Basics of Photovoltaic (PV) Systems

for Grid-Tied Applications

Pacific Energy Center Energy Training Center
851 Howard St. 1129 Enterprise St.
San Francisco, CA 94103 Stockton, CA 95204

Courtesy of DOE/NREL

instructor
Pete Shoemaker
 Basics of Photovoltaic (PV) Systems
for Grid-Tied Applications
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Reproduction, display, or distribution in print or electronic
formats without written permission of rights holders is
prohibited.

Disclaimer: The information in this document is believed to accurately

describe the technologies described herein and are meant to clarify and
illustrate typical situations, which must be appropriately adapted to
individual circumstances. These materials were prepared to be used in
conjunction with a free, educational program and are not intended to
provide legal advice or establish legal standards of reasonable
behavior. Neither Pacific Gas and Electric Company (PG&E) nor any
of its employees and agents: (1) makes any written or oral warranty,
expressed or implied, including, but not limited to, those concerning
merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose; (2) assumes any
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Some images displayed may not be in the printed booklet because of copyright restrictions.
 PG&E Solar Information
[Link]/solar

Pacific Energy Center (San Francisco)

[Link]/pec

Energy Training Center (Stockton)

[Link]
 Contact Information

Pete Shoemaker
Pacific Energy Center
851 Howard St.
San Francisco, CA 94103
(415) 973-8850
pjsy@[Link]

Some images displayed may not be in the printed booklet because of copyright restrictions.
 Agenda

1. Big picture: Team California

2. Electricity Fundamentals
3. PV Technology
4. Feasibility
5. Finances
6. Sales & Installation Process
7. Jobs Overview and Future Trends

5
 One Minute Summary
Rent a portion of utility grid output Buy your own power plant
Same
electricity
CURRENT POSSIBLE

RENT OWN
Courtesy of DOE/NREL Source: Pete Shoemaker

Your home needs The basic economics are

electricity just like the “rent vs. buy”
of purchasing a home.

Pacific Energy Center

San Francisco 6
 The Big Picture:
Team California

Pacific Energy Center

San Francisco 7
The California Regulated Utility
Financial Structure

How the utilities make money,

and why they can support energy
efficiency and conservation.
California’s regulated utilities cover most
of the state.

PG&E
Southern California
Edison (SCE)

San Diego Gas & Southern California

Electric (SDG&E) Gas (SoCalGas)
They are essentially monopolies in their
respective territories, and so need to be
regulated.

CPUC

The California Public Utilities Commission is

the regulatory body.
30 years ago, the utilities made money like most
businesses: on profits from sales.

Profits
Energy Sales

The more energy they sold, the more profit

they made.
Also 30 years ago, California’s power
consumption was rising rapidly, along with the
rest of the country.

U.S.
Per-capita power
California
consumption.
Projecting this into the future made people
realize that it was not sustainable, and that
something needed to be done.

Very high utility bills

Many more new power plants
Serious environmental consequences
We needed to lower people’s energy usage,
but how?
The utility companies had to be involved, but
how could you require them to encourage
less energy usage, since their profits and
business model depended on more sales?

Conclusion:
The utility financial structure must change.
 DECOUPLING
Separating profits from sales.

Profits
Energy Sales Profits
Energy Sales
Since 1978 (gas) and 1982 (electricity)
California’s regulated utilities have made
profits on INVESTMENTS, not SALES.

These investments are directed by the CPUC

and include energy efficiency and
conservation.
Example of EE investment and target:
1. The CPUC authorizes PG&E to spend the
money to give away 1,000,000 CFLs.
2. The target over 3 years is to reduce electric
consumption [xx] mWh.
3. If PG&E makes the target they can set rates
so that they earn [x]% for their
shareholders.
4. If they exceed the target they can earn
more, if they miss the target they earn less
or even get penalized.
California utilities have NO incentive to
increase energy usage.
They DO have mandates and incentives for
energy efficiency, conservation, and
renewables.

The result?
California, and PG&E, is the leader in
energy efficiency and renewable
generation.
Solar Electric Trends
 PG&E Electrical Power Mix 2009 U.S. Electrical Power Mix June 2011

Bioenergy4%
Geothermal 4%

Wind 3%
Small Hydro 3%
Other Unspecified Solar <1%
1% (market purchases)
Coal
1% 15%

Large Hydro
13%

Natural Gas
35% Nuclear
20%

Source: PG&E
Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration,
Electric Power Monthly
 .
Portfolio: Past, Present, and Future
2002 Actual 2010 Actual 2020 Projected
10.6% of total bundled retail sales 16% of total bundled retail sales 33% of total bundled retail sales

.,,.
11--W -- -- Solar Thermal
19%

Wind
24% Solor FV
35%

Total RPS-Eligible Procurement Total RPS-Eligible Procurement Projected RPS-Bigible Procuren1ent

7,504 GWh 12,34-0 GWh · 27,000 GWh

Source: PG&E'• 2002 Corporate Env1roomental Report and PG&E's August 2011 RPS Compliance Report.
Note: 2020 [Link] are based on current and projected future contractual commitments
 Solar Thermal Technologies
Under Contract

IO! ·-~~
~t- I
- - . '""' ··"" ··--==--·
Parabolic Trough Compact Linear Fresnel Power Tower
Reflector

Dish Engine Power Tower (SCE) Trough/B ion1ass Hybrid

(SCE/SDG&E)
Courtesy PG&E
 ...
Solar PV Technologies
Under Contract

Fixed Thin Film (a-Si) Tracking Crystalline Silicon

Fixed Thin Film (Cd Unspecified CPV Concentrating PV

Tel) (SCE) (illustrative)

Courtesy PG&E
 ..
Other Renewable Technologies
Under Contract
Biomass Energy Wind Energy Geothermal Energy

Small Hydropower (<30MW) BioGas Ocean Power

Courtesy PG&E
 The Big Picture

California Public Utilities Commission

(CPUC) “Loading Order”
How we fill in new supply in California
1. Energy Efficiency/Demand response
2. Renewables
3. Distributed Generation (such as CHP)
4. Conventional efficient fossil generation
 U.S. Electricity Generation 2008

Source: Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Rev iew 2008

Total energy consumed = 40.67 Delivered for end use = 13.21 (32%)

Over 2/3 of the energy is wasted.

Energy Conservation
Energy Conservation

3 times the value!

That’s leverage!
 PG&E as a Partner and Solutions Provider

PG&E Portfolio Solution

1) Reduce consumption as
much as possible. Reduce
Energy
Use 2) Get the
“greenest”
power you
Partnership
3) Offset any can.
remaining Education
carbon Outreach
Renewable
emissions. ClimateSmart Power
Supply
Electricity Fundamentals
 Electricity Fundamentals
Watts
Volts

Elec.
pressure

Water Amps Output

pressure
Amount of flow

Amount of flow

Output
(work done)
 Electricity Fundamentals

Watt (W) = Basic unit of Power

In generator: Capacity to do work
In appliance (load): Requirement for work to be done

Electrical terms:
•Amps x Volts = Watts
• 5A x 12V = 60 W
• 0.5A x 120V = 60 W

Kilowatt (kW), Megawatt (MW)

•1 kW = 1,000 Watts
•2.5 kW = 2,500 Watts
•1 MW = 1,000,000 Watts
•500 MW = 500,000,000 Watts
 Electricity Fundamentals
Power over time = Work
Watts over time = Watt-hours (Wh)

Power x Time

1 sec. 1 hour

Instantaneous Power over

power: 20 W time: 20 Wh
 Electricity Fundamentals
Watt-hour (Wh) x 1000 = Kilowatt-hour (kWh)

In a generator:
How many kWh are produced when a 5 kW PV system
operates at full power for 6 hours? 30 kWh

In a load:
How many kWh are used when a 200 W bulb shines for
10 hours? 2000 Wh or 2 kWh
 Voltage and Current
Volts x Amps = Watts

Watts
Volts

Volts
Watts

Amps Amps

Area of rectangle = total power (watts)

Same area = same power, just in different form.
 Voltage and Current
2 amps

20 amps

The larger the current, the larger the wire needed to

make it flow efficiently (more “pipe”).
Copper wire is expensive.
Using higher voltage allows the same amount of power
to be transmitted with lower current, saving money.
 Types of Electrical Current
Voltage x Time
1/60 of a second DC = Direct current
+V
*PV panels produce DC
*Batteries only store DC
0V

AC = Alternating current
-V *Utility Power
60 Hertz in U.S.
(60 cycles / second)

AC power can be stepped up and down in voltage much

easier than DC power, therefore most power is AC.
The Electric Grid

Source: PG&E
 The Electric Grid
Electricity can be transported at the speed of light,
therefore any point can be said to be connected to
all others.
This network is called the GRID and is nation-wide.

Source: NPR Source: NREL

[Link] w w .[Link]/templates/story/[Link]?storyId=110997398
 The Electric Grid
There are three main components of the grid:

Generation: Creating electricity.

Transmission: Moving it in bulk from

generators to distribution centers.

Distribution: Bringing it from centers

(sub-stations) to individual homes and
businesses.
Source: NREL
 The Electric Grid
Above 50,000 V (69 kV up to 765 kV) Sub-station
Step
up Transmission

10,000 V (10 kV)

Step
Distribution down

120V – 240V
12,000 V (12 kV)
Generation

Step
down
480V Home

Business
Source: NREL
 Grid Terms

Supply side Demand side

Generation Usage (load)

Source: NREL
 Grid Terms

Baseload: Minimum amount of power that is

always needed

Seasonal load: Increase in demand in

specific times of the year.

Peak load: Maximum amount needed.

Capacity: Total power that the system can
provide.
 Grid Terms

Baseload

PG&E 2006 Annual Usage

 Grid Terms

Seasonal load

PG&E 2006 Annual Usage

 Grid Terms

Peak load

PG&E 2006 Annual Usage

 Grid Terms
Highest demand occurs on only a few hours in the year

The top “50 Hours”

20000

18000 represent 0.6% of the

16000
total hours in a year
14000

12000
M Ws

10000

8000

6000

Load
Load Du
Duration Cu
Curve
4000

2000

0
1 501 1001 1501 2001 2501 3001 3501 4001 4501 5001 5501 6001 6501 7001 7501 8001 8501
Tim e
 Grid Terms

Capacity

PG&E 2006 Annual Usage

 Grid Terms

Unused Capacity

PG&E 2006 Annual Usage

 Grid Terms

Spread out the demand and you

can lower the capacity need.

PG&E 2006 Annual Usage

 Grid Terms
Demand Management or
Demand-side Management
Load-shifting

“How do you get people to use less power

during peak times and more during off-peak?”
 Demand Management Strategies
1. Reduce overall load.
— Energy efficiency, conservation
2. Inform people so they can cooperate
voluntarily.
— Publicity, “Flex Your Power” alerts
3. Create the ability to remotely turn off
certain appliances.
— Smart AC, smart meters, etc.
4. Charge more for peak usage.
— Time-of-Use rates, Peak-Time pricing
… and others.
PV Technology
Different types of “Solar”
Light energy
Photovoltaic (PV)
Electricity produced directly from light
Heat energy
Concentrated Solar Power (CSP)
Electricity produced by steam

Water Heating
Solar Pool Heating
Hot water for pools

Solar Water Heating (SWH or

Solar Thermal)
Hot water for domestic use (DHW)
All courtesy of DOE/NREL
 Solar Electricity

• Photovoltaic Effect
– photo = light; voltaic = produces voltage
– Photovoltaic (PV) systems convert light directly
into electricity (using semiconductors)
 Electron Orbits
Free electron
 How a PV Cell Works
Sunlight

Metallic Contact Finger

(electron pickup)

Antireflective coating Electron flow

-
N-Layer (Phosphorus)

P-N Junction

P-Layer (Boron)

Metallic back contact +

 Solar Cells & the PV Effect

• Usually produced with semiconductor grade

silicon
• Dopants create positive and negative regions
• P/N junction results in .5 volts per cell
• Sunlight knocks available electrons loose for
potential electrical current
• Wire grid provides path for current
 PV Terminology

Cell Module Array

Courtesy of DOE/NREL
PV System Sizing

200 HP engine: means that 200

horsepower is the MAXIMUM it will
produce.

4 kW PV system: means that 4,000

watts (4 kW) is the MAXIMUM it will
produce in full sunlight.
 Crystalline Silicon (Mono)

Source: DOE National Renew able Energy Laboratory

 Crystalline Silicon (Poly)

Source: Darren Bouton

 Crystalline Silicon PV Products

• Firm, like crystals

• Longest track record, over 50 years
• Most common, over 85% of the market
• Highest efficiencies: avg. 15%, up to 22%
• Requires about 100 sf. per kilowatt
64
Source: DOE National Renewable Energy Laboratory
Thin-Film PV Products

Source: DOE National Renew able Energy Laboratory

 Thin-Film PV Products
Source: DOE National Renewable Energy Laboratory

• Can be applied on many different materials

• Longevity still to be proven
• Production growing at high rate
• Lower efficiencies: avg. 7%, up to 15%
• Has potential for big cost reduction
• Requires
Pacific Energy
San Francisco
Center about 200 sf. per kilowatt 66
 PV “General Rules”

• Crystalline PV Products
– Efficiencies (rated) range from 12-22%
– Space required: 90-150 s.f. per kW

• Thin-Film PV Products
– Efficiencies (rated) range from 5-10%
– Space required: 170-300 s.f. per kW
 Crystalline vs. Thin-Film

1.2 kW
Crystalline
Silicon

Thin-film needs about twice as much

space for the same-size system, but
the total cost is about the same.

1.2 kW
Thin-Film

Source: DOE National Renew able Energy Laboratory

 Efficiency vs. Capacity
1.2 kW (1,200w)
75 square feet
16w per [Link].

Capacity = total
power
Efficiency =
power per [Link].

1.2 kW (1,200w)
150 square feet
8w per [Link].

Courtesy of DOE/NREL
 Heat effect

Air temperature
70° F

Roof surface Under modules

100° F 120° F
Courtesy: Schott Solar
Crystalline vs. Thin-Film: Heat response

• Heat increases electrical resistance, which

lowers power output.

• Output begins dropping at 20°C (68°F).

• Percentage of drop is called Temperature
Coefficient of Power.
• It is measured in % per degree Centigrade,
i.e. -0.35%/°C
• Thin film degrades less than crystalline.
Crystalline vs. Thin-Film: Heat response
Sample data from spec sheets

Crystalline -0.478% Thin film -0.19%

Crystalline vs. Thin-Film: Heat response

100
95
90
% of Power

85
80
75
70
65
60
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
(68) (86) (113) (140)
Degrees Centigrade
(Fahrenheit)
Thin Film Crystalline
 PV Panel Technology Summary
Module Cell Sample Companies
Efficiency Efficiency Employing
Technology Description (Commercial) (Laboratory) Technologies
Crystalline Silicon T he orignal approach; grow silicon crystal structures in a variety of ways. Represents almost 90%
of total market. Appearance dark blue to black but other colors possible with changes to anti-
reflective coatings.
Single Crystal Grown in Cylinders and wire- or 14 - 15% 25% BP Solar
laser-sliced into circular wafers as GE/AstroPower
thin as 200 microns. Cells are Sanyo
circular and modules are inherently Sharp
flat black or charcoal. SunWorld

Multi-Crystalline Cast in blocks or drawn through a 12 - 14% 19% BP Solar

die to create a "ribbon" and wire- Evergreen Solar
sliced or cut into rectangular Kyocera Solar
wafers. Cells are typically vibrant Schott Solar
blue. Sharp
SunWorld
Thin-Film Materials Near single-atom vapor or electro-deposition on low-cost materials (glass, stainless steel, or
plastic). Modules can be flexible. Appearance dark charcoal to near black; can also be semi-
transparent.
Amorphous Silicon Cell and module production part of 5 - 7% 13% BP Solar
(a-Si) same process. Widely used in Kaneka Solar
consumer products and on flexible T erraSolar
substrates. United Solar Ovonic

Copper Indium Diselenide Alternative semiconductor material 8 - 10% 19% Global Solar
(CIS) under commercialization. Shell Solar

Cadmium Telluride Alternative semiconductor material 7 - 9% 17% BP Solar

(CdTe) under commercialization. First Solar
Growth Forecast?

Source: Renew able Energy [Link]

 Inverters

Inverter

DC AC

Changes Direct Current (DC) to

Alternating Current (AC)

Pacific Energy Center

San Francisco 76
 Inverters
• Range in size from 1 Kw to 500+ Kw
• Can easily be connected together,
even different models
• Best to locate in cooler area

Source: Darren Bouton

Pacific Energy Center
San Francisco 77
 Inverters
Typical system layout

Panel &
meter
Inverter

“Strings” of modules

Strings must be of specific length and number,

of equal size, and on the same plane.
Power production is very sensitive to shading.
Pacific Energy Center
San Francisco 78
System Inverters: Online string sizing tool

Limited configurations, cannot deviate.

Pacific Energy Center

San Francisco 79
 Inverters

Micro-inverter
One per module
Inverts DC to AC right there

System layout

Panel & Combiner box &

meter Energy Center
Pacific communicator
San Francisco 80
 Reliability

Source: NASA

Pacific Energy Center

San Francisco 81
 Reliability

• Mature technology—over 50 years old

• Essential to the space program
• Millions in use
• Products tested and approved by CEC
• Long warranties backed by large,
stable companies
— 20 to 25 years on panels
— 10 to 25 years on inverters
— 10 year labor warranty
Pacific Energy Center
San Francisco 82
It works during the day, but what about at night?

Previously, there was

only one solution:
Store the excess in
batteries during the day,
then draw off the
batteries at night, or
when it’s cloudy.
Courtesy of DOE/NREL

But now?
83
 Net Metering

The utility grid is a two-

way street!
Electricity can be “sent
back” to the grid by the
customer.
Source Andy Black © 2006 All rights reserved.

X
Source: Andy Black

• Eliminates the need for batteries.

• Reduces cost and maintenance.
Source: DOE NREL

• Ensures a constant supply of electricity.

 Typical System Components
Array Inverter

Meter
Panel

Balance of System
(BOS) Source: Darren Bouton
Loads
 Typical System Components

1. Solar array
2. Inverter
3. House electrical
panel

Source: PG&E

86
 Monitoring
• Extra hardware sends inverter data to internet
• Inverter company or 3rd party hosts website
• Customer can view system from home or remotely
• Current and historical data can be displayed

Can cost extra but some

companies are offering it as
standard package.

Courtesy SMA [Link]

 Monitoring

Total system history.

Real-time, per panel.

Courtesy Enphase [Link]

Feasibility

89
Solar Geometry

90
Solar Geometry

Plane of the Ecliptic

91
92
 Solar Geometry

ACTUAL: EXPERIENTIAL:
The sun radiates in all On Earth all radiation from the
directions. sun is parallel to one another.

93
 Horizon
in winter

Horizon in
summer

94
Source: Wikipedia
 This ray strikes parallel to the surface.

This ray strikes +45 degree angle to the surface.

This ray strikes perpendicular to the surface.

95
Latitude and Longitude

96
 Sun Path

Spring/Fall Noon:
90o – Latitude Summer Noon:
52.5o in SF 90o – Latitude +23.5
76o in SF
Winter Noon:
90o – Latitude – 23.5 W
29o in SF

S N

Winter: Rises 30o south of E Summer: Rises 30o north of

E E
Source: PG&E

97
Sun Path Overhead Projection

98
Sun Path Overhead Projection

99
Summer sun

Winter sun
Source: NASA

100
Sun Path Horizon Projection

Edward Mazria. Passive Solar Energy Book, Expanded

Professional Edition 101
Rodale Press, 1979, Pg. 311
 Sun Chart: San Francisco

Source: University of Oregon, Solar Radiation Monitoring Laboratory

[Link]
 Does the site have
an appropriate southern exposure?
Use a compass to identify north (and thus south),
a first step in assessing solar access at a site.

103
104
105
106
107
108
 San Francisco: declination = 14º

True south reads as 166º

true

In west:
True azimuth = Compass azimuth + Declination
109
 true

In east:
True azimuth = Compass azimuth - Declination
110
 Magnetic South vs. True South

Magnetic South = Compass South

• A compass aligns with the earth’s magnetic field, which is not
exactly aligned with the earth’s rotational axis.
• Magnetic Declination = the number of degrees that true south is
east or west from magnetic south.
• True south ~ 15° east of magnetic south
(SF, SJ, Stockton)

True South = Solar South

NOTE: go to National Geophysical Data Center (NGDC) at
[Link]
111
to determine your site’s magnetic declination
Describing Location of the Sun
First understand where it is!

• Azimuth - horizontal
angle of sun east or west
of due south
• Altitude - angle of sun
above the horizon
90
• Azimuth and altitude 180

describe the location of 45

the sun in the sky at a 0 270

given time. Illustration from Environmental Control Systems by
Fuller Moore, McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1993, p. 76.
PV Siting Issues to Consider

1. Sun energy potential (insolation)

2. Space
3. Shading
4. Orientation (N – S)
5. Tilt angle
6. Aesthetics

113
Peak Sun Hours Equivalent

1000
w/m²

“Digital” sunlight
114
Peak Sun Hours Equivalent

3500

3000

2500
Kwh Produced

2000

1500

1000

500

0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23
Hours of the Day

Typical daily pattern

115
Peak Sun Hours Equivalent

3500

3000

2500
Kwh Produced

2000

1500

1000

500

0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23
Hours of the Day

Equal areas
116
What is the solar resource potential?

Peak Sun-hours Measured in kWh/m2/day

Source: DOE National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) Resource Assessment Program 117
[Link]
What is the solar resource potential?
Peak Sun-hours Measured in kWh/m2/day

118
 Monthly Percentages

Source: [Link]

Percentage of yearly insolation per month

City Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
San Francisco 4.0% 5.7% 7.5% 10.1% 11.5% 12.16.% 12.~~ 11.1% g.8% fi.1% 4 _5,3 '3.5%

Los Angeles 4.8% 1

6.1{)% 1.9"% 1JO.~~ 11.3·% 11.8% 11.5% 10.4% g_43 b.8% 5.3% 4.1%
Portland 3.0% 5.1% 7.16°.16 1J0.0% ll.1!Ji% 13.3% 14.5% 12.16% 10.5% 6..1% 3.1% 2.4%

Ratio of sunniest six months to least sunny (“summer to winter”)

< ' '
City Sunniest Least sunny Ratio
San Francisco 08.1% 31.!Jr% 2.14to 1
Los Angeles 1 ~
64..5% 35.5% 1.82to 1 -

Portland 12.1% 273% 2.fi7to 1 119

' '
Weather/Sun Potential Summary

• California climate ideal for solar

• Panels produce in all light
• Fog has cooling effect, which raises
efficiency
• Microclimates likely less than 15%
loss from normal

120
 Space Requirements
Roof / Ground Area:
• Crystalline Silicon
90-150 square feet per kW

• Thin-Film
170-250 square feet per kW
For a 4 kW residential system:
Crystalline: 360 to 600 sf.
Thin film: 650 to 1000 sf.

Note: Consideration should also be given for access 121

to the system (can add up to 20% of needed area)
Space Requirements: Overhead Photos

47 x 13 = 611 sf.

122
 PV Orientation

For tilted roof: North

Not
good

West East
Good
OK
Very
good

South

123
PV Orientation
N

W E

Overhead
maps: true N-S

124
 Tilt

Tilt = Angle at which the collectors are

mounted relative to 0º (flat horizontal surface)

Ex. 30º tilt angleº

125
 Tilt

12 ft.

4 ft.
18 deg.

Typical roof in this area is 4:12.

For every 12 feet horizontal, it drops 4 feet.
This equals 18 degrees up from horizontal.

Normal roof pitch is a very good mounting angle.

126
 Tilt Angle vs. Building Orientation
Orientation / Degrees from South

0° 18° 30° 45° 60° 90°

Flat 4:12 7:12 12:12 21:12 Vertical
0°° (South) 0.89 0.97 1.00 0.97 0.89 0.58
23°° (SSE, SSW) 0.89 0.97 0.99 0.96 0.88 0.59
45° (SE, SW) 0.89 0.95 0.96 0.93 0.85 0.60
68° (ESE, WSW) 0.89 0.92 0.91 0.87 0.79 0.57
90°° (E, W) 0.89 0.88 0.84 0.78 0.70 0.52
Source: “A Guide to Photov oltaic (PV) System Design and Installation” -- CEC, June 2001

Bottom line: Tilt is a factor, but not a major one.

127
 Tracking

Courtesy of DOE/NREL

For most home systems, the extra expense and maintenance of

tracking motors is not worth the efficiency gain. Better to buy a few
extra panels.
For large commercial systems it may be worth it. 128
 Will the PV system be free from shade?

Source: DOE National Renew able Energy Laboratory 129

 72-cell PV module

Copyright Solmetric 2010

 72-cell PV module with bypass diodes

Copyright Solmetric 2010

 Module I-V curve with shaded cell strings

Cell

V
Cell string

Copyright Solmetric 2010

 Shade one cell of one cell string
One bypass diode turns on

Copyright Solmetric 2010

Shade one cell in each of two cell strings
Two bypass diodes turn on

Copyright Solmetric 2010

 Monocrystalline Shading Effect

Partial Module Shading Effect

3

Unshaded Module
2.5 The Extreme Effects of Shading
1 cell 25%
shaded % of One Cell Shaded % Loss of Module Power
2
1 cell 50% 0% 0%
Amps

1.5
shaded 25 % 25 %

1 cell 75% 50 % 50 %
1 shaded 75 % 66 %

1 cell 100% l00 % 75 %

0.5
shaded
w ith 3 cells shaded 93 %

0
0 5 10 15 20 25

Volts

135
Courtesy: Solar Energy International
 Per-Module Devices

Solar Magic Module Maximizer PV AC Module PowerBox

National Semiconductor Tigo Energy EXELTECH Solar Edge

Enphase Microinverter Direct Grid Microinverter SunMizer Parallux vBoost

Enphase Energy Direct Grid Technologies Xandex eIQ Energy
Per-Module Devices: Two Basic Types

Microinverter
Changes DC to AC
Enphase Microinverter Needs no other inverter
Enphase Energy

Maximizer
Adjusts DC voltage: DC to DC
Needs system inverter
Module Maximizer
Tigo Energy
 Solar Access

PV Requirements
• Solar Window = 9 am - 3 pm (ideal)
8 am - 4 pm (possible)
• Need minimum of 4 hours during solar
window with no shade (prefer 5 hours)
• Summer more important than winter

138
 Shading
Sunset Sunrise

Solar Window
“Shade-free from 9 to 3”

Good chance for PV

139
 Shading

Bad chance for PV

140
 Planning for Shade

141
Source: PEC Staff
 Planning for Shade

S 2 to 1 ratio
recommended

1 ft.

2 ft.

No good

142
Source: PEC Staff
 Solar Pathfinder
Used to gain a quick and approximate understanding
of solar access and objects on the horizon that shade a
given location.

• Latitude specific sun path diagram is

placed in the pathfinder.
• The transparent, convex plastic dome
reflects objects on the horizon, enabling
the user to see the relationship between
these objects and the path of the sun.
• Obstructions can be traced onto sunpath
diagram.

143
Courtesy of Andy Black 144
 Solmetric SunEyeTM

210
110

145
Courtesy: Solmetric, Corp.
 Sunpath View

• Visually
demonstrates
seasonal sun
path and
shading effects
of obstructions
• Summary
tabular data

Courtesy: Solmetric, Corp.

146
 Detailed View

• Chart shows
proportion of total
solar energy
available at this
site each month

Courtesy: Solmetric, Corp.

147
 Where to Go for Tools

• Pacific Energy Center: Tool Lending Library

Phone: 415-973-9945
Email: pectools@[Link]

• Pacific Energy Center Web Site:

[Link]/pec/tll

148
How will PV affect site aesthetics?

149
Source: Darren Bouton
How will PV affect site aesthetics?

150
Source: Darren Bouton
 Roof Issues
Don’t put a new PV system on an old roof!

• Minimum roof life should be 5 – 7 years.

• Good idea to do PV and roof at same time
• Estimate for panel removal/replacement is $1,000 per
Kw of system size.

Courtesy London Flat Roofing, Ltd [Link]

 Online Production Calculator
[Link]

• Official program for CSI rebate, everyone must

use.
• Buyers don’t have to “trust the salesperson”.
• Takes all relevant factors as input and gives
estimated annual production and rebate
amount.
Online Production Calculator
Online Production Calculator
Online Production Calculator
Online Production Calculator: Shading
Online Production Calculator: Shading

No shade With shade

Finances

158
 Net Metering

Sell Power to the

Utility by Day

Source Andy Black © 2006 All rights reserved.

Buy Power at Night

and Winter
.

• Exchange at Retail
• Annual Cycle

Source Andy Black © 2006 All rights reserved.

159
 Net Metering – No Blackout Protection

Unsafe to send live

power into grid while
workers repairing
X
downed lines
Source Andy Black © 2006 All rights reserved.

No “voltage reservoir”
means house current
could fluctuate and
X
damage appliances
Source Andy Black © 2006 All rights reserved.

160
 Reduce Your Energy Bills!

Spin Your Meter Slower

• Use the electricity you generate
first to reduce electricity you
would normally buy from the
utility or electric service provider

Spin Your Meter Backwards

• Excess electricity generated
goes through your meter and
into the grid
• Spins your meter backwards!
• Get credit for “stored” electricity
Source: Darren Bouton
on the grid
 Net Metering

Meter

Customer side Utility side

 Net Metering

Generation: 3 kWh Surplus: 2 kWh

Meter
Cash credit: $ .60
Load: 1 kWh 2 kWh @ $(going rate)

Customer side Utility side

 Net Metering

Generation: 1 kWh Surplus: 0 kWh

Meter
Cash credit: $ .00
Load: 1 kWh

Customer side Utility side

 Net Metering

Generation: 0 kWh Need: 1 kWh

Meter
Cash debit: $ .09
Load: 1 kWh 1 kWh @ $(going rate)

Customer side Utility side

 Net Metering
What do you get paid if your system over-produces?

Cost of power at $.16/Kwh

Markup to cover grid
Wholesale cost: $.10/kwh
maintenance: $.06/kwh

• CPUC rule—PG&E must comply

• The “full retail” rate that PV owners get paid for their
power includes a subsidy (markup) that comes from
all rate payers.
• The CPUC determined that this full subsidy would
only be allowed to cover your usage, not for you to go
into the power-generation business.
• For over-production, compensation will be at a lower
rate, to be determined.
166
 Net Metering
Average monthly usage

kWh/mo PV system production

750 Roll over

500

250

May October April

“SUMMER” “WINTER”

167
 Net Metering
Average monthly usage

kWh/mo PV system production

The surplus covers the shortfall,

750 and your yearly bill is minimal.

500

250

May October April

“SUMMER” “WINTER”

168
 Net Metering
Average monthly usage

kWh/mo PV system production

PV system produces less than

750 your yearly usage.

500
You pay this amount

250

May October April

“SUMMER” “WINTER”

169
 Net Metering
Average monthly usage

kWh/mo PV system production

PV system produces more

750 than your yearly usage.

You are paid a different rate for this amount – around 4¢ per kWh.
500

250

May October April

“SUMMER” “WINTER”

170
 Methods of Payment

Two fundamentally different concepts:

Net Metering
Serves the onsite load FIRST, then
interacts with the utility grid. One meter

Feed-in Tariff
Does not serve the onsite load and
ONLY interacts with the utility grid.
Two meters

171
Feed-in Tariff
Generation track
Feed-in (credit)
Meter

Usage (debit)
Meter

Usage track
172
 Net Metering vs. Feed-in Tariff

Net Metering:
For PV systems from 1 kW to 1 mW

Feed-in Tariff:
For PV systems from 1 mW to 20 mW.
See [Link]/feedintariffs

173
 PG&E Renewable Energy Programs

California Solar Initiative

Solar Water Heating (CSI Thermal)
Available  Self Generation Incentive Program
PG&E 
Programs Net Energy Metering

Feed‐in Tariff Programs*

Renewable Auction 
Renewable Auction Mechanism*

Renewables RFO

PV RFO*

Utility Owned Renewables*

System Size 1 kW 100  kW 1 MW 3 MW 20 MW 100  MW ++

Customer‐scale Utility‐scale

* New or revised program 174
 Rate Schedules (Tariffs)
Two main types of residential rates:

TIERED (E-1)
The more you use, the more you pay.
Baseline amounts plus tier charges based on
percentage of baseline.

Time-of-Use (TOU)
Additional factor depending on when you
use the power.
175
 PG&E Baseline
Territory Map

Baseline=guaranteed minimum
amount of low cost electricity
for everyone--all income levels.

Baseline allocation determined by

geographic territory averages.

176
PG&E Baseline Territory Allocations

177
 Tiered Rate (E-1)
PG&E monthly electric bill for a large home user:

178
 Tiered Rate (E-1)
PG&E monthly electric bill for a large home user:

Baseline = 9.8 x 33 = 323.4 kWh

5 rate tiers
= $ 38.41 1
= $ 13.10 2
= $ 65.79 3
= $ 129.46 4
= $ 3.12 5

978.00 $ 249.88

Used 978 Kwh costing $ 249.88

179
 Tiered Rate (E-1)
Breakdown of charges:

The net charges shown above include the following component(s)

Please see definitions on Page 2 of the bill.

Generation $1 19.27
Transmission 10.62
Distribution 95.07
Public Purpose Programs 11.97
Nuclear Decommissioning 0.28
DWR Bond Charge 5.04
Ongoing CTC 5.42
Energy Cost Recovery Amount 2.21

Taxes and Other

Energy Commission Tax $0.22
TOTAL CHARGES $250.1 0

180
 E-1 / PG&E Standard Rate Schedule (Residential)

PG&E E-1 As
Residential
of 1/1/12 Rate 6/1/10

45.0
33.5
40.0 40.0
33.5
40.0
35.0
29.1
29.5
Cents per kWh

30.0
25.0
20.0
13.5
14.6
15.0 12.8
11.9
10.0
5.0
0.0
Less than 101% - 131% - 201% - Over 300%
100% 130% 200% 300%
Perce ntage of base line allocation

181
 Rate Tiers
The less you use, the more you eliminate the
expensive upper tiers:

5 rate tiers
= $ 38.41 1
= $ 13.10 2
= $ 65.79 3
= $ 129.46 4
= $ 3.12 5

978.00 $ 249.88

182
 Rate Tiers
The less you use, the more you eliminate the
expensive upper tiers:

5 rate tiers
= $ 38.41 1
= $ 13.10 2
= $ 65.79 3
= $ 129.46 4
= $ 3.12 5

421.42 $ 51.52

Used 421 kWh costing $ 51.52

From 978 Kwh to 421 Kwh -- from $250 to $50.

Lowering the usage 57% lowers the bill 80%.
183
 E-1 / PG&E Standard Rate Schedule (Residential)
PG&E E-1 As
Residential
of 1/1/12 Rate 6/1/10

45.0
40.0
33.5 40.0
33.5
40.0
35.0
29.1
29.5
Cents per kWh

30.0
25.0
20.0
13.5
14.6
15.0 12.8
11.9
10.0
5.0
0.0
Less than 101% - 131% - 201% - Over 300%
100% 130% 200% 300%
Perce ntage of base line allocation

184
 E-1 / PG&E Standard Rate Schedule (Residential)

PG&E E-1 As
Residential
of 1/1/12 Rate 6/1/10

45.0
33.5
40.0 40.0
33.5
40.0
35.0
29.1
29.5
Cents per kWh

30.0
25.0 Solar reverses the
20.0
15.0 12.8
11.9
13.5
14.6 rate tier effect
10.0
5.0 Lower ROI Higher ROI
0.0
Less than 101% - 131% - 201% - Over 300%
100% 130% 200% 300%
Perce ntage of base line allocation
185
 Demand Management Strategies

1. Reduce overall load.

— Energy efficiency, conservation
2. Inform people so they can cooperate
voluntarily.
— Publicity, “Flex Your Power” alerts
3. Create the ability to remotely turn off
certain appliances.
— Smart AC, smart meters, etc.
4. Charge more for peak usage.
— Time-of-Use rates, Peak-Time pricing
… and others.
186
 Time of Use Rates
PG&E 2006 Annual Usage

21,000

PG&E Peak Load

19,000
July 25 @ 1700 hours
20,883 MWs
17,000

15,000

13,000

11,000

9,000

7,000

5,000

Jan Fe b Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

187
Time of Use Rates

188
 Time of Use Rates

Residential "E6" Time-of-Use Pricing Periods

Sunday Monday TuesdayWednesdayThursday Friday Saturday
Midnight - 6am Off-Peak Off-Peak Off-Peak Off-Peak Off-Peak Off-Peak Off-Peak
6am - 10am Off-Peak Off-Peak Off-Peak Off-Peak Off-Peak Off-Peak Off-Peak
10am - 1pm Off-Peak Part-Peak Part-Peak Part-Peak Part-Peak Part-Peak Off-Peak
1pm - 7pm Off-Peak Peak Peak Peak Peak Peak Off-Peak
7pm - 9pm Part-Peak Part-Peak Part-Peak Part-Peak Part-Peak Part-Peak Part-Peak
9pm - Midnight Off-Peak Off-Peak Off-Peak Off-Peak Off-Peak Off-Peak Off-Peak

• Peak rates in Summer Afternoons 29¢/kWh + tier surcharges

• Part-Peak rates: 14¢/kWh + tiers
• Off-Peak rates (Nights & Weekends) 8.5-10¢/kWh + tiers

189
 Time of Use Rates

35

30

25
Cents per Kwh

20

15

10

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Hours of the Day

E-6 summer rates (May – October)

190
 Time of Use Rates

3500

3000

2500
Kwh Produced

2000

1500

1000

500

0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23
Hours of the Day

Typical summer production

191
 Time of Use Rates

35

30

25
Cents per Kwh

20

15

10

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Hours of the Day

Summer pattern (May – October)

192
 Time of Use Rates

35

30
Sell
25

Buy
Cents per Kwh

Buy
20

15

10

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Hours of the Day

Buying low and selling high adds value.

193
 Should I go on a TOU rate with my PV system?

High

On-peak Med No
usage

Low
Yes

0 25% 50% 75% 100%

Percentage of yearly usage covered by solar

194
 With PV: Change in Utility Billing
• Two bills, gas & electric
• Yearly billing cycle for electricity
• Fixed minimum electric charge reflected on
gas (blue) bill

195
Change in Utility Billing

Minimum
electric
hookup
charge

196
Change in Utility Billing

Minimum
electric
charge

Current monthly
charge

Cumulative
charge
197
 Change in Utility Billing
PV electric bill: meter readings

CURRENT .MONTH METER INllORMATION:

METBR TOU PRIOR CURRBNT MET BR
BADGE ID SEASON PEIUOD RBAD READ DIFFERENCE CONSTANT BNERGY
50M544 Winter l'eak 48,842 48,759 -83 I -83
SOMS44 Winter Off 14.575 14,800 225 I 225
TOTALS 63,4 17 63,559 142

CUIUmNT MONTH METER INFORMATION:

METER PRIOR CURRENT
BADGE ID SEASON READ RBAD
50MS44 \\.'inter 63,417 63,559
TOTALS 63,417 63,559
v ... ..Yeat(: tS no an ac1u:u meter read. Your meterCisplays the peak read an<! the 10<al 1ead.
Tite off-peal< •read" provided on your bill is calculate<! as follows: Off·Peak Read = Total Read · On-Peak Read.
If this is a seasonal Cl"O$S-over monlh (May or November), this calculation will be completed for boU1seasons by prorating the data from your meter.

CURRENT MONTII BASELINE QUANTITY 1Nl'ORMATION1

RATE DAILY MONTHLY
EFFECTIVE BASELINE BASEl...IN!l
DESCRIPTION SEASON DATE RATE DAYS UNITS QUANTITY OUANTITY
B Units \\'inter 03/01/08 32 l 9.80 313 .600
TOTAL 313.600
.,.sc11ne 1.1uant1()' , Kale v ays 1 lieason-Uays xllmts xlloufRatc

198
 Change in Utility Billing
PV electric bill: usage history
[Link] BILL 1'0 SUMMER SUMM BR WINT ER \VINTllR TOTAL ENERGY
MONTH OATB ON OFF ON OPI' ENERGY CHARGE!S
/CREDITS
MAY2008 04/29/08 ·83 225 142 $8.46
APR 2008 03/28/08 .33 285 252 $ 17.93
MAR2008 02/28/08 - 19 399 380 $29.24
FEB2008 01/29/08 49 434 483 $50.79
JAN 2008 12/31/07 SI ~ 416 $34.S8
DEC 2007 11/29/07 0 23 6 335 364 $28.27
NOV 2007 10/29/07 -53 249 196 $2.98
OCT2007 10/01/07 -77 2n 195 S-2.0S
TOTALS • 2,428 Sl70.20
..E,,.,rgy Chargu11.rcd11s (·)include all energy ~!area a mounts and 1axes.

400 ····~-----------·· ..- ..~.~--,,,..,....-..- - ...·"'

·~ ..... ~................,~......,.....-.....~............... _,..._ _ _ _ __ _ __...,.....................-..·................
~

~~ -~ ~

300 ....................................................... _,_,_ ~:-:.. ..................._, ~- - ············..···--· -~ .............................. 1.. -·-·····-···· . · ·. . . ·-·-·-···-·"•"•'"''. . . . . .
:.·

-
200 ... ... -·-······--··-.. f.<., - - - -· -
-~·

~ - - - -+-If-· .........- -. .:. - - ---..- -: ·- ·- ·- ····-·--

!
;
.·
'}· ' ~
~ .,,
, ----t1l~---•wt--~~--.... ~i----;~··i----~[*I---~
1 00 f-l-t-----~,l----+.,~

. i1 (}1 " ffi t i

~nt:,~,~·'~·.____,~'.!r....,~\....__ __ u:~-~.~~·~---~M.~....·~!.___lll " fit '.! d "'i......__"'

·100iil'
'+--~~----~--------------- -------------~
N_ _ _"'
---::i'A"" o"'ec ',.,_---u""c
""""---~N'ov ,..._ _ .,,
'°'r FEB
MAY IWR MAR
2007
199
2008 2008 2008 2008 2008 2007 2007
 Change in Utility Billing
Yearly “trueup” example

• Yearly usage total $170.20

• Already paid the fixed amount of $6.71 per
month for 12 months, total of $80.52
• Amount owed is 170.20 – 80.52 = $89.68

200
 Relatively Low Maintenance

Source: DOE National Renew able Energy Laboratory

 Soiling Factors
• Three basic categories for rainy / dry season areas
– Washed as often as necessary ~ 1.0
– Washed once in July ~ 0.96
– Never washed ~ 0.93

• Factors affecting number

– Rainy / dry seasons
– Dirt roads
– Near agricultural activity
– Close to road surface of busy street
– In airport flight path
 Cleaning Costs
Residential systems
• Around $5 per panel
• High because of fixed costs (travel, insurance, etc.)
Commercial systems
• In PPA, contracted out to separate company
• Cleaning and inspections typically done together
• Frequency usually twice per year
• Full service cost about 2¢/watt per year
• One time cleaning-only cost around 1/2¢/watt or $1/panel
• Must be careful with power washers, psi not too high

500 kW system = 2,500 panels:

Yearly cleaning & maintenance = $10,000.
 Environmental “Footprint”
• Best overall estimates from 1 to 2.5 years
• Depends on site and power production--in
California is about 1.1 years.
• Shrinking as costs drop and production gets
“greener”
• Pays back 10 to 30 times or more its
environmental cost

Most PV manufacturing
plants will have their own
PV system on the roof.

Courtesy of DOE/NREL

Source: January 2008 Environmental Science & Technology

[Link]
 California Solar Initiative (CSI)
SB 1

CPUC (California Public Utilities CEC

Commission) (California Energy Commission)
Existing Residential
Existing Commercial Residential New Construction
Commercial New Construction
CSI NSHP
(California Solar Initiative) (New Solar Homes Partnership)

Program Administrators Program Administrators

PG&E SCE CCSE PG&E SCE SDG&E

(SDREO)
 The CSI makes PV …

• Economical:
Gives financial incentives to lower the cost

• Secure
Screens and tests equipment
Requires long warranties
Helps screen and check installers
Standardizes production estimates

• Easy
Helps installers handle everything
CSI Financial Incentives—two types

EPBB (Expected Performance-Based Buydown)

• One-time, up-front payment (rebate)
• Based on expected production
• Only for smaller systems (< 50 kW)

PBI (Performance-based Incentive)

• Ongoing monthly payment for 5 years
• Based on actual production
• Possible for all systems, but required for
large ones (> 50 kW)
 CSI Financial Incentives—numbers

EPBB PBI

Overall outline:
Incentives step down according to amount of PV
installed (MW)
 CSI Financial Incentives—numbers
Data as of 2/7/12

MW remaining – MW under review = best estimate of how much left.

For PG&E residential: 26.48 – 1.08 = 25.4 MW.

Trigger Tracker. Helps determine when incentives drop.

[Link]
 CSI Rebate Adjustments
Base system size in AC kilowatts (CEC) may be
adjusted downwards depending on design
and geography.
Determined by EPBB calculator: [Link]
according to the following inputs:
1. Zip code
2. Orientation (azimuth)
3. Tilt (from horizontal)
4. Shading (detailed shading table)

– Design rewards summer energy, not annual

– No design penalty for any orientation from South to West
– Geography factor capped at 1.0 relative to Orange, CA
 Sample Current Situation

Case study
Electric bill: $100/month = $1200/year
After 10 years you will have paid $12,000
… if rates do not rise.

Is this a reasonable assumption?

Pacific Energy Center

San Francisco 211
 Sample Current Situation
Case study
Electric bill: $100/month = $1200/year
With inflation, after 10 years you likely will have paid
$14,000 to $17,000 …
With nothing to show for it except higher electric bills
($150+/mo).
• No equity
• Nothing “paid off”

So the real question is

Can solar be less expensive than this?
Pacific Energy Center
San Francisco 212
 PV Statistics & Performance for
the “Average” Family of Four
(monthly electrical bill $100-$200)
4.0 Kw AC System

COST (before rebate = $6,500 / kW) $26,000

REBATE (est. $230 / kW) $920
TAX CREDIT $7524
NET COST $17,556
Maintenance (25 – 40 yrs.) $5,000
Total lifecycle cost

kWh Production ~ 6,500 kWh / year

Space requirements ~ 350 - 500 s.f.

Avg. cost of power now ($150/mo) $.18/Kwh

25-yr. cost of power (est.) $.14/Kwh
40-yr. cost of power (est.) $.09/Kwh
Pacific Energy Center $22,556 213
San Francisco
 Three Ways to Buy
1. Full purchase (cash or borrowing)
You PV Vendor
Owner of system
Borrow money or pay cash
Design and install
Full payment up front $$$ Sell
Honor warranties
Maintain and monitor (equipment & labor)
system
Economics:
Cash / total savings
Loan pmt. / monthly savings
Pacific Energy Center
San Francisco 214
 Three Ways to Buy
2. Solar Lease
You PV Vendor
Owner of system
Low or no money down $ Design and install
Lease
Fixed lease payment $
Maintain and monitor
Possible buyout in the system
future
Honor warranties
Economics: (equipment & labor)
Lease pmt. / monthly Remove system at end if
savings needed

Pacific Energy Center

San Francisco 215
 Three Ways to Buy
3. Power Purchase Agreement (PPA)
You PV Vendor
Owner of system
Low or no money down $ Design and install
Sell power
Monthly power payment $
Maintain and monitor
Possible buyout in the system
future
Honor warranties
Economics: (equipment & labor)
Monthly pmt. / monthly Remove system at end if
savings needed

Pacific Energy Center

San Francisco 216
 Solar lease

Lease

Pacific Energy Center

San Francisco 217
 Solar lease

Pacific Energy Center

San Francisco 218
 PV System Costs by Component

• Retail costs of system under 30 kW

– PV Panels ~ $2 per Watt
– Inverter ~ $.50 per Watt
– Balance of System ~ $1 per Watt
– Installation / Labor ~ $3 per Watt

Total cost ~ $6.50 per watt installed

THE BIG QUESTION:

What’s the
payback?
 Return on Investment
Different ways to measure

“Payback”: Time period when savings = investment cost

IRR (internal rate of return): Percentage of annual return

which looks at full life cycle

NPV (net present value): Cash flow projection which takes

in financing costs

Monthly Cash Flow: Change in your monthly payment

221
 Return on Investment
Monthly Cash Flow:
• Financed by a home-secured loan
• Loan interest is tax-deductible
• Assuming historical rate escalation continues

Monthly cash flow can be immediately positive for

many people with higher electric bills.
They can start making money from day one and
continue for over 30 years!

Lower bill amounts will typically start out slightly

negative and improve over time.

222
 Grid Parity
When the price per kWh of electricity from a
renewable source is equal to the current average
grid price.

PV example:
System net cost: $20,000, lifetime maintenance $4,000.
Expected to generate average of 5,000 kWh per year for 30
years, total of 150,000 kWh.

$24,000 / 150,000 = $ .16 per kWh

Current utility average price = $ .16 per kWh
= Grid Parity 223
 Increase in Home Value
Appraisal Value
• Will likely go up
• Less utility cost means more money available for mortgage
payment
• Data so far is supportive, new report just released
• Much more to come as solar houses turn over

Solar Rights Act

• California law that supports solar
• Keeps HOAs and other CC&Rs from prohibiting solar systems
• Forbids increased property taxes on owner’s system
• Restriction ends when home is sold, and assessment can go up
to reflect system

224
“We find compelling evidence that solar PV systems in 
California have boosted home sales prices.”

[Link]
 Renewable Energy Credits
• Called RECs or “green tags”
• The “green attribute” of the power
• Connected to carbon offset accounting

Central feature of a system to move money

from polluters to non-polluters.

226
 Bad guys Good guys
Renewable Energy Certificates
Cap and Trade

Trade

Polluters must buy RECs

according to penalty.

Penalty
Cap

Pollution preventers
Permitted

Polluters
227
Source: W ikipedia free license
Pollution removers
 Carbon Offsets

• Making activity “carbon neutral”

• Funding projects that remove as much
carbon as you generate
• Additional social & business image value

228
Strategies for Cost Reduction
 Strategies for Cost Reduction

• Installation efficiencies/roofing
• Multiple benefits from one strategy
• Design integration
• Package with energy efficiency
• The PV Bulk-Buy?
 Installation Efficiencies

Courtesy of DOE/NREL

PV Roof Tiles BIPV Building Integrated Photovoltaics

 Installation Efficiencies

Tiles interlock quickly

with NO roof penetrations
Source: DOE National Renew able Energy Laboratory
 Installation Efficiencies

PV Integrated Roofing Membrane

Courtesy: Solar Integrated

 Installation Efficiencies

PV Skylights

Source: DOE National Renew able Energy Laboratory

 Multiple Benefits

• Mitigate unwanted
solar heat gain
• Control glare
• Displace existing
materials cost
• Produce electricity

Source: Darren Bouton

Package with Energy Efficiency
• Conservation gives best payback
• Many EE rebates available
• Will be required for rebate
• Can handle entire package for client

Source: DOE National Renew able Energy Laboratory

 PV Bulk Buy
• Community targets for total Kw
• Can lead to 10% or more discounts
• Many companies offering it

Source: Pete Shoemaker

Sales and Installation
Process
Case Studies
 Residential Case Study

Phone screening information:

• “John Doe” in Gilroy, CA

• $200/month PG&E electric bill
• Usage projected to stay the same
• Composition shingle roof
• Thinks there are no shade issues
• Overhead photos not clear
Site Visit Data:

Roof Layout
25’
N
W E
4:12 pitch
S

Back of Front of
house 65’ house
 N
W E
S

Source: Pete Shoemaker

Site Visit First Pass
• No shading issues
• Roof in good shape
• About 200 sf. south-facing
• Lots of room west-facing
• Good site for inverter(s)
• Electrical service and panel OK
• Substantial electric bill
 What Size System?
Usage History
Jul-06 946
Aug-06 1127 • Usage pattern normal
Sep-06 1349
Oct-06 970 • Monthly average is good
Nov-06 1093 starting point
Dec-06 1077
Jan-07 1349
• Propose maximum size
Feb-07 867
system and then work to
Mar-07 886 customer’s budget
Apr-07 768
• Check for competitive
May-07 815
bids, ask to see them
Jun-07 836
Total 12083
Avg. 1007
5. PG&E Bill Analysis
Sy s t em Size: 4.56 Kw DC 3.81 Kw AC

Before solar:

Avg. baseline aUo\v ance per day : 12 .2

Avg. billing days fo r m onth: 30
Avg. baseline per month: 366.00 K\\'h
Avg. us age per month:! 1007!K\vh

Rate Tiers Tier Usa e Kwh Char efKw h A n1ount

Oto i 00% of [Link] 366.00 S0.11430 $41 .83
101to 130% of Baseline 1-09.80 S0.12Q89 $ 14.26
131 ~o 200% of Baseline 256.20 $0.22722 $58.21
201 to 300% of 8 ;,;seline 275.00 S0.3 1719 $87.23
Over 300% of Baseline 0 .00 S0.36434 [Link]
Total 1007 $20 1.54 -· - -

After solar:
Solar produces on a vg .:~------'4"'9"->
7 K\vh
Net usage with s o lar:.!_ _ _ _ _ _~5~1-"'
0!K\\lh

Rate Tiers Tier Usane tKwhl CharnefKwh Amo unt

Oto 100% cf Sasefine 366.00 S0.11430 $41 .83
101 to 130% of Baseline
131 to 200% of Baseline
109.80
34 .20
S0.12989
S0.22722
$ 14.26
57.77 ....-
201 ~o 300% of Baseline 0 .00 $0.31719 S0.00
Over 300% of Baseline
Total
0 .00
510
S0.36434 [Link]
863.8 7
.. -· -· -· ...
Estin1ated increa se in v alue
with Time of -U se rate {E7>: 8%
4 Est. bill wit h E7 rate: $52.85
 Acme Solar final bid
3. Financial Summary
John Doe-4.56 DC system

Gilroy, CA 95020

System size: 3.81 KwAC (CEC)

24 190-w att modules
Tw o 2000-w att inv erters

You r system is expected to produce an average of 5967 Kilowatt hours per yea r.
It is expected to save you $1784 the first year. with this amount in creasing stead ily
for the next 30 years or more.

Pricing:
Full system price $34 ,900
Includes everything except permff fees
CSI rebate ($7 ,992 )

Out of Pocl<et cost I S26.907

Federal tax credit ($2,000
Net system cost I S24.907
Price per AC watt (CEC) $9 16

Old monthly electric bill $202

Estimated new bill with solar $53
Percentage of bill to offset 74%
Savings in first month $149
Savings in first year $1,784
Net savings over 30 years $89 ,561
Assuming an annual utility rate increase of 6%.
Commercial Case Study

Car dealership in Gilroy

 Commercial Case Study

• Check usable space

• Estimate maximum size of system
• Determine average usage from bill
• Give ballpark financial numbers
 80
90

90 140

30 x 40
Total space is about 16,000 square feet, but how much
is usable? Need site visit to determine.

Visual estimate about

60+% usable space.
about 10,000 sf. total =
100 KW system
maximum.
Electric bill yearly average: 31,000 Kwh/month

11 "Average"
Total Energy Charge
Rate Schedule Season Total Rate21
(per kWh)
(per kWh)

A·1 Basic general service rate. Generally Summer $0.18264

. optimal rate for customers with low electric use $0'.1659'4
and low load factors, with most usage during
Winter $0.12941
PG&E's peak and partial peak TOU periods.

Average blended rate per Kwh = $ .16594

Average monthly bill = 31,000 x $ .16594 = $5,144
or about $5,000 per month.
From website: [Link]

Page 1
Page 2
 Name: Car Dealership Date: 51812008
System Size: 100 Kw AC (CEC)

FULL SYSTEM PRICE (out-of-pocket cost) ------------------------------ $825,000

This image cannot currently be display ed.
FEDERAL TAX CREDIT (30%) ($247,500)
Note: This could revert to 10% after 11112009 if currellt Jaw is not extended % of full cost
NET COST AFTER TAX CREDIT $577,500 70%

TOTAL FED. TAX DEPRECIATION (over 5 years at 30% tax bracket) ($210,375)
TOTAL STATE TAX DEPRECIATION (over 5 years at 7% tax bracket) ($49,088)

NET COST AFTER DEPRECIATION $318,038 39%

CSI PBI PAYMENTS (estimated total over 5 years @$.22/Kwh) ($179,311)

Note: These paymellts are taxable
CSI PBI PAYMENTS (tax adj usted) ($112,966)

NET COST AFTER 5 YEARS (all financial incentives deducted) $205,0721 25%

AVERAGE YEARLY PRODUCTION (Kwh) ----------------------------- 163,000

AVERAGE UTILITY COST PER Kwh $0.165
YEARLY SAVINGS, FIRST YEAR - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - _ _$_2~6,8_9_5
YEARLY SAVINGS (tax adjusted) $16,944
-------------------------- ---~-
YEARS TO PAYBACK, NO RATE INCREASES ------------------------ 12.1
YEARS TO PAYBACK, 6% ANNUAL RATE INCREASES --------------- 9.5
 PV Sales-Installation Process

• STEP 1: Complete an Energy Survey

• STEP 2: Contact and Choose an Installer
INSTALLER HANDLES THE REST
• STEP 3: Complete and Submit Applications for CSI
• STEP 4: Obtain Building Permits
• STEP 5: Install System
• STEP 6: Schedule Final Building Inspection
• STEP 7: Schedule Final Utility Inspection
• STEP 8: Claim Incentives
 Find Installers
• Personal references
• CSI website
[Link]
• CalSEIA Members
[Link] “Find an Expert” link
• Internet
• Advertising
• Better Business Bureau
• Diamond Certified
Comparing Bids: DC vs. AC watts

• DC watts are “name only”

• DC rating is determined under
Standard Test Conditions (STC), not
real-world
• DC must be changed to AC before
use

DC system size: 20 Sharp 200-watt

modules
= 20 x 200 = 4000 watts = 4.0 kW DC
Comparing Bids: DC vs. AC watts
Lookup CEC ratings for panels.

[Link]
Comparing Bids: DC vs. AC watts
Lookup CEC ratings for inverters.

[Link]
Comparing Bids: DC vs. AC watts

• AC watts are “real power”

• AC rating is determined under Practical
Test Conditions (PTC), real-world
• AC takes efficiency losses into account

AC system size: 20 Sharp 200-watt modules

PTC rating 176 watts, inverter efficiency 96%
= 20 x 176 = 3520 watts x .96 = 3379 watts
= 3.38 kW AC
Comparing Bids: DC vs. AC watts

System size: 20 Sharp 200-watt modules

1 SMA SB 4000US inverter

4.0 kW DC 3.38 kW AC (CEC rating)

DC is about 18% more, but misleading.

AC is the important number, and if installer
only gives DC numbers ask for CEC AC size.
 Comparing Bids: Per-watt price

1. Full price, before incentives. This includes all

“adders” (such as extra roof charges), and extras
(such as monitoring), an estimate for permit fees
(around $300), and taxes.
2. The system size in similar units: CEC AC watts is the
preferred measurement.
3. The per-watt price. This is determined by dividing the
full price by the system size. This is the “unit price”
that allows you to compare “apples to apples”. It will
typically be around $6.50/watt.

262
Comparing Bids: Per-watt price

Base price: $20,000 System Size:

Roof adder: $2,000 4.0 Kw DC
Permit fee: $500 3.38 Kw AC (CEC)
Total: $22,500 (3,380 watts)

Per-watt price:
$22,500 / 3,380 = $6.65/watt

263
Comparing Bids: Group discount

Three options:

1. 20 Sharp 185 panels, 3.19 Kw AC,

$6.05/watt
2. 20 Evergreen 180 panels, 3.12 Kw AC,
$6.45/watt
3. 20 Kyocera 190 panels, 3.28 Kw AC,
$6.90/watt
If group target of 100 kW is met, price
will drop to $6.00/watt
264
Review of Learning Objectives

Class Quiz
Jobs Overview
and
Future Trends
 Solar Incentive Data: National and State

[Link]
Courtesy DOE
 Solar Installation Data: National and State

Courtesy NREL
[Link]
 Solar Installation Data: State

Detailed statistics
[Link] Courtesy CSI
 Solar Installation Data: State

Complete data file

Courtesy CSI

[Link]
Information Available from Analysis of Full Data File

# Installers by # of Systems 1/07 to 4/10 CSI Data

600

502
500 480

400

300

191
200

100
39 32 26
0
1 system 2-10 systems 11-50 systems 51-99 systems 100-200 systems 200+ systems

Compiled by Verve Solar Consulting from data [Link]

Courtesy Verve Solar Consulting

Top 30 Residential Installers by total # installs

CSI Residential Projects # installed systems 1/07 to 4/10

SolarCity
REC Solar, Inc.
Akeena Solar, Inc.
Borrego Solar Systems, Inc.
REgrid Power, Inc. DBA Real Goods Solar
Sungate Energy Solutions, Inc.
Self-Install (Same as Host Customer)
SPG Solar, Inc.
Stout & Burg Electric, Inc.
Mohr Power Solar, Inc.
NextEnergy Corp.
Marin Solar Inc. DBA Real Goods Solar
HelioPower, Inc.
Advanced Solar Electric, Inc
Sun Light and Power
Independent Energy Systems, Inc. dba Real Goods Solar
Premier Power Renewable Energy, Inc.
SolarCraft Services, Inc.
Solar Technologies
Acro Energy Technologies, Inc.
Cobalt Power Systems, Inc.
Sullivan Solar Power
Sierra Pacific Home & Comfort Inc.
Horizon Energy Systems
Luminalt Energy Corporation
Sungevity, Inc.
The Solar Company
SunWize Technologies
Potero Corp.
Occidental Power
0 500
Compiled by Verv e Solar Consulting from data [Link] 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000

Courtesy Verve Solar Consulting

 Top 30 Lg Commercial CSI Installers
SunPower Corporation, Systems 34,013
Sun Edison LLC 17,211
Team-Solar, Inc. 11,413
REC Solar, Inc. 10,110
SPG Solar, Inc. 8,199
BP Solar International, Inc. 6,347
Conergy Projects, Inc. 5,265
SolarCity 4,913
Pacific Power Management, LLC 4,419
Permacity Construction Corp. 4,191
Erickson Construction Co. 2,889
Stellar Energy GP, Inc. 2,862
Bleyco Inc 2,852
Chico Electric 2,181
Solar Integrated Technologies, Inc. 2,105
Unlimited Energy, Inc. 2,089
SPG Solar, Inc. - Novato 1,963
kWp installed EI Solutions 1,920
Premier Power Renewable Energy, Inc. 1,797
through CSI Permacity Construction 1,761
1/07 to Akeena Solar, Inc. 1,667
SunPower Corporation 1,649
4/7/2010 Borrego Solar Systems, Inc. 1,539
Sunlight Electric LLC 1,459
EI Solutions, Inc. 1,364
Granite Bay Energy (Formerly GBEG dba Granite Bay Solar) 1,197
Solar Power, Inc. 1,176
BAP Power Corporation 1,120
INTERIOR ELECTRIC INCORPORATED 1,109
Sunview Vineyards of California, Inc. 1,030
0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 30,000 35,000 40,000
Compiled by Verv e Solar Consulting from data [Link]

Courtesy Verve Solar Consulting

Solar job trends

Courtesy Verve Solar Consulting

[Link]
73/SWIC_EmployerSurvey_SummaryReport_1.[Link]
 SWI C Weekly Jobs Report Summa ry
Q4 20 11

Solar - Total Unique Q4 2011 Postings: 590

Sources of Data: Ernployer Websites, Craigslist, SimplyHired, Linkedin
Regional Scope: San Francisco Bay Area (includes North Bay, East Bay, San Francisco, Peninsula, and
South Bay)

The total number of job postings in Q4 2011 was 2,116. However, after the list was deduplicated, the
total number of unique job postings V\ras 590.

Solar Postings Per Source Solar Job Postings Per Source

Q4 2011
• Employer sites: 328

• SimplyHired: 124

• Craigslist: 109 • tmplo.,.r Site

• SlmplyHlred
• Linkedln: 29 • Cr>lgsllst
• unkedln

[Link]
74/2011Q4_SWIC_JobsReport_Summary_1+23+[Link]
 PV Job Categories
• Lead Generator (canvasser, outside sales)
• Sales 1 (inside sales, lead qualifier)
• Sales 2 (field rep, closer)
• Project Developer (creating and selling large, longer-term projects)
• Designer 1 (pre-sale, estimation)
• Designer 2 (typical designer category, creates plans and drawings)
• Designer 3 (large-scale, commercial)
• Project Manager (post-sale, operations)
• Application Processor (paperwork, rebates, etc.)
• Permit Processor (w/ building officials, inspections)
• PV Installer 1 (laborer, apprentice, entry level)
• PV Installer 2 (typical crew member)
• Installer Crew Lead
• Monitoring / Maintenance
• Technician / Troubleshooter
• Safety Manager
• Financial Operations (work with banks, etc.)
• HR / Hiring
• Marketing
 Smart Grid

Adding information technology to the electric grid infrastructure

[Link]
[Link]
 Smart Grid

Source: NIST

Adding information technology to the

electric grid infrastructure
rJ" A Smart Grid
Overlay with intelligence and automation

Sense Communicate Compute Control

Power Transmission Substations Distribution Consumers

Plants Networks Networks
Courtesy PG&E
Smart Meter
 Gas Meter with SmartMeter™ Module

Gas Meter Module

 Attaches to existing gas meters

 Measures 5.5 x 6.5 inches

 Transmits wireless signals to the

Data Collector Unit
 20 year life span

 A.k.a. Meter Transmission Unit

(MTU)

9/7/2012 ©2010 Pacific Gas and Electric Company. All rights reserved 282
 Electric Network Components

Meters Relays Access 3G Cellular Head

Points Network End

Utility IQ

9/7/2012 ©2009 Pacific Gas and Electric Company. All rights reserved 283
A Platform for Innovation
Customer Energy Management

From meter to the home

 Near-time electric usage
information

 Timely price signals

 Appliance / energy
management control signals

From meter to utility Internet

 Customer electric use

PG&E Premise
 Customer energy generation
(e.g. solar)

 Appliance response to energy

management control signals

CEM network communication

SmartMeter™ communication
Don’t forget the bottom line

Paper

Wealth
Contact Information

Pete Shoemaker
Pacific Energy Center
851 Howard St.
San Francisco, CA 94103
(415) 973-8850
pjsy@[Link]