CHILD AND ADOLESCENT

DEVELOPMENT
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COMPETENCIES
INTERPRET THEORIES AND FINDINGS RELATED TO CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT
AMONG THE BIOLOGICAL , LINGUISTIC, COGNITIVE, SOCIAL, AND PSYCHOLOGICAL DIMENSION
CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT
A. BASIC CONCEPT
Growth
Refers to the progressive increase and continuous advancement of
the child from birth to maturity
Refers primarily to the increment in the bodily tissues, organ and
structures
Refers not only in an increase in quantity or in size but also in
enlarge capacity and changing proportions.
Development
Refers to the gradual and orderly unfolding of the characteristics of
the individuals as they go through the successive stage of growth
Involves changes form simplicity to complexity implies and
increasingly progressive maturity of behavior as well as organization
of personality and character
Is of the following types:
 Physical this aspect of development provides children
with the abilities they need to explore and interact with
the world around them. It encompasses different tasks
and abilities like running, jumping, holding a pencil and
drawing. It also includes the development of the brain.
Cognitive this section talks about how children think,
reason, use language and process information.
Socio-emotional is about the development of the
childs personality, self-concept, identity, and social
skills
Moral refers to the physical growth, or growth in the
ability of children to use their bodies and their physical
skills.
to the progressive, expansion of the
intellectual and
 May also either be:
Cephalocaudal, in which the development proceeds from head to foot where
control develops at the upper before the lower parts of the body ( e.g. a child can
throw something before she can kick )
Proximodistal, in which growth and development start in the middle portion of the
body, going outward ( e.g. the arms develop first, then the hands and finally, the
fingers )

Maturation
Refers to that part of development that is controlled form within the internal
ripening aspects, indicating that has reached its optimal level
It designates a process of internal growth consisting chiefly of structural
changes and coordination within the nervous systems together with the level of
development of mental functions which is indicated by a state or readiness to
engage in a definite type of behavior.
Heredity
The process of transmitting biological traits from parents to offspring through
genes, the basic units of heredity; accounts for why offspring look like their
parents
 Environment
Refers to the totality of surrounding conditions that influence the
growth, development and, survival of organisms
Is one of the risk factors of development problems
Includes this basic social units:

Family - the basic institutions for the childs development that

provides the child with affections, sense of belongingness, and
validations; may be nuclear
(Couple and children) or extended (nuclear and other close
relative)
School an institution for the continuation of the childs learning, and
development of his mental, social and affective skills.
Peer group composed of members who share certain social
characteristics, such as age class, occupation or educations with a
particular child, and is very important in the socializations process as
the individuals attempts to conform to the expectations of the peer
groups.
Neighborhood the community within a town or city where the
individuals resides
Stages of Development
Referred to as the number of periods in the life cycle, in which the
functions and relative emphasis of a given type of behavior differ from
those at other periods of life
Life span is arbitrarily divided into this stages of periods, with each
period being as part of a whole
Developmental Tasks - refers to the behaviors that
are expected to be manifested at or about a certain
period in the life of an individuals; the successful
achievement of this tasks leads to success in the later
tasks; success or failure in performing these may be
due to physical maturations, cultural pressure, and
family background/rearing practices
 [Link] OF HUMAN GROWTH
AND DEVELOPMENT
Principles of Human Growth Focus Applications
Classroom Situations
1. The development of an The process of heredity and Teachers to take note or
organisms is the result f the environment are consider the family background
interactions between interdependent and of the child and the
heredity (nature) and complimentary. Neither environment where he/she was
environment (nature) appears to be dominant. born or grew up in to better
Height while largely understand him/her self
determine by heredity is especially his/her behaviors.
also affected to an extent by
nutrition.
2. Growth is sequential. Growth follows an orderly Teachers to know in what stage
sequence which in general a particular aspect of growth
is the same for all the child is to better understand
individuals him/her behavior.
All aspects of development
be it language, motor,
socials occur sequentially.
3. Each stage of development Characteristics traits vary at
Knowledge of characteristics
has characteristics traits. each stage. traits at different stages can be
Traits become more of considerable value for
complex as the child gets teachers I choosing the
older appropriate activities as well as
the methods of teaching.
4. Maturations or readiness Definite degrees of maturity Teachers to consider the
should precede certain types of are prerequisite to various maturity level of the child in
learning. kinds of learning asking him/her to do
something. Forcing a child who
is not mature ready may lead to
personality disturbance.
5. The body mains to maintain a The body tends to adapt to Teachers to be a keen observer
state of equilibrium called environmental conditions; it so he/she can do something
homeostasis. strives to preserve a when signs of uneasiness or
constant internal boredom on the part of the
environment despite students is shown or exhibited,
changing conditions. while he/she is teaching or
observing the students do
something.
6. Development rates vary. The speed of Teachers to understand that
development is not even. girls mature earlier than boys.
Each part of the body has Growth rate maybe retarded
its own particular rate of by illness and certain types of
growth. deprivations such as
prolonged poor nutrition.

7. Growth is patterned. They no identical growth Children should never be

patterns. compared unless their rates
Each child has his/her and patterns of growth have
own characteristics rate been taken into account.
C. ASPECTS/ DOMAINS OF
DEVELOPMENT
Physical Development: pertains to the changes in body
structure and functions overtime
Cognitive Development: refers to the gradual and
orderly changes in the individuals mental processes
from simple to complex/sophisticated
Psychological Development: refers to the changes in
personal and intrapersonal aspects of an individual
such as motives, emotions, personality traits and
interpersonal skills
D. STAGE THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT
1. The psychoanalytic Theory Sigmund Freud

Stage Age Range Characteristics

1. Oral Birth to 1 Stimulations involving use of the mouth
year produces pleasure; babies enjoy sucking,
chewing, biting etc.
When an infant experiences frustration in not
being able to meet needs through oral activities,
the needs may continue to resurface at a later
period in life in such forms as eating or smoking.
2. Anal 1 3 years Stimulations of the anal region procedures
pleasures.
Parents put emphasis to toilet training. their
over attention or lack of attention to childrens
toilet training maybe the cause of problems
associated with fixations of development.
3. Phallic 3 6 years Self-stimulations of the genitals produce pleasure.
The children struggle with sexual feelings about the same
gender parent.
The stage where boys experience the state of Oedipus
complex (young boys experience rivalry with their father
for their mothers attention and affections and regards
father as a sex rival) and girl experience the state of
Electra complex (sees mother as a rival for fathers
attentions.
4. Latency 6 12 years Child sex instincts are relatively calm and continue until
puberty as he/she focuses more on school work and
vigorous play.
5. Genital 12 years Adolescent and adults have mature sexual feelings and
onwards experience pleasure from sexual Relationship.
Oedipus/Electra feelings are reactivated and directed
toward other persons of the opposite sex.
 2. THE PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY
ERIK ERIKSON
Stage Age Features
1. Trust Vs Birth to 1 Whether children come to trust or mistrust themselves and
Mistrust year other people depends on the social care and comfort the
primary caregiver has provided

If infants needs are When children are not

met, and are shown negative, he
genuine affection approaches the world
they think the world with fear and
is safe and suspicion
dependable.
2. Autonomy Vs 1 3 years During this stage, society creates on children a new conflict,
Shame and that is, whether to assert their will or not.
Doubt When parents are When children are not
patient, accepting allowed such freedom
and encouraging, and are over
children acquire a protected, they may
sense of doubt their ability to
independence and deal with the
competence. environment.
3. Initiative Vs Guilt 3 6 years At this stage, children grain greater freedom in exploring their
environment and often attempts tasks that parents do not
approve.
Parents who allow their Parents, who curtail this
children freedom to freedom, make the children
explore and master new feel their activities are
task are allowing them to pointless and a nuisance,
develop initiative children become passive and
feel guilty about doing things
on their own.

4. Industry Vs 6 12 years This period reflects the determinations of children to master what
Inferiority they are doing so that they develop a successful sense of modesty
industry.
Parents, teachers who Those who ignore, rebuff,
support, reward and praise deride childrens effort are
children are encouraging strengthening feelings of
and help in developing inferiority.
childrens sense of
industry.
5. Identity Vs 12 -20 years As young adult, they seek independence from parents, achieve
Role physical maturity and are concerned about what kind of persons they
Confusion are becoming

Seeking to find an When the adolescent fails to dvelop

identity, adolescents try a sense of identity, he/she
on many new roles. If experiences role confusion or a
they experience negative identity
continuity in their
perception of self,
identity develops.

6. Intimacy Vs 20-40 years Young adults reach out and make contact with other people and to
Isolation fuse ones identity with that of others to develop intimate
relationship
Central to intimacy is the Failure to establish close and
ability to share with and intimate relationship results to a
care for others. feeling of isolation
3. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES
JEAN PIAGETS COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY

Believes that children are neither driven by

undesirable instinct nor molded by
environmental influences
Views children as constructivists, that is, as
curious active explorer who respond to the
environment according to their understanding of
its essential features
Divides intellectual development into four major
periods:
a.) Sensorimotor (birth to two years)
Infants use sensory and motor capabilities to explore
and gain a basic understanding of the environment
At birth they have only innate reflexes with which to
engage the world. By the end of the sensorimotor
period, they are capable of complex sensimotor
coordination
Infants learn that objects continue to exist when they
are out of sight (object permanence) and begin to
internalize behavioral schemata to produce images or
mental schemata.
b.) Preoperational (two to seven year)
Children use symbolism (images and language) to
represent and understand various aspects of the
environment
Thought is egocentric, meaning, that the children
think everyone sees the world in much the same
was as that they do.
Children become imaginative in their play activities.
They gradually begin to recognize that other people
may not always the world as they do.
c.) Concrete Operations (seven to eleven years)
Children are no longer fooled by appearances. By relying on
cognitive operations, they understand the basic properties of
and relations among objects and events in the everyday world.
Able to solve concrete (hands-on) problem in logical fashion
Understand laws of conservation and are able to classify and
seriate; understand reversibility
Becoming much more proficient at inferring motives by
observing others behavior and the circumstances in which it
occurs.
d.) Formal Operations (eleven years and
beyond)
Able to solve abstract problems in logical fashion
Becomes more scientific in thinking
No longer is logical thinking limited to the
concrete or to the observable; children enjoy
pondering hypothetical issues and as a result may
become rather idealistic
Capable of systematic, deductive reasoning that
permits them to consider many possible solutions
to a problem and pick the correct answer
JEROME BRUNERS THEORY OF
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
The human mind gains inputs through the senses, processes them
through cognitive abilities and produces outputs employing
language and creative expression

Involves three stages:

Enactive Stage ( 0 to 18 months) children response to
sensory stimuli
Iconic stage (18 months 6 years ) children view the
world through concrete representations
Symbolic stage (6 years onwards) the individual can
be handle abstract representations, using his thinking
skills to understand things
LEV SEMANOVICH VYGOTSKY

Sociohistoric-Cognitive/Linguistic-
Cognitive Development- Cognitive development is
dependent on the childs interactions with those around him:
social stimulations aids mental and language development.
Believe the child acquires new skill and information with the
zone of proximal development (ZPD), the distance between
the childs actual development level and a higher level of
potential development obtained through and adult guidance
This theory suggests that in addition to providing a
stimulation environment, early childhood educators need to
promote discovery, explaining and providing suggestion to
suit each childs zone of proximal development.
JOHN WATSON
The behaviorist theory of development
Basic premise of Watsons behaviorism
That the mind of an infant is a tabula rasa and that
learned associations between stimuli and responses
are the building blocks of human development.
Development does not proceed through series of
stages; it is a continuous process marked by the
gradual acquisitions of m=new and more
sophisticated behavioral pattern or habits.
Only the simplest of human reflexes (for Example, the
sucking reflex) are inborn and that important
behavioral tendencies, including traits, talents, values
and aspirations are learned.
a)Level One Pre-conventional Morality (0-9
years)
Often manifested by avoiding punishment and receiving
benefits in return
Comes in two stages
Stage 1; Punishment obedience Orientation (
2 years to 7)
o The physical consequence of an action determines
goodness of badness
o With the belief that those in authority have superior
power and should be obeyed
o Punishment is avoided by staying out of trouble
 Stage 2: Instrumental Relativist Orientation (pre-
school to school age)
o An action is judged to be right if it is instrumental or satisfying ones
own needs
o With the belief that obeying rules should bring some sort of benefits
in return

b). Level Two Conventional Morality ( 9 -10 years)

-Called
conventional since 9 to 20 years olds conform to
the conventions or rules of -society
-Manifested by respecting authorities
-Involves two stages
 Stage 3: Good Boy Nice Girl Orientation
The right action is one that would be carried out by someone
whose behavior is likely to please or impress others.
Stage 4: law and Order Orientation
To maintain the social order, fixed rules must be established
and obeyed. It is essential to respect authority

c.)Level Three Post-conventional Morality (after age

20)
This is usually reached only after age 20 and by only a small proportion of
adults
Called post-conventional level because the moral principles that underlie the
conventional of a society are understood
Manifested through mutual agreements and consistent principles
Involves two stages:
Stage 5: Social Orientation
Rules are needed to maintain the social agreement at
the same time that the rights of the individual are
understood

Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principle Orientation

Moral decisions are made in terms or self-chosen
ethical principles. Once principles are chosen, they
are applied in consistent ways.
STAGES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT: Although
the focus of this discussion is on individuals of
school age, a brief description of those in other
stages of development is also given.
1. PRENATAL STAGE
Physical Development involves three major stages
GERMINAL STAGE (ZYGOTE PERIOD)
From a single cell, an organism becomes complete with brain and
behavioral and other capabilities in approximately 9 months
The fertilized egg, known as a zygote, then moves towards the uterus, a
journey that can more or less take a week to complete.
Cell division begins approximately 24 to 36 hours after conception
Six days after fertilization, the cells of the zygote become sticky and
attached to the wall of the uterus, where implantation begins.
The cells begin to specialize, some forming an inner cell mass, which will
become the embryo, and some forming a surrounding cell mass, which will
support structures for the embryo.
EMBRYONIC STAGE (THE PERIOD OF THE
EMBRYO)
The mass of the cells is now known as embryo.
Structures important to the support of the embryo develop, including the placenta
and umbilical cord.
Cells begin to differentiate into the various body systems
The basic outlines of the organs, body and nervous system are established
By the end of the embryonic stage, the beginnings of features such as fingers,
eyes, month and ears become visible.
Development is very rapid during the second week. The embryo now comes to
look a little like human being. The internal organs develop at the point where
some of them can function. Nerves an muscles grow and develop.
FETAL STAGE (THE PERIOD OF THE FETUS)
The embryo has become a fetus in this stage
The neural tube develops into the brain and the spinal cord and
neurons form
Sex organ is begin to appear during the third month of the gestation
The fetus continues to grow in both weight and length although the
majority of the physical growth occurs in the later stages of
pregnancy.
The individual is complete with face, arms, legs, fingers, toes, and
some calcification of this bones, functioning in the internal organs and
muscles the fetus is ready is build upon the basic form that has been
laid down.
Has a large repertory of movements which includes blinking, sucking,
turning the head and gripping, and a wide variety of movements of
limbs, hands and feet.
 Prenatal Behavioral Development corresponds to
the development of nervous system and the
muscles of the body.
Importance of understanding the prenatal stage
Less than two weeks after conception, the new
organism begins to demonstrate grow, adaptive form
of behavior and as its develops, it displays more
complex and varied forms of behavior, this behavior
has potential effect on later behavior
From researches, learning already occurs at this
early stage; hence, this stage is considered to be of
great importance for the development of behavior.
 2. INFANCY STAGE
Occurs from birth to 12 months during which babies experience rapid changes: height,
weight, hearing and sensitivity to sounds, patterned perception begins
Learns to crawl, walk, talk, take solid food, control elimination of
body waste; have refined grips
Characterized by
Advancement in cognitive aspects
An automatic or inborn response to stimulus that involves a
nerve impulse
Time more spent by sleeping
Radical adjustments with in the external environment, such as in
Temperature Change
Breathing
Sucking and Swallowing
Elimination
3. BABYHOOD
Occurs roughly from one to three years
during which the child learns to take solid
food, walk, talk, control elimination of body
wastes; gets ready to read; starts
distinguishing from girls and between right
and wrong
 4. EARLY CHILDHOOD STAGE (THREE TO SIX
YEARS; PRE-SCHOOL/KINDERGARTEN)
CHARACTERISTICS CLASSROOM IMPLICATIONS
Physical Characteristics
1. Extremely active; have good control of their bodies, Provide plenty of opportunities for
enjoy activity for itself running, climbing, and jumping but these
should be under control.
2. Have inclination toward burst of activity, so they Schedule quiet activities after strenuous
need frequent rest periods as they often dont know ones
they need to slow down.

3. With large muscles that are more developed than

those that control fingers and hands; are therefore Avoid too many small motor activities such
clumsy especially in skills like lying shoes and as pasting paper chains; provide big tools
buttoning and supplies.

MORAL CHARACTERISTICS
1. Concept of morality emerge as a result of
interactions with adults and peers
2. Show concern about deviations from the way
objects should be and how people
 [Link] CHILDHOOD STAGE (SIX TO NINE YEARS;
GRADES 1-3)
CHARACTERISTICS CLASSROOM IMPLICATIONS

Physical Characteristics Avoid rules that require them to stay quiet for long periods, have frequently
1. Still extremely active, hence, when restricted, their energy is released breaks, provide active classwork.
through nervous habits (e.g. fidgeting) Schedule quiet and/or relaxing activities after periods of mental concentration.
2. Get fatigued easily because of physical and mental exertion Avoid schedule too much writing at one time
3. With more superior large muscle control than fine coordination
4. Many have difficulty focusing on small prints or objects Try to require too much reading at one stretch. Prepare materials with large
5. Have excellent control over their bodies, are confident in their skills, and prints.
often underestimate danger. Encourage participation in essentially safe games
6. Bone growth not completely yet, so, bones and ligaments cant stand heavy Encourage competition involving coordinate skills
pressure.

Social Characteristics
1. Somewhat more selective in choosing friends and are likely to have a more Sociograms may be used to gain insight into friendships, give some assistance to
or less permanent friend. children who have difficulty in making friends.
2. Like organized games in small groups, but may tend to be overlay Promote the idea that games should be fund and not excessively competitive.
concerned with rules or get carried away by team spirit.
3. Quarrels are still frequent although words are used more often than
physical aggression. Try to give children a chance to work out their own situation to disagreements
as social conflict is effective in spurring cognitive growth.
Emotional Characteristics
1. Sensitive to criticism and ridicule and may have difficulty in adjustment to
failure Give frequent praise and recognition and other positive reinforcement
2. Most are eager to please the teacher. especially for academic behavior.
3. Beginning to become sensitive to the feelings of others. Assign jobs on a rotating basis.
Be alert about the group pastime of increased teasing a particular child so
Cognitive Characteristics much that it may make a tremendous effect on the attitude towards school of
1. Are generally eager to learn; they have built-in motivation for this. the victim.
2. Have much more facility in speech than in writing. Sustain their eagerness to learn
3. Can make generalization but based only on concrete experiences
Emotional Characteristic Control participation so that they speak up only when called upon.

Tell an informant that you are aware of the situation and that they you will do
something about it; then follow up by talking to the offending parties.
 6. LATE CHILDHOOD STAGE (NINE TO 12 YEARS:
GRADE 4-6)
CHARACTERISTICS CLASSROOM IMPLICATIONS
Conflicts between physical attributes and roles might arise, try
to explain that things will eventually even out and to persuade
pupils that being male or female should not in in itself
determine what a person does.
Try to give accurate and unemotional answers to question
about sex.
Provide arts and crafts, and musical and related creative
activities.
Keep in mind the pupils growing independence and their need
for understanding and limit setting rather than punishment,
provide cooperative activities
Try to play down comparisons between best and worst
learners.
Encourage pupils to participate in rule setting.
Keep students constructively busy.
Moral Characteristics May need provisions for counseling and parent training and
1. Emotions concerning pride and guilt become clearly governed by mastery of basic academic skills.
personal responsibility. Report unusual and repeated episodes of disorder to parents
2. Ideas about justice. and school counselor.
3. Can now follow advance internalized standards. Provide opportunities to learn for both sexes to further lessen
differences.

Use varied teaching methods and approaches.

7. ADOLESCENCE (12-16 YEARS; HIGH SCHOOL)
CHARACTERISTICS CLASSROOM IMPLICATIONS
Physical Characteristics Give students extra opportunities to
1. Physical growth becomes more gain status and self-confidence by
accelerated although most girls succeeding in school work or other
completed their growth spurt at the non-athletic activities and
beginning of this period earlier than recognizing their achievements.
boys. Provide accurate
2. Pubertal development is evident. information/answers to questions
3. Adolescent awkwardness is likely; asked.
self-consciousness and great concern Establish a class routine that includes
about appearance are manifested. completion of activities about two-
4. Generally have good health but may three minutes before end of period
show poor sleeping habits and diet. to give students time for grooming
and
Cognitive Characteristics
1. Have increased ability to engage in
metal manipulations and test
hypotheses; thinking becomes more Give more opportunities to make
abstract, liberal and knowledgeable. personal regarding academic work
and to express own views.
Characteristics Classroom Implications

Social Characteristics
1. Peer group becomes the general source of Involve students in establishing class rules and
behavior; desire for greater independence shown. routines
2. Great desire to conform is at its peak, whether in Encourages formation of personal values through
appearance, opinion, dress, or behavior techniques such as values classification or voice
3. Great concern about what others think of them. their opinions in writing.
Be sympathetic listener especially to those often
Emotional Characteristics show depression and preoccupation.

1. Some but not all have feelings of confusion, Provide opportunities for more academic work,
anxiety, depression, extreme mood swings and low accompanied by incentives and rewards and
level of self-confidence, often attributed to the rapid involvement of decision making
changes in height, weight, and body proportions,
hormone production, identity formation, increased
academic responsibility, and the development of
formal operational reasoning

2. Have greater willingness to obey rules out or

respect to authority or of a desire to impress others;
have a greater concept of individual rights.

3. Ideas about what ought to be done when the needs

and desires of people are on conflict also change
toward increasingly just and fair solutions to moral
problems.
8. ADULTHOOD STAGE
Consists of individuals in the age range of 20-65, most of whom take on the
responsibilities of parenthood
Maturity characterizes the adult and can adopt to social roles in a flexible
way
Has no universal physical changes
No new approaches to social relations acquired
With stable personality
Intellectual activities are often at the peak of efficiency
Old Age Stage
Composed of individuals over the age of 65, most of whom have retired from
work
Most individuals in this late year begin to show slow physical, intellectual and
social activities.
REFERENCES:

PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION-PNU, LET

REVIEWER