UW-Rock County Introduction to Philosophy UW-Rock County Introduction to Philosophy
Skepticism
Descartes
Skepticism and Rationalism
Skepticism is the claim that we do not have knowledge
Skepticism admits that we have beliefs and can agree that
theoretically knowledge is true, justified belief. But Skepticism
denies
i) that it is possible to justify beliefs
ii) or, that beliefs are things that can even be justified
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Skeptics Argument Descartes Method of Doubt and
the Search for Certainty
Is there any belief which cannot be doubted?
1. We can find reasons for doubting any one of our beliefs
If a belief can be doubted, then there is no reason to think that it
2. It follows that we can doubt all our beliefs. can be the basis for knowledge
3. If we can doubt all our beliefs, then we cannot be certain of any Descartes contrasts doubt with certainty
of them.
Does Descartes think that a belief that can be doubted is false?
4. If we do not have certainty about any of our beliefs, then we do
not have knowledge. No, a belief that can be doubted might be true
5. Therefore, we do not have knowledge. It is simply that it is possible that a belief which can be
doubted is false
And, if its possible for a belief to be doubted, certainty cannot
exist.
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Doubt This.... Descartess Method
Is it possible to doubt these beliefs?
Limes are green. Doubt sense experiences: how things appear can mislead
The sky is farther way than the tops of trees and buildings. Doubt the world of objects: why think what appears to be the real
world is not just vivid dream?
I am ______ (your age) years old.
Is the evil demon possible? Could reality just be a creation of
Humans have walked on the moon. the evil demon?
I am sitting in class. If the evil demon is possible, then anything is possible
including 2+2=5, we dont have bodies, that we are brains in a
2+2=4 vat, etc.
I am now doubting.
Is there anything beyond doubt?
I exist.
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Is There Anything Beyond Doubt? Descartes Hits Bottom
From the method of doubt Descartes concludes that the only
thing that cannot be doubted is the fact that he is doubting
Can one doubt that one is doubting?
What happens if one does doubt that one is doubting? He believes, I am, I exist.
Must there exist someone who is doubting if doubting is Cogito ergo sum: I think, therefore I am
occurring?
From this conclusion, Descartes begins to build a system of
knowledge
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Chew On This....
Rationalism
Why dont mathematicians need laboratories to discover
mathematical truths? How do mathematicians make their
discoveries?
Touch your nose. Now, touch your ears. Now, touch your rights.
Why cant you touch your rights? You have them, dont you?
Doesnt everybody? Even though we want to say that everyone Descartes response to skepticism
has rights, no one can sense them. So, how do we know that we
have them? How do we gain knowledge about our rights?
Think about the visual illusions we viewed. We have beliefs
about the causes of those illusions that dont necessarily match
what we perceived. Where did those beliefs come from?
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Rationalism Rationalisms Claims
Rationalism claims that reason or the intellect is the primary
1. Reason is the primary source of knowledge about reality
source of our fundamental knowledge about reality.
2. Sense experience is an unreliable and inadequate means to
Reason provides knowledge apart from sense experience
knowledge
Reason provides one with knowledge of the world
3. The fundamental truths about the world can be known a priori
independently of experience
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1. Reason is the Primary Source of Examples of A Priori Truths
Knowledge About Reality
For the rationalist, we come to understand reality through reason
Logical truths: A and not-A cannot both be true at the same
Knowledge about reality is gained through (i) deduction or time
intuition alone, (ii) ones innate rational nature, (iii) concepts
which are the results of ones innate rational nature Mathematical truths: A square has four sides of equal lengths
meeting in right angles
Experience may help tell us about concrete particulars, but reason
Metaphysical truths: Every event has a cause
tells us about the fundamental nature of reality
So, sensory experience cannot tell us about a priori truths, i.e., Ethical principles: Truth-telling is an essential component of
social relations
truths that can be know independently of experience
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2. Sense Experience is an Unreliable and 3. The Fundamental Truths About the World
Inadequate Avenue to Knowledge Can Be Known A Priori
Reason is superior to sense experience because we can have
Rationalists argue that sense experience is relative, changing and certainty about the a priori
illusory
Innate Ideas: there are ideas or principles that the mind
We need our reason to make sense of illusory perceptions contains prior to experience
While we need sense experience, rationalists deny that These ideas are called innate ideas, they are inborn
experience is the only or best source of knowledge about
reality Innate ideas include: truths of logic, mathematics, concept of justice, or
the idea of God
Only reason can tell us about universal, foundational truths of
Self-evident Ideas: the mind does not already contain these
reality ideas but is structured such that it has a natural predisposition
to recognize certain things in certain ways
As a result, the inadequacy of sense experience to give us
knowledge means that reason and rationality reign supreme When humans reach certain stages of cognitive development, then they
and are indispensable will realize the self-evident truths of certain ideas. Descartes thought
that God implanted these ideas and capacities within us.
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Descartes as Pure Intellect Descartess Proof of Gods Existence, I
After Descartess skeptical adventures, he is left with certainty
about himself as a thinking thing or pure intellect
So what is Descartes to use to prove Gods existence?
He could not be certain about his body or the experiences he
had with his body He has doubted everything but his existence
What could there be external to the mind to guarantee that he was Descartes must fashion a proof from the reasons arising only
representing reality correctly? in his mind
If there is nothing external, then Descartes is left only with his While Descartes thinks he could have fashioned ideas of other
own existence animals and objects from ideas he possesses about himself, he
does not think he could have come up with the idea of God
Descartes solution: appeal to God
Why? Because his mind could not have given form to
As soon as the opportunity arises I must examine whether something infinite and perfect
there is a God, and, if there is, whether he can be a deceiver.
For if I do not know this, it seems that I can never be quite
certain about anything else.
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Descartess Proof of Gods Existence, II Descartess Proof of Gods Existence, III
Descartes thinks that the idea of God as an infinite and perfect Only if there were an infinite and perfect God could Descartes
being could not have come from his own mind because his mind have had the idea of an infinite and perfect God in the first place
is finite and imperfect
How did God give Descartes this idea?
The principle grounding this conclusion is that there must be
This idea is innate, it is already in the mind and cannot be
as much reality in the cause as in the effect based on anything we experience
So, the ideas of God must have come from God himself
It is clear and distinct
Why think that the ideas of God correspond to some external
Clear ideas are present to the attentive mind
reality?
Distinct ideas are clear ideas unlike any other ideas in that
Descartes thinks the idea of perfection is different from any they contain only that which is clearly conceived
other idea
How does one avoid error and gain certainty? Possess a
It is a clear and distinct idea and these ideas are true clear and distinct idea
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Descartess Argument God is Not a Deceiver
1. Something cannot be derived from nothing.
2. There must be at least as much reality in the cause as there is in Since God exists, Descartes knows that God would not deceive
the effect. him, since deception would make God morally imperfect
3. I have an idea of God (as an infinite and perfect being). Since God is not a deceiver and God is the creator of Descartess
cognitive faculties, Descartes is certain that reason is a reliable
4. The idea of God in my mind is an effect that was caused by tool for gaining knowledge about reality
something.
Errors about reality are simply errors in reasoning, errors that
5. I am finite and imperfect and could not be the cause of the idea of result from going beyond those things which one can clearly and
a perfect and infinite being. distinctly know
6. Only an infinite and perfect being could be the cause of such an Now, Descartes is certain that he can have knowledge about his
idea. existence, his body, and the external world
7. Therefore, God exists.
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What Say Ye, Descartes? Problem with Perfection
Descartes thought it was possible to doubt simple mathematical Descartes argues that the idea of perfection is innate and we do
truths like 2+2=4 not discover it in experience
But, now he embraces without question a more complex But, can you imagine the perfect baseball player, the perfect
principle: there must be at least as much [reality] in the efficient quarterback, the perfect rose, etc.?
and total cause as in the effect
We have never experienced any of these things
About which of these two items are you most certain?
So, why think the idea of perfection is innate?
Do you agree with Descartes that it is impossible to doubt the
If anything, is the idea of perfection an idea we create from our
second item about more reality in the cause? finite, imperfect experiences?
Has Descartes relaxed his standard of universal doubt? Is
If so, then the idea of perfection arises from experience and
Descartes justified in assuming the latter principle? not pure reason
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