The Designer's Guide for Switching Power Supply Circuits and Components by RJ Haver Introduction The Switching Power Supply continues to increase in popularity and is one of the fastest growing markets in the world of power conversion. Its performance and size advantages meet the needs of today's modern and com- pact electronic equipments and the increasing variety of, components directed at these applications makes new designs even more practical. ‘This guide is intended to provide the designer with an overview of the more popular inverter circuits, their basic, theory of operation, and some of the subtle character istics involved in selecting a circuit and the appropriate components. Also included are valuable design tips on both the mejor passive and active components needed for a successful design. Finaly, a complete set of selector Guides to Motorola's Switchmode components is pro- vided which gives a detailed listing of the industry's most, comprehensive line of semiconductor products for switching power supplies. Comparison with Linear Regulators ‘The primary advantages of a switching power supply ficiency, size, and weight. Its also a more complex design, cannot meet some of the performance capabili- ties of linear supplies and generates a considerable amount of electrical noise. Switchers are being accepted in the industry, particularly where size and efficiency are of prime importance, because its performance is still ad- ‘equate for most applications and is often cost competitive in the 50 W power level and above. Because the switcher's passive components such as transformers and filters are smaller, they are almost always lower in cost than the hhigh power (100 W) linear regulators. However, active ‘component counts high (70 to 140 devices) and remains high regardless of the output power rating. This makes it less cost effective at the lower power levels. Switchers have been significantly cost reduced in recent years be- cause designers have been able to simplify the control circuits with new, cost effective integrated circuits and have found even lower cost alternatives in the passive ‘component area ‘A performance comparison chart of switching versus linear supplies is shown in Figure 1. Switcher efficiencies run from 70 to 80% but occasionally fall to (60-65%) when linear post regulators are used for the auxillary outputs. Some linear power supplies on the other hand, are op- erated with up to 60% efficiency but these are areas where line variations or hold-up time problems are mit imal. Most linears operate with typical efficiencies of only 20%. The overall size reduction of a 20 kHz switcher is about 4:1 and newer designs in the 100 to 200 kHz region ‘end up at about 8:1 (versus a linear). Other characteristics. such as static regulation specs are comparable, while ripple and load transient response are usually worse. Output noise specs can be somewhat misleading. Very ‘often a 500 mV switching spike at the output may be attenuated considerably at the load itself due to the series inductance of the connecting cables and the additional filter capacitors found in many logic circuits. In the future, the noise generated at higher switching frequencies (100-500 kHz) will probably be easier to filter and the transient response will be faster. Hold-up time is the switchers inherent ability to regulate over wide variations in input voltage. itis easier to store energy in high voltage capacitors (200-400 V) than in the lower voltage (20-50 1ear’s power supplies. ‘This is due to the fact that the physical size of a capacitor is dependent on its CV product while energy storage is. proportional to CV2, Popular Inverter Configurations ‘A switching power supply isa relatively complex cit- cuit as is shown by the four basic building blocks of Figure 2. itis apparent here thatthe heart of the supply is realy the high frequency inverter. It is here that the work of chopping the rectified line at a high frequency {20 kHz) is done. itis here also that the line voltage is transformed down to the correct output level for use by logic or other electronic circuits. The remaining blocks support this basic function. The 60 Hz input line is rectified and fitered by one block and after the inverter steps this voltage down, the outputis again rectified andfiltered by another. The task of regulating the output voltage is lat to the control circuit which closes the loop from the output to the inverter. Most control circuits generate @ fixed fre- quency internally and utilize pulse width modulation techniques to implement the desired regulation. Bai FIGURE 1 — 20 kttz Switcher versus Linear Performance Parameter Switcher Linear Eticieney, 75% 30% Size 2.0 WINS 05 Wins Weight 40. 10 Wn, ‘Gost 200-500 w" S100W S125 ‘Cost 50-150 W" Stsow Sts Une and Load Regulation 0.1% 01% Ouiput Fiople Ve.p 50 mV 50mv Noise Vo.p 50-200 mv * ‘Transient Response ime 20s Hold-Up Time 20-30 ms 12s "Based on 1880 Cost Figures Powe Tt, TMOS and Switehmade are tracamaris of Motorola Incally, the on-time of the square wave drive to the invertor is controlled by the output voltage. As load is removed or input voltage increases, the slight rise in output voltage will signal the control circuit to deliver shorter pulses to the inverter and conversely as the load is increased or input voltage decreases, wider pulses will be fed to the inverter. ‘The inverter configurations used in today’s switchers actually evolved from the buck and boost circuits shown in Figures 3A and 3B. In each case the regulating means and loop analysis will remain the same but a transformer Is added in order to provide electrical isolation between the line and load. The forward converter family which includes the push-pull and half bridge circuits evolved FIGURE 2 — Functional Block Diagram — Switching Power Supply 50: Mw 7 t It I 1 Une_1 Input Rector ‘and Filter Note: Input to output isolation is not shown ‘Output Rector ‘and Fl FIGURE 3 — Nonlsolated DC-DC Converters ° e Oo oO > oO +Vin +Vou Nin +Vout A, Buck (Step-Down) 8, Boost (Step-Up) Vout = Vie Vout > Vin ° ° +n oO . Boost vaiation which resembles the tyback roguitor (step up or own) Vout I IVfrom the buck regulator (Figure 3A). And the newest switcher, the flyback converter, actualy evolved from the bboost regulator. The buck circuit interrupts the line and provides a variable pulse width square wave to a simple averaging LC filter. In this case, the first order approxi- ‘mation of the output voltage is Vout = Vin x duty cycle and regulation is accomplished by simply varying the duty cycle. This is satisfactory for most analysis work and only the transformer turns ration will have to be adjusted ightly to compensate for IR drops, diode drops, and nsistor saturation voltage Operation of the boost circu is more subtle in that it first stores energy in @ choke and then additively delivers this energy with the input line to the load, However, the flyback regulators which evolved from this configuration delivers only the energy stored in the choke to the load. This method of operation is actually based on the boost variation model shown in Figure 3C. Here, when the switch is opened, only the stored inductive energy isd livered othe load. The rue boost circuit can also regulate by stepping up (or boosting) the input voltage whereas the variation or flyback regulator can step the input volt- ‘age up or down. Analysis of the boost regulator begins by dealing with the choke as an energy storage element Which delivers a fixed amount of power to the load: Po = W2L 2 where | = the peak choke current fo = the operating frequency and L = the inductance Because it delivers a fixed amount of power to the load regardless of load impedance (except for short cir- cuits), the boost regulator is the designer's first choice in photo-flash and capacttive-cischarge (CD) automotive ignition circuits to recharge the capacitive load. it also makes @ good battery charger. For an electronic circuit load, however, the load resistance must be known in order to determine the output voltage: (UfoRy Vo = Vor = 1 [He where Rl, = The load resistance In this case, the choke current is proportional to the on-time or duty cycle of the switch and regulation for fixed loads simply involves varying the duty cycie as be- fore. However, the output also depends on the load which was not the case with buck regulators and results in a variation of loop gain with load. For both regulators, transient response or responses to step changes in load are very difficult to analyze. They lead to what is termed 2 “load dump” problem. This requires that energy already stored in the choke or filter be provided with @ place to go when load is abruptly removed. Practical solutions to this problem include lim- iting the minimum load and using the right amount of filter capacitance to give the regulator time to respond to this change. Flyback and Forward Converters To take advantage of the regulating techniques just discussed and also provide isolation, a total of seven popular configurations have evolved and are illustrated in Figures 4 and 7. Each circuit has a practical power range or capability associated with it as follows: Circuit [Power Range _| Motorola Reference Flyback [60 to 100 watts | EB-87 Forward | 100 to 200 watts Push-Pull | 200 to 600 watts | EB-88, AN-737A, Half Bridge | 200 to 500 watts | EB's 86 & 100, AN-767 Full Bridge | 500 to 2000 watts | €8-85 First to be discussed will be the low power (20-200 W) converters which are dominated by the single transistor circuits shown in Figure 4. All of these circuits ‘operate the magnetic element in the unipolar rather than bipolar mode. This means that transformer size is sac- rificed for circuit simplicity. Flyback The fiyback (alternately known as the “ringing choke") regulator stores energy in the primary winding and 10 the secondary windings (see Figure 4A). A 19 is usually present to allow energy stored FIGURE 4 — Low Power Popular (20-200 W) Converter Configurations ee , ‘A. Flyback (Clamp Winding 's Optional) B. Forward (Clamp Winding Is Necessary) I|E_ . Two Transistor Forward or Flyback (Clamp ‘Wioding Is Not ‘Neosed)inthe leakage rea inane Manching the switching transistor. The Ope ce gavantage for the transistor in thet reuit is the boost circuit variation dis att cussed earlier. The (except at high are not require energy source ctancoto return safelytothalineinstead OFM in the continuous mode. fiybeck is the fowest cost regulator Powe to the load. I power levels) because output iter chokes Former may be used with only the ee the output capacitors feed froman ere inductance. Sometimes the ace han avoltage source. does have BS increased to SUPI ret there jorwaraconvertersbecause times) 101 required becaus te than Meellent choice when multiple crease LY ‘almost 70 times to effect aquired and does tend to provide eure ‘by two. In dealing wit higher output rippl of this. However, output voltages are outa veiee regulation than the other types. 1 Cther should also be noted that the words changing the ‘effect on the output ‘41201220 Vac fly ‘This is generally an itneeds to switch only deliver the same the same trans: duced to provide ize will need 10 her LI product (2 to 4 'e inductance must it ively reduce the peak th the continuo\ transistor must now turn Ahuch peak current in order tO in many instances, ation on one winding will nave title on, For” ‘500 to 600 V rather t voltage of the others. there no longer is ee tecign requires transistors that YOURGE settle bac bicek twiee the peak line plus transients O° ee LOK. Generallyitisadvisab' poe aty variations of the 1200 to 1500 ‘Horizontal de- parable to the turn-on Pretty wranaitors are used ere. These BiPSIs devices ‘The flyback conver secttatively slow (ty = 1.0 ns} and tend to i efficient need for a low indus aerating frequencies to 20 t0 30 Ker. The availabilty of ventional E and pot o drive circuitry Soe nAOS FETs will permit operation t MUCH higher because their permed Wodlencies. Faster 1.0 KV bipolar transistors Ore Siso large gaps (50 to 100 ‘he future and will provide another desigh something better (like ne wo transistor variations of tis cireut permeabilities of 60 to 120 instea eg ac) eliminates the clamp winding an ‘addsatran- __ this application. (Faure a diode to effectivaly clamp peak transis volt ‘The single transistor { ee to the line. With this citeult @ Cesare se eately Figure 4B. Although it init 290% je faster 400 V to 500 V bipolar or FET SSuitchmode flyback, it is not, The epere Cransistors and push operating frequencies Swisiderably _esctually the buck regulator Traynor There isa cost penalty here over “he Single tran- storing energy in th rgnetreuit due to the extra transistor, diodes Gnd base to the load, this circul than 400 V level because ‘ony dead time to allow the flyback x down in the input voltag ie tohave VEO (SUS) Tatings com requirements. stands out from the jctance, high cl ore ferrites are surrent primary. <éiffigult to work with Dility is too high even with relatively yn) that will provide ‘of 2000 to 3000 for forward converter is sho pears very similar to the ‘odel for this circuit is discussed earli former and then fe transformer in the active (0 the load while Se forward mode and delivers power FIGURE 5 — Flyback Transistor Waveforms Discontinuous Mode ‘A eubtie variation in the rethod of operation °° be the transistor is on. rage circuits. The difference is re 6 ‘freewheeling diode from the L ion in the discontinuous or continuous winding is actually ferred to as operat ferred to Fine wovetorm diagrams are shown in Four ‘same turns as the primary, et voltage to twict turn energy stored i rao anelyeis given inthe earlier section on boos eet Goes clamp the res Bre alt strictly with the discontinuous made Wier {ts main function is to Fé ulator ergy is dumped from the choke before the Are petizing inductance to the line an ape cyrne on again. Ifthe transistor is turned om -lieto after each cycle of operation. Bs sory i all being dumped into the toad. he Giouit is _timeto set and reset al output reotifier is use C filter and the thir it generally has th ifilar wound) af fe the line. Howeve a reset winding, it takes the sn ine core, the duty cycle of this cireFIGURE 6 — Forward Converter Transistor Waveforms 800 v Yor: | 400 ov 108 Ic oA cannot exceed 50%. This also is a very popular low power ‘converter and like the flyback is practically immune from transformer saturation problems. Transistor waveforms shown in Figure 6 illustrate that the voltage requirements are identical to the flyback. For the single transistor ver sions, 400 V turn-on and 1.0 kV blocking devices like the 1200 to 1600 V transistors are required. The two transistor circuit variations shown in Figure 4C again adds a cost penalty but allows a designer to use the faster 400 to 500 V devices. With this circuit, operation in the discontin- uous mode refers to the time when the load is reduced to a point where the filter choke runs “dry”. This means ‘that choke current starts at and returns to zero during each cycle of operation. Most designers prefer to avoid this type of mode because of higher ripple and noise even though there are no adverse effects on the com- ponents themselves. Standard ferrite cores work fi here and in the high power converters as well. In thes applications, no gap is used as the high permeability (3000) results in the desirable effect of very low mag- netizing current levels. Push-Pull and Bridge Converters ‘The high power circuits shown in Figure 7 all operate the magnetic element in the bipolar or push-pull mode and require 2 to 4 inverter transistors. Because the trans- we ee Vout ‘A. Push Pull Vin +Vout . Half Bridge with Spt Wisformers operate in this mode they tend to be almost half the size of the equivalent single transistor converters and thereby provide a cost advantage over their counterparts at power levels of 100 to 1.0 kW. PushPull ‘The push-pull converter shown in Figure 7A is one of {the oldest converter circuits around. i's early use was it low voltage inverters such asthe 12 Vdc to 120 Vdc power source for recreational vehicles and in dc to de convert- ers. Because these converters are free running rather than driven and operate from low voltages, transformer ‘saturation problems are minimal. In the high voltage off- line switchers, saturation problems are common and dif- ficult to solve. The transistors are also subjected to twice the peak line voltage which requires the use of relatively slow 1.0 kV transistors. Both of these draw backs have tended to discourage designers of off-line switchers from using this configur Half and Full Bridge ‘The most popular high power converter is the half bridge (Figure 7B). it has two clear advantages over the push-pull and became the favorite rather quickly. First, the transistors never see more than the peak line voltage ‘and the standard 400 V fast Switchmode transistors that are readily available may be used. And second, and prob- ably even more Important, transformer saturation prob- lems are easily minimized by use of a small coupling capacitor (about 2 —5 nF} as shown. Because the primary winding is driven in both directions, a full wave output fer, rather than half, is now used and the core is actually utilized more effectively. Another more subtle advantage of this circuit is that the input filter capacitors are placed in series across the rectified 220 V line which allows them to be used as the voltage doubler elements on a 120 V line. This still allows the inverter transformer to operate from a nominal 320 V bus when the circuit is connected to either 120 V or 220 V. Finally, this topology allows diode clamps across each transistor to contain destruc- tive switching transients. The designer's dream, of course, is for fast transistors that cen handle a clamped inductive at rated current. And a few (like the Switchmode Ill series from Motorola) are beginning to appear on the market. However, the older designs in this area still end up using snubbers to protect the transistor which sacri- fices both cost and efficiency. The effective current limit of today's low cost TO-3 discrete transistors (250 mil die) is somewhere in the 10 to 20 A area. Once this limit is reached, the designer generally changes to the full bridge configurations shown in Figure 7C, Because full line rather than half Is applied to the primary winding, the power out can be almost double that of the half bridge with the same switching transistors. Power Darlington transistors are a logical choice to higher power control with current, voltage and speed capabilities allowing very cost and performance ‘effect designs. Another variation of the half bridge is the split winding circuit shown in Figure 7D. A diode clamp ‘can protect the lower transistor but a snubber or zener clamp must still be used to protect the top transistor from switching transients. Because both emitters are at an ac ‘ground point, expensive drive transformers can now be replaced by lower cost capacitively coupled drive circuits. Component Design Tips Transformers With respect to transformer design, many of today's designers would say don’t try it. They’d advise using a consultant or winding house to perform this task and with good reason, It takes quite a bit of time to develop a feel for this craft and be able to use both experience and intuition to find solutions to second and thied order problems. Because of these subtle problems, most de- signers find that after the first paper design is done, as many as four of five lab iterations may be necessary before the transformer meets the design goals. However, there is @ considerable design challenge in this area and 4 great deal of satisfaction can be obtained by mastering it This component design, as does all others, begins by requesting all available literature from the appropriate manufacturers and then following this up with phone calls when specific questions arise. A partial list of com- panies is shown in Figure 8. Designs below 50 W gen erally use pot cores but for 50 W and above E cores are preferred. E cores expose the windings to air so that heat is not trapped inside and make it easier to bring out con- nections for several windings. Remember that flyback designs require lower permeability cores than the others. ‘The classic approach is to consult manufacturers charts like the one shown in Figure 9 and then to pick a core with the required power handling ability. Both E and E- CE cores with a round center leg) are popular now and they are available from several manufacturers. EC cores offer a performance advantage (better coupling) but stan- dard E cores do cost less and are also used in these applications. Another approach that seems to work equally as well is to do a paper design of the estimated windings and turns required. Size the wire for 500 circular mils (CM) per amp and then find a core that has the required window area for this design. Now, before the windings are put on, itis a good idea to modify the turns 0 that they fit on one layer on an integral number of layers on that bobbin. This involves checking the turns per inch of the wire against the bobbin length. The pri- mary generally goes on first and then the secondaries. ifthe primary hangs over an extra half layer, try reducing FIGURE 8 — Partial List of Core (C) and Transformer (7) Manufacturers Company Toeaion Code Farorsie ie Sauggeres, NY c | trdana General soy, Nd & Stccpole | Stivers, Pa & oR | EtSegunio, Ca é Pie Engineeng | San ego, CA ¢ otra | sane ; @the turns or the wire size. Conversaly, if the secondary does not take up a full layer, try bifilar winding (parallel) using wire half the size originally chosen; ie., 3 wire sizes, smaller like 23 vs. 20, This technique ultimately results FIGURE 9 — Core Selection for Brid In the use of foil for the higher current (20 A) iow voltage windings. Most windings can be separated with 3 mil mylar (usually yellow) tape but for good isolation, cloth is recommended between primary and secondary. Configurations Compliments of Ferroxcube ‘2000 Pap w 1000. 10 2 Note: omer handing decreases by a lactro!2 in oeward and 4 a fyback contiguratons 30 0 80FIGURE 10 — Simple Coil Tester +20V- (Curent Transtormer (f— TME—> ale bear Finally, once a mechanical fit has been obtained, itis time for the circuit tests. The voltage rating is strictly a mechanical problem and is one of the reasons why U.L. normally does not allow high voltage bifilar windings. ‘The inductance and saturating current level of the pri- mary are inherent to the design, and should be checked the circuit or other suitable test fixture. Such a fixture ig shown in Figure 10 where the transistor and diode are sized to handle the anticipated currents. The pulse gen- erator is run at a low enough duty cycle to allow the core to reset. Pulse width is increased until the start of satu- ration is observed (Iga7). Inductance is found using: L = endian) In forward converters, the transformer generally has no gap in order to minimize the magnetizing current (iy) For these applications the core should be chosen large enough so that the resulting LI product insures that I ‘at operating voltages is less than Igq7. For flyback de- ‘signs, a gap is necessary and the test circuit is useful again to evaluate the effect of the gap. The gap will nor mally be quite large lg> > bm where: Lg = gap length Um = magnetic path tength u permeability Under this stipulation, the gap directly controls the LI parameters and doubling it will decrease L by two and increase Igat by two. Again, the anticipated switching currents must be less than Iga when the core is gapped for the correct inductance. FIGURE 11 — Motorola High Voltage Switching Transistor Technologies Transformertests in the actual supply are usually done with @ high voltage de power supply on the primary and with a pulse generator or other manual control for the pulse width (such as using the control IC in the open loop configuration). Here the designer must recheck three areas: 1. No evidence of core saturation 2. Correct amount of secondary voltage 3. Minimum core or winding heat rise If problems are detected in any of these areas, the ulti- mate fix may be to redesign using the next larger core size. However, if problems are minimal, or none exist, is possible to stay with the same core or even consider using the next smaller size. ‘Transistors ‘The initial selection of a transistor for a switcher is basically a problem of finding the one with voltage and current capabilities that are compatible with the appli cation. For the final choice performance and cost trade- offs among devices from the same or several manufec- turers have to be weighed. Before these devices can be pput in the circuit, both protective and drive circuits will have to be designed. Motorola's first line of devices for switchers were trademarked "“Switchmode” transistors and introduced in the early 70's with data sheets that provided all the information that a designer would need including reverse bias safe operating aroa (RBSOA) and performance at elevated temperature (100°C). The first series was the ‘Approximate Typical | Typical Fall | Switching Farnity Device Time Frequency ‘SWITCHMODE I 2nes45 | 200-500 ns 20K MJE13005 MJE 12007, SWITGHMODE I myi3081_| 100 ns. 700K ‘SWITCHMODE Il Mut6010 50 ns. 200K TMOS MTP5Na0_| 20 ns. 500K‘2N6542 through 2N6547, TO-3 and was followed by the IMJE13002 through MJE13009 series in a plastic TO-220 package. Finally, high voltage (1.0 kV) requirements were ‘met by the metal MJ8500 thru MJ8505 series and the plastic MJEB500 series. And just recently, Motorola’ in- troduced the two new families of “Switchmode” transis- tors shows jure 11. The Switchmode Il series is an advanced version of Switchmode | that features faster switching. Switchmode Ill is the state of today’s bipolar art with both exceptional speed and RBSOA. Here, device cost is somewhat higher, but system costs may be low- ered because of reduced snubber requirements and higher operating frequencies. A similar argument applies to Motorola TMOS Power FETs. These devices make it possible to switch efficiently at higher frequencies (200 to 00 kHz) but the main selling point is that they are easier to drive. This latter point is the one most often made to shaw that systems savings are again quite pos- sible even though the initial device cost is higher. on of Veo (sus) rating. Most Switchmode transistor load lines are inductive during turn-on and turn-off. Turn-on is generally induc- /@ because the short circuit created by output rectifier reverse recovery times is isolated by leakage inductance in the transformer. This inductance effectively snubs ‘most turn-on load lines so that the rectifier recovery (or short circuit) current and the input voltage are not applied simultaneously to the transistor. Sometimes primary in- terwinding capacitance presents a small current spike but usually turn-on transients are not a problem. Turn-off transients due to this same leakage inductance, however, are almost always a problem. In bridge circuits, clamp diodes can be used to limit these voltage spikes. If the regulting inductive load line exceeds the transistors re- verse bias switching capability (RBSOA) then an RC net- work may also be added across the primary to absorb some of this transient energy. The time constant of this network should equal the anticipated switching time of FIGURE 12 — Power Transistor Voltage Chart Creuit Line Flyback, Forward or vortage Push-pull Hatt of Full Bridge Voev Yoeo(eus) YoeO(eus) Vorv 220 850 0 ‘400 00 120 450, 200 200 200 Figure 12 is review of the transistor voltage require- ments for the various off-line converter circuits. As ilus- ‘trated, the most stringent requirement for single transis- tor circuits (flyback and forward) is the blocking or Vcey rating. Bridge circuits, on the other hand, turn-on and off from the de bus and their most critical voltage is the turn- the transistor (100 ns to 1.0 us). Resistance values of 100 to 1000 ohms in this RC network are generally appropri- ate. Trial and error will indicate how low the resistor has to be to provide the correct amount of snubbing. For single transistor converters, the snubber shown in Figure 13 is generally used. Here slightly different criterion are FIGURE 13 — Zener Clamp and Snubber for Single Transistor Converters,used to define the R and C values: ate cey where 1 The peak switching current ty ~ The transistor fall time V = The peak switching voltage (Approximately twice the de bus) also R= ton/C [its not necessary to completely discharge this capacitor in order to obtain the 1d effects ofthis circuit) where ton = The minimum on-time or pulse width 2 and = or pa & where PR= The power rating of the resistor and The operating frequency Most of today’s transistors that are used in 20 kHz con- verters switch slow enough so that most of the energy stored in the leakage inductance is dissipated by the snubber or transistor causing little voltage overshoot. Higher speed converters and transistors presenta slightly different problem. In these newer designs snubber el ments are smaller and voltage spikes from energy left in FIGURE 14 — Typical Bipolar Ba the leakage inductance may be a more critical problem depending on how good the coupling is between the primary and clamp windings. Zener Diodes if necessary, protection from voltage spikes may be ‘obtained by adding 8 zener and rectifier across the pri- mary as shown in Figure 13. Here Motorola's 1 W and W zener lines with ratings up to 200 V can provide the clamping or spike limiting function. If the zener must handle most of the power, its size can be estimated using: pz <4 et Pz = The zener power rating LL = The leakage inductance (measured with the clamp ‘winding or secondary shorted) | = Peak collector current f = Operating frequency Mosorb Transient Suppressors Distinction is sometimes made between devices trade- marked Mosorb (by Motorola Inc), and standard zener! avalanche diodes used for reference, low-level regulation and low-level protection purposes. It must be empha- Sized that Mosorb devices are, in fact, zener diodes. The if A. Fixod Drive, Turn OF Energy Stored in Transformer . Active Baker Clamp ‘ B. Fixed Drive, Turn Off Energy Stored in Capacitor ©. Standard Baker Clamp Je . Proportional Base Drive 10basic semiconductor technology and processing are identical. The primary difference is in the applications for which they are designed. Mosorb devices are intended specifically for transient protection purposes and are de- signed, therefore, with a large effective junction area that, provides high pulse power capability while minimizing the total silicon use, Thus, Mosorb pulse power ratings begin at 600 watte — well in excess of low power con- ventional zener diodes which in many cases do not even include pulse power ratings among their specifications. MOVs, like Mosorbs, do have the pulse power capa- bilities for transient suppression. They are metal oxide varistors (not semiconductors) that exhibit bidirectional avalanche characteristics, similar to those of back-to-back connected zeners. The main attributes of such devices are low manufacturing cost, the ability to absorb high energy surges (up to 600 joules) and symmetrical bidi- rectional “breakdown” characteristics. Major disadvan- tages are: high clamping factor, an internal wear-out mechanism and an absence of low-end voltage capabil- ity. These limitations restrict the use of MOVs primarily to the protection of insensitive electronic components against high energy transients in applications above 20 volts, whereas, Mosorbs are best suited for precise pro- tection of sensitive equipment even in the low voltage range — the same range covered by conventional zener diodes. Drive Considerations ‘There are probably a many base drive circuits for bipolars as there are designers. Ideally, the transistor would like just enough forward drive (current) to stay in oF near saturation and reverse drive that varies with the amount of stored base charge such as a low impedance reverse voltage. Many of today’s common drive circuits are shown in Figure 14. The fixed drive circuits of 148 and 14B tend to emphasize economy, while the Baker clamp and proportional drive circuits of 14C, 14D and 14E. ‘emphasize performance over cost. FET drive circults are another alternative. The standard that has evolved at this time is shown in Figure 15. This transformer coupled circuit will produce forward and re- verse voltages applied to the FET gate which vary with the duty cycle as shown. For this example, a Vgg rating of 20 V would be adequate for the worst case condition, of high logic supply (12 V) and minimum duty cycle. And yet, minimum gate drive levels of 10 V are stil available with duty cycles up to 50%. If wide variations in duty cycle are anticipated, it might be wise to consider using ‘a.semi-regulated logic supply for these situations. Finally, fone point that is not obvious when looking at the circuit, is that FETs can be directly coupled to many ICs with only 100 mA of sink and source capability and still switch efficiently at 20 kHz. However, to achieve switching ef- ficiently at higher frequencies, several amps of drive may be required on a pulsed basis in order to quickly charge and discharge the gate capacitances. A simple example will serve to illustrate this point and also show that the Miller effect, produced by Cp_ is the predominant speed {imitation when switching high voltages (see Figure 15B).. A-FET responds instantaneously to changes in gate volt- ‘age and will begin to conduct when the threshold is reached (Vgg = 2 to 3 V) and be fully on with Vgg = 7 to 8 V. Gate waveforms will show a step at a point just above the threshold voltage which varies in duration de- pending on the amount of drive current available which determines both the rise and fall times for the drain cur- rent. To estimate drive current requirements, two simple calculations with gate capacitances can be made: 1. IM = Cp@dvidt and and 2. Ig = Cggdvidt FIGURE 15A — Typieal Transformer Coupled FET Drive vey —EEEE -- re Coa —t ! is 12 ' | cos 1 | Wore Forme soy petev ves-4 4, mar i Lov =10v -40v save Ouy Cyto 20% Duy Cycle Vas Wave Foms "FIGURE 158 — FET Drive Current Requirements —— wv \ —st0v ves 1\ —ov 4 | Dive ; 1 a Great \ | 1 i 1 | ! 1 1 ! cosy i 104 T | la+m | 500 pF a 1. Miler Curent for 90 ns ——«2. Gat Cap Curon for 30 ns a= Opa ave ig = Cos ove 100 px SOY s00 pF x 22% = ona a = 100 PF 30 ns, PF 30 ns is the current required by the Miller effect to charge the drain-to-gate capacitance at the rate itis desired to move the drain voltage (and current). And Ig is usually the lesser amount of current required to charge the gate~ to-source capacitance through the linear region (2 to 8 Vi. As an example, if 30 ns switching times are desired at 300 V where Cpg = 100 pF and Ces = 500 pF, then IM = 100 pF x 200 V/30 ns = 1.0 A and ig = 600 pF x6V30 ns = 0.1 A ‘This example shows the direct proportion of drive current capability to speed and also illustrates that for most de- vices, CpG will have the greatest effect on switching speed and that Cgg is important only in estimating turn- fon and turn-off delays. are analyzed using Figure 16. Here, typical power losses for A switching transistors versus frequency are shown. ‘The FET (and bipolar) losses were calculated at 100°C rather than 25°C because on resistance and switching times are highest here and 100°C is typical of many ap- plicetions. These curves are asymptotes of the actual device performance, but are useful in establishing the “break point” of various devices, which is the point where saturation and switching losses are equal. Since this is low as 10K for some bipolars, it is possible that a FET even with high on-voltages can be compatitive efficiency wise at 200 kHz. The faster Switchmode I! and Ill bipolar products would fall somewhere between the curves ‘shown and therefore, be more competitive with FETS at the higher operating frequencies. ‘Typical Switching Losses at § A and Ty = 100°C 7 2 10 z 43 °F He Br i ° F yO TT ar: ime Operating Frequency (Hz) 100K .M 10M Aside from its unique drive requirements, a FET is very similar to a bipolar transistor. Today's 400 V FETs com- plete with bipolar transistors in many switching appli- Cations. They are faster and easier to drive, but do cost more and have higher saturation, or more accurately, “on” voltages. The performance oF efficiency tradeoffs Rectifiors ‘Once components for the inverter section of a switcher have been chosen, it is time to determine how to get power into and out of this section. This is where the all important rectifier comes into play. The input rectifier is generally a bridge that operates off the ac line and into 12a capacitive filter. For the output section, most designers use Schottkys for efficient rectification of the low voltage, 5 V output windings and for the higher voltage, 12 to 15 Voutputs, the more economical fast recovery or ultrafast diodes are used. 4. If lg ouve Sesser Toadeoo" Sorezt hwncze® Driven zntoes avaiable trom or son tobe introduced by Motorola FAGURE 25 — Control Cireuit Topolosioe fea ne —| er | iE oe + i Fc | out Dua Chae Con e J Single Cio Syston — Ove Transformer llabon ve —[ Ao ° pea a) Filter Filter: F— Output ‘Single Channel . Cone g 7 0 Eror Caer inp 8. The Chip ysl — Opto Couper lcaton 16When it is necessary to drive two or more power tran- lors, drive transformers are a practical interface ele- ment and are driven by the conventional dual channel IC just discussed (Figure 254). In the case of a single tran- sistor converter, however, itis usually more cost effective to directly drive the transistor from the IC (Figure 258). In this situation, an optocoupler is commonly used to couple the feedback signal from the output back to this control IC. And the error amplifier in this case is nothing more than an op amp and reference. The Future ‘The future offers a lot of growth potential for switchers in general and low power switchers (50 - 200 watts) in particular. The latter are responding to the growth in microprocessor based equipment as well as computer peripherals. Today's configurations have already been challenged by the sine wave inverter which reduces noise and improves transistor reliability but does effect a cost penalty. Also, a trend to higher switching frequencies to reduce size and cost even further has begun. The latest bipolar can operate efficiently up to 100 kHz and the FET seems destined to own the 200 to 500 kHz range. These newer switchers have not yet realized a significant cost savings primarily because of deficiencies in the passive component area, ‘The growth pattern predicted at this time can possibly be impacted by noise problems. Originally governed only by MIL specs and the VDE in Europe, now (effective Oc- tober 1981) the FCC has released a set of specifications that apply to electronic systems which often include switchers (see FCC Class A in Figure 26). It seems prob- able, however, that system engineers or power supply designers will be able to add the necessary line filters ‘and EMI shields without evoking a significant cost penalty which would slow the growth of switchers. ‘The most optimistic note concerning switchers is the component area. Switching power supply compo- nents have actually evolved from components used in similar applications. And itis very likely that newer and ‘more mature products specifically for switchers will con- tinue to appear over the next several years. The ultimate effect of this evolution will be to further simplify, cost reduce and increase the reliability of these designs. FIGURE 26 — Noise Limits g B i VDE 071 Feary Range ——t 2 [= WOE 0675 Frequency Range —m| 1 2 0 I FOC Class A z + VDE 0871/A,C_ ot 7 7 NOE 08751N 5 5° VOE 0871/8 32 YoE 9375012 58 | 234) \ Foc cass 8 z 1 = 1 2” 1 2 ! 2 4 —— g oo or +0 0 100 g Frequency (MH2) 2 nates: 1. FOC lass A govee commer iss 8 covers resident 8 1 NSS SENGE CT Gs eoee we vor tooo UAT lr ste ”Minimum device voltage rating recommended for these two circuits: See Tables 1, 2 and 3, for recommended devices. Basic Switching Power Supply Configurations | | FIGURE 1 — Basic Hall-Bridge Configuration Output 1 ToT 4 mer ae DC Out Rectifier a i a © C574 1 | ; I i o— a unetnoe | bE Lk ' cuny o—__}—t i inp Fea } I 1 Po = 1o10P1 Vin/3 ‘No Symmetry Correction Needed + Best Transtormer Uulization # Hign Frequency Ripple | Reteronce AN-767, EB-78 and EB-86 FIGURE 2 — Basic Full-Bridge Configuration | _—o Ouipu Po= Icio Vint 5 cue C Output | + Simiar 10 Hat-Brisge * Rigner Output Power + Reterence €8-85 3| Contot 4 im] [ge LL - o—| wesrRecter] 3) Power tveterMinimum recommended device voltage rating for these three circuits: See Tables 4 and 5, for recommended devices. FIGURE 3 — Basic Forward Converter ouput li 2C OUP 99 Ice Vn’ ‘+ Higher Output Power than Flyback * Lower Output Rippe than Fiyback ite] of | a oq tt ve FIGURE 4 — Basic Push-Pull Configuration . oxinat a Poe lewors Vint 5 —o + Better Transformer Ublization bc Oupur —* Higher Frequency Ripple nan Forward Converter * Relerence AN 731A, E8-65, £6-28 output Rectiier i | 4 + cel 4 oot ate le —L_ |e, veal I TRGURE 6 — Bese Pyback Contgration Po lcior Vin Demet, ower Multiple Output Systems: OC Output oT» Pt Line input | PE fe t [}E xv0}+vee a