peer mentoring is

about forming relationships. The freshmen realize that their mentors care about them and have

high expectations (Frank, 2011, p. 68). Establishing the mentor-mentee bond had a positive

impact on the students.

Theme 4 Teachers; counselors, support

Creating a bond with an adult at school enhances a students success rate in high school.

Ninth grade teachers need to be experienced and implement solid classroom management skills

to support the students (Frank, 2011). ...teachers who are assigned to ninth graders are more

likely than teachers in the upper grades to be uncertified, new to the profession, new to the

school and sometimes all three (Frank, 2011, p. 62). Assigning experienced teachers to this

grade level and providing adequate training and support will contribute to the success of the

students. At one high school, six high school teachers chose to adopt and mentor an identified

at-risk student by providing guidance and support during the school year. This team expanded to

include a program coordinator, the school psychologist, and the school librarian to support the

program.

Providing reading opportunities across the curriculum so students can develop

comprehension and reasoning strategies supports the students (Lang et al., 2009). At one school,

reading programs were identified, and teachers were trained in their implementation. Providing

the targeted support to the teachers trickled down to empowering the skills of the students.

The Talent Development schools implement a professional development program for

teachers assigned to freshmen courses. Teachers participate in several days of professional

development before the school year starts to learn key instructional strategies to use with

freshmen. Throughout the year, teachers receive intensive support from classroom coaches,

who preview upcoming curriculum units, provide feedback on lessons that they observe, model

key instructional strategies, and research additional instruction materials (Neild, 2009, p. 66).

Supporting teachers who work with freshmen students is important to insure they meet the needs

of the students so they learn the curriculum and pass their classes.
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The consistency of classroom interventions implementation (e.g., expectations, routines,

etc.) and student interventions (e.g., study and organizational skills) have a positive impact on

the emotional and behavioral development of high school students (State et al., p. 26). Students

have emotional and behavioral challenges if they lack support. Teacher training, teacher efficacy

and collaboration are critical components of working with freshmen students to support their

academic and social needs of their students (Emmett and McGee, p. 74).

Theme 5 - Additional supports

Parents also need to be supported through the transition to high school. McCallumore

and Sparapani (2011) present the idea of a parent information night where parents can learn

about the school, its programs, its expectations and meet some of the personnel including

freshmen teachers. Morgan and Hertzog (2001) suggest inviting groups of 15-20 parents to

coffee or tea hosted by the school administrators to discuss school procedures and policies.

A High School 101 course is offered to freshmen students during the school year in

another high school. In this course, students are taught essential high school survival skills such

as time management, decision-making skills, study skills, test-taking strategies, social tolerance,

computer research skills, and career alignment (McCallumore and Sparapani, 2010, p. 448).

Preparing the students for the rigors of high school and teenage social interactions contribute to

academic success.

Summary:

Freshmen students need interventions as they transition to the high school where they

experience a new school setting with new teachers, peers, curriculum, and academic

expectations. Students who enter high school lacking reading and math skills are at a

disadvantage to other students when trying to complete the credits for the freshmen year.
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Additionally, these deficiencies contribute to student misbehaviors and discipline referrals to the

office thus pulling the students from needed academic time.

It goes almost without saying that one of the most important things that school districts

can do to support ninth-grade reform is to encourage interventions at the school level that have

research support (Neild, 2009, p. 69). Successful research-based freshmen support systems

include freshmen-type academies, summer bridge programs, upperclassmen mentors, targeted

training and support for teachers and counselors, parent information nights, and the need for

freshmen students to participate in school extracurricular activities. Each type of support will

not be successful without one or more of the other identified support systems.
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References

A look at tiered interventions in high school. (2010). Educational Leadership 68(2).

Emmett, J. and McGee, D. (2012). A farewell to freshmen. The Clearing House: A Journal of

Educational Strategies, Issues and Ideas 85(2): 74-79. doi:

10.1080/00098655.2011.619592

Frank, N. (2011). Rallying behind at-risk freshmen. Educational Leadership 68(7): 66-69.

Fritzer, P. J. and Herbst, P.S. (1996). Make yourself at home: The "house" concept in ninth grade

transition. American Secondary Education 25(2): 7-9.

Lang, L., Torgesen, J., Vogel, W., Chanter, C., Lefsky, E., Petscher, Y. (2009). Exploring the

relative effectiveness of reading interventions for high school students. Journal of

Research on Educational Effectiveness 2(2): 149-175. doi:10.1080/19345740802641535

McCallumore, K. M. and Sparapani, E.F. (2010). The importance of the ninth grade on high

school graduation rates and student success. Education Digest: Essential Readings

Condensed for Quick Review 76(2): 60-64.

McIntosh, K., Flannery, K. B., Sugai, G., Braun, D. H., Cochrane, K. L. (2008). Relationships

between academics and problem behavior in the transition from middle school to high

school. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions 10(4): 243-255. doi:

10.1177/1098300708318961

Morgan, P. L. and Hertzog, C. J. (2001). Designing comprehensive transitions. Principal

Leadership: High School Edition 1(7): 10-18.

Neild, R. C. (2009). Falling off track during the transition to high school: What we know and

what can be done. Future of Children 19(1): 53-76. doi:https://doi.org/10.1353/foc.0.0020

State, T. M., Harrison, J. R., Kern, L., Lewis, T. J. (2017). Feasibility and acceptability of

classroom-based interventions for students with emotional/behavioral challenges at the

high school level. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions 19(1): 26-36.

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