Running head: PSYCHOLOGISTS THEORIES

Dauto 1

Psychologists Theories & Age Characteristics

Arnulfo Dauto

College of Southern Nevada

Professor Wyckoff

5 May 2017
 Dauto 2

Psychologists Theories & Age Characteristics

Piaget's Cognitive Developmental Theory

The Piaget Cognitive Theory assumes that human beings are born with tendencies

to organize and adapt. Organization is the human tendency to categorize; to pull together a

variety of processes into an overall system. Adaptation is our human tendency to try and adjust

to our environments. Adaption consists of two sub processes: assimilation and accommodation

(Snowman & McCown, 2013). Piaget called these two processes invariant functions. Invariant

meaning that these thought processes function in the same way for infants, children, adolescents

and adults. The last category, schemes, are not invariant. They undergo systemic changes at

points in time. These inclinations, and the way we human beings engage them, are vital to

understanding what Piagets theory of cognitive development is (Snowman & McCown, 2013).

The preoperational stage is the second stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development. This

stage begins around age two, and it lasts until approximately age seven. During this stage, the

child learns to use the symbols of language (Snowman & McCown, 2013). Their development

consists of building on their experiences in the world through adaptation, and working towards a

concrete stage when they can use logical thought. Children at this stage have three main

obstacles to logical thinking that they must overcome (Snowman & McCown, 2013). The

obstacles are perceptual centration, irreversibility, and egocentrism. These major factors keep

children from thinking in logical thought, as Piaget would say (Snowman & McCown, 2013).

The little boy I observed, Max, is six years old which fits into this suggested stage. I

wanted to see for myself if Piaget was correct. I decided to conduct the glass of milk experiment

with Max and determine if Piagets theory held true with him. Sure enough, after I poured milk

out of a taller thinner glass into a shorter wider glass, Max said that the taller glass had more
 Dauto 3

milk. This was his perception even though he had just watched me pour the same amount of milk

into another glass. This is a prime example of perceptual centration, or the tendency to focus on

only one characteristic of an object or aspect of a problem. The next obstacle young children

have with thinking logically, is irreversibility. This is the inability to reverse problems. Max is

not able to see that the shorter glass has the same volume of milk as the taller glass, even when it

is explained to him. Another way this is displayed is when he is performing mathematic

equations. He can add and subtract just fine. However, when he attempts to reverse a math

problem he has completed, he has difficulty understanding that they are essentially the same

equation. The last obstacle is egocentrism. When taking about preschool

children, egocentric refers to how they understand and think about the world. For example, Max

does not grasp the concept that children around the world do not have the same luxuries and

opportunities, that we take for granted here in the United States.

Ericksons Psychosocial Development Theory

The epigenetic principle states that biological organisms develop chronologically in

stages. Various parts of organisms develop before other parts do in this developmental theory

(Snowman & McCown, 2013). However, these stages interact with the environment of the

outside world. Outside influences can start to affect how a tree will grow and look. For

organisms to grow and be productive, the environment must support rather than interfere with its

development. This principle is what Erik Erikson used in his Psychosocial development theory

(Snowman & McCown, 2013). There are five stages to psychosocial development: trust versus

mistrust (birth to 1 year), anatomy versus shame and doubt (2-3 years old; preschool), initiative

versus guilt (4-5 years old; preschool to kindergarten), industry versus inferiority (6-11 years old;
 Dauto 4

elementary to middle school), identity versus role confusion 12-18 years old; middle through

high school) (Snowman & McCown, 2013).

Max is currently in between two stages in this model. He falls into the Initiative versus

Guilt stage, because he is in kindergarten. He also falls into the Industry versus Inferiority stage

because he is six years old. He is clearly displaying the traits of a child in the Industry versus

Inferiority stage. Max seems to be receiving the proper encouragement needed at home and at

school. He is given praise for trying and finishing assignments. The industry of the child can be

seen in the childs grades, as well as in his self-confidence when it comes to doing these tasks.

Kohlbergs Moral Development

According to Kohlbergs work, that elaborated on Piagets ideas on moral thinking, he

believes that there are six stages to moral reasoning (Snowman & McCown, 2013). The first two

stages are labeled as preconventional morality. Those that fall into these categories want to avoid

punishment and receive benefits in return. Stage one is punishment-obedience orientation.

Physical consequences of an action determine individuals actions; You might get caught

(Snowman & McCown, 2013). Stage two is the instrumental relativist orientation stage, wherein

obedience to law should involve an even exchange; You shouldn't steal something from a store,

and the store owner shouldn't steal things that belongs to you (Snowman & McCown, 2013).

Stage three, good boy-nice girl orientation, implies that the right action will impress others;

Your parents will be proud of you, if you are honest (Snowman & McCown, 2013). Law-and-

order orientation is stage four. This is to maintain the social order, and fixed rules that must be

obeyed; Its against the law, and if we dont obey laws, our society might fall apart (Snowman

& McCown, 2013). The third and fourth stages are collectively labeled as conventional morality.

This infers that people want to impress others, and respect authority. The last two stages are
 Dauto 5

known as postconventional morality (Snowman & McCown, 2013). Stage five is social contract

orientation. During this stage, rules involve mutual agreements, and the rights of the individual

to be protected; Under certain circumstances laws may have to be disregarded if a persons

life depends on breaking a law, for instance (Snowman & McCown, 2013). The sixth and final

stage, is universal ethic principle orientation. This is where moral decisions should be based on

consistent applications of self-chosen ethic principles. You need to weigh all the factors and

then try to make the appropriate decision in each situation. Sometimes it would be morally

wrong not to steal. (Snowman & McCown, 2013).

I went with Maxs mother to observe him, as she picked him up from school one day.

Upon getting into the car, began talking about his day, and what he and his classmates had done

in class. He started telling us of an incident that happened, where one child was throwing a

temper tantrum in class, kicking, and screaming. To pat himself on the back after he finished

telling the story, he suggested we go get ice cream. His was rationale was that he deserved it as

he was not the one who acted like a bad kid, and he, made the right choices. It is clear to me

that Max displayed the third stage of Kohlbergs moral development, the good boy-nice girl

orientation, in this interaction. He was trying to make sure that his parents proud of him, for

being a good boy at school.

Snowmans General Characteristics

Physical characteristic differences during preschool and kindergarten are small between

boys and girls. They are both extremely active, they tend to have good control over their bodies,

and enjoy activity for its own sake. This age group however, is clumsy. Their large muscles are

much more developed than those that control fine motor skills, such as in the fingers and hands.

They can carry out simple commands like to clean up, focus on their current worksheet, and
 Dauto 6

regulate their inside and outside voices. They can to do this because their rapidly growing frontal

lobe of their brains (Snowman & McCown, 2013). Social characteristics for children at this stage

include having one or more stable friendships, children showing preferences for their own

gender, pair versus group play, and an awareness of gender roles and gender typing is evident.

(Snowman & McCown, 2013). Emotional characteristics of children during this time include

children having an ability to regulate their emotions. Jealousy is another factor among classmates

that is fairly common. Under cognitive characteristics, most children by the age of four begin to

develop theory of mind, and language skills are more developed. They tend to overestimate their

competence at tasks, but this can be encouraged through interaction, interest, and other

opportunities (Snowman & McCown, 2013).

Being around Max, I can easily see that he is well within Snowmans general

characteristics for a child in kindergarten. He never seems to run out of energy. While doing all

the running, jumping, and play fighting he does, he often injures himself. These are typically

minor injuries such as stubbing a toe or a finger, poking himself in the eye, or misjudging an

object and hitting his head. He can regulate his inside and outside voice. Socially he is doing

well also. Myles, Blake and Rogan are some of Maxs closest friends at school. His choice in

friends also speaks to his preference in same-gender playmates. While on our way to his first T-

ball practice, Max expressed his concerns about going through with it. Once we arrived at the

field he quickly made friends with the other children, and all the anxiety he felt leading up to it

seemed to have disappeared. Jealousy is a factor with this young boy. If his younger sister seems

to be getting most of the attention from both parents, he will try to find a way to bring attention

to himself. The attention he seeks can be positive or negative, depending on the situation.

Cognitively he is right on track. His language skills are great. He loves to talk to anyone that is
 Dauto 7

willing to listen, either one on one or in group settings. However, Max can overestimate his skills

often. We see this primarily when he is doing his homework. He will rush an assignment, and

believe he did very well. Afterwards, one of his parents will review it and point out errors hes

made. It seems to serve as a reminder that he needs to slow down and think about what he is

doing. This homework is used to reinforce his desire to learn. Competence is encouraged by

interaction, opportunities and showing interest. So far, Max seems to be moving along all the

timelines for children his age.

References

Snowman, J. & McCown, R. (2013). ED PSYCH. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.