Fundamentals of Transportation

Engineering
Traffic Engineering :
Characteristics of Traffic flow,
Capacity and Level of Service
Type of Traffic Facilities

Uninterrupted-flow Facilities:
No external factors such as Traffic signals,
STOP or YIELD signs Uncontrolled access, etc.
No periodic interruptions to the traffic stream
Facilities include freeways and other limited
access roads
long sections of rural highways between
signalized intersections, etc.
Type of Traffic Facilities

Interrupted-flow Facilities:
Traffic flow is periodically interrupted by external
devices like traffic signals, STOP or YIELD
signs.
These facilities do not offer continuous
movement and time enters as a significant
parameter affecting flow.
Constant stopping and restarting of traffic
streams occur on such facilities
Traffic movements occur in platoons.
Traffic Stream Parameters

FLOW, q

The equivalent hourly rate of

vehicles past a point during
any time period
If counted volume=4 veh/min
What is the flow?

veh min
q=4 60
min hr
veh
= 240 = 240 vph
hr
Vol/min vs Minutes
Volume
Per
Minute

10

15 30 45 60
Minutes
 What is the VOLUME in minute
one?

10

Volume
Per
Minute
5

V = 5 veh/min

15 30 45 60
Minutes
What is the VOLUME and FLOW in
each minute 0-15?

10
Volume
Per
Minute

5
V = 15 x 5 = 75 veh/quarter hour

75 veh 60 min veh

q= = 300
15 min hr hr

15 30 45 60
Minutes
 Peak Hour Factor (PHF)

A measure of flow uniformity

during an hour
Used in design to adjust design
hour volume predictions to peak
15 min. flow rate for capacity
analysis
 hourly volume
PHF =
peak 15 min flow rate
375 veh / hr
PHF = = 0.625
600 veh / hr
10
Volume
Per
Minute

5 V = 150

V = 150
V = 75

15 30 45 60
Minutes
 Time Mean Speed (ut )

The arithmetic mean of the speeds

of vehicles passing a point on a
highway during an interval of time

n
1
ut = ui
n i =1
 Space Mean Speed (us or u)
The total distance traveled by
vehicles within a length (section) of
road divided by the total time spent
by vehicles in that section during the
nsame time period
us =
1
n

u
i =1 i
 Density (k)

Concentration - The number

of vehicles per unit length of
highway at an instant in time
 Close Cousins of Flow & Density

Headway (Time Headway)

Time interval between the passage of the front ends of
consecutive vehicles at a point (h = 1/q)

Spacing (Space Headway)

Distance between the front ends of consecutive
vehicles (d = 1/k)
Gap
Time interval between the passage of the rear end and
the front end of successive vehicles
 (The Big Three)
The Fundamental Rule
of Traffic Flow
Flow = q (vehicles per hour - vph)
Density = k (vehicles per km - vpkm)
Speed = u (km per hour - kmph)

FLOW = DENSITY * SPEED

q = k*u
(vph = vpkm*kmph)
Traffic Flow Questions

On a freeway with a directional flow of 1600 vph

and a density of 25 vpkm, find the average
speed of traffic.

A highway has an average headway of 2.2

seconds and a density of 30 vpkm in one
direction. What is the average speed?
The Fundamental Diagrams of
Traffic Flow
Data is collected for a
section of road during
different periods of the day
Speed Flow Density
48 48 1
46 230 5
47 470 10
38 950 25
40 1400 35
35 1750 50
30 1800 60
29 2175 75
27 2295 85
25 2500 100
20 2200 110
14 1750 125
13 1755 135
10 1500 150
8 1280 160
6 1020 170
4 720 180
2 380 190
0 0 200
When curves are fit through the
actual observations, road traffic
is found to behave as follows:
SPEED vs FLOW

Free Flow Speed

u
Capacity

q (veh/hr)
 Flow vs Density
q max
q

Capacity

(veh/hr)

Jam Density

k (veh/mi)
Speed vs Density

k
Importance of Location
Example from Freeway
Data Set
Greenshields Flow Model

Simple flow model based on assumption:

u = uf - (uf / kj) k
uf
uf
qmax
u
u q

k kj k kj q qmax

Assuming Greenshields flow (or some other simple

analytical model) allows direct algebraic solution for a
wide range of flow parameters
Greenshields Model (cont.)

The space mean speed at which volume is

maximum, uo = uf/2
The density at which volume is maximum,
ko = kj/2
Maximum flow, qmax = kj*uf/4
Needs for Traffic Control

Whenever there are access points such as

driveways and intersections, there is a need to
determine the right of way for the potential
conflicting movements.
The process of determining who has the right-
of-way involves traffic control strategies.
From the least imposing to most imposing traffic
controls are:
No Control
Yield Control
Stop Control
Signal Control
Objectives of Signal Timing Design

Minimize Conflicts : Maximize number of phases

Minimize Delay: Minimize cycle length; minimize

number of phases; minimize interval lengths

Maximize Capacity: Minimize lost time, i,.e.

Maximize interval and phase lengths
Each of these objectives leads to a different
solution.
The goal is to find an appropriate compromise.
Some Basic Definitions

3 signal indications are used: Red, Yellow and

Green

Interval a time during which the signal

indications do not change.

Cycle Length the time it takes to execute one

complete sequence of intervals.

Phase the part of a cycle assigned to a fixed

set of traffic movements. When any of these
movements change, the phase changes.
Some Basic Definitions

The green interval (Gi) is the portion of a phase

i where the green signal is illuminated
Change interval (Yi) is the yellow
Clearance interval is ALL RED
The lost time (tL) is unused time at the
beginning of the green interval
The effective green time (gi) is the time during
which vehicles are actually discharging
gi = Gi + Yi - tL
Phases Diagram
Signal Timing: Design Flow Rate

The peak hour volume is the number of

vehicles that use the approach lane(s) during
the one hour of the day w/ the greatest demand
The peak hour factor (PHF) is the ratio of the
peak hour volume to 4 * peak 15-min volume
Design flow rate (V) is the peak hour volume
divided by the PHF. A simpler way to arrive at
the design flow rate is to multiply the peak 15-
minute volume by 4.
 Important Definitions
Discharge Headways
Saturation Flow
Lost Times
Saturation Flow Rate

Assume that an approach signal stayed green

for an entire hour and the approaching traffic
was as dense as can be expected
The number of vehicles that would pass
through the intersection during the hour is the
saturation flow rate
What aspects of the roadway and traffic will
affect the saturation flow rate of a given
approach?
Saturation Flow Rate

The maximum equivalent flow rate for a

movement (vehicles per hour) that would exist if
that movement saw green 100% of the time.
This is the theoretical movement capacity if one
ignores the fact that the movement is shut down
by red for some of the time
Capacity

Capacity is an adjustment of saturation flow

rate that takes the real signal timing into
account - because signals do not permit the
continuous movement of one phase for an hour
Capacity (c) is the maximum hourly flow of that
can be discharged from the lane group in
question under prevailing traffic, roadway, and
signal conditions. c = ( g / C ) * s
Highway Capacity

Highway Capacity is the maximum number of

vehicles per unit time OR the maximum rate of
flow that a facility can accommodate
The capacity of a facility is dependent upon
prevailing conditions
Traffic conditions
Roadway Characteristics
Control conditions
Environmental conditions
Highway Capacity

Capacity is typically defined in terms of vehicles

per hour (vph)
Procedures for addressing pedestrian, transit,
and HOV (carpool) facilities may use persons
per hour (pph)
Operating conditions at capacity are generally
poor because it is difficult to maintain capacity
operations without breakdown.
 Capacity Under Ideal Conditions
TYPE OF FACILITY CAPACITY

Multilane Highway 2250 pcphpl

Two-Lane Rural Highway 2800 pcph,

total both directions

Intersection Approaches 1800 pcphgpl

Level of Service (LOS)

A level of service is a letter designation that

represents a qualitative measure of operational
conditions and their perception by users
Six levels of service (LOS) are defined for
capacity analysis; A through F, where A is the
best
LOS A describes a free-flowing condition
where individual vehicles are not influenced by
the presence of other vehicles
LOS F describes breakdown conditions where
queues have developed because the arrival
flow rate > capacity
HCM Definition of Various LOS

LOS A represents free flow. Users are

unaffected by the presence of others in the
traffic stream. Freedom to select desired
speeds and to maneuver within traffic stream is
extremely high. The overall level of comfort
and convenience is excellent.

LOS B is still in the range of stable flow but the

presence of other users in the traffic stream
begins to be noticeable. There is a slight
decline in the freedom to maneuver. Level of
comfort and convenience is less than LOS A.
HCM Definition of Various LOS

LOS C still in the range of stable flow but it

marks the beginning of significant effect by the
presence of others and maneuvering requires
substantial caution. The overall level of comfort
and convenience declines noticeably at this
level.

LOS D high density, speed and freedom to

maneuver are severely restricted. Users
experience poor level of comfort and
convenience. At this level, small increase in
traffic flow cause operational problems.
HCM Definition of Various LOS

LOS E Operating conditions are at or near the

capacity level. All speeds are reduced.
Freedom to maneuver is extremely difficult.
Comfort and convenience is extremely poor
and frustration is high. Flow is unstable and
with slight volume increase it could be
breakdown.

LOS F defines breakdown flow. Flow is

characterized by stop-and go waves.
Determining LOS

Different parameters are used to determine LOS

Speed; on freeways, speed is an evident
measure of service quality
Travel time; on surface streets, drivers are very
sensitive to total travel time
Density; describes the proximity of vehicles to
each other and reflects the ease of
maneuverability as well as psychological
comfort
Delay; represents the additional travel time due
to traffic or traffic controls, which drivers find
particularly annoying
LOS for Highways

LOS Max Minimum Maximum

Density Speed Flow
(pc/km/ln) (mph) (pcphpl)
A 0-7 54 800
B 7-11 50 1000
C 11-16 45 1350
D 16-22 39 1610
E 22-28 30 1800
F > 28 < 30 <1800
LOS for Intersections

LOS AVERAGE DELAY

A < 5.0 sec / veh

B 5 - 15 sec / veh

C 15 - 25 sec / veh

D 25 - 40 sec / veh

E 40 - 60 sec / veh

F > 60 sec / veh