ECE 1231

Electronics

Dept. of Electrical and Computer Engineering

International Islamic University Malaysia
Chapter 4
Bipolar Junction Transistor
Basic Bipolar Junction Transistor
 Transistor Structures 1-4

 The bipolar junction transistor (BJT) has three

separately doped regions and contains two pn junctions.
 With three separately doped regions, the bipolar transistor
is a three-terminal device.
 The basic transistor principle is
that the voltage between two
terminals controls the current
through the third terminal.

 Current in the transistor is due to the flow of both electrons

and holes, hence the name bipolar.

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 Transistor Structures 1-5

 There are two types of bipolar junction transistor: npn and

pnp.
 The npn bipolar transistor contains a thin p-region
between two n-regions.
 The pnp bipolar transistor
contains a thin n-region
sandwiched between two p-
regions.
 The three regions and their
terminal connections are called the emitter, base, and
collector.

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 Transistor Construction 1-6

 There are two types of transistors:

pnp and npn-type.

Note: the labeling of the transistor:

E - Emitter
B - Base
C - Collector

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 npn Transistor 1-7

 If the transistor is used as an amplifying device, the base-

emitter (B-E) junction is forward biased and the base-
collector (B-C) junction is reverse-biased, in a configuration
called the forward-active operating mode, or simply the
active region.
 Since the B-E junction is
forward biased, electrons
from the emitter are
injected across the B-E
junction into the base.
 The current through B-E junction to be an exponential function
of B-E voltage, just as the current through a pn junction diode.
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 npn Transistor 1-8

 The flow of the negatively charged electrons is through the emitter

into the base. The conventional emitter current is therefore out of
the emitter terminal.
 The number of these
injected electrons reaching
the collector is the major
component of collector
current.
 The collector current is
controlled by the voltage
across the other two
terminals.
 The collector current is slightly smaller than the emitter current.
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 npn Transistor 1-9

 Since the B-E junction is forward biased, holes from the base flow
across the B-E junction into the emitter. The flow of holes forms one
component of the base current (iB1).
 A few electrons recombine
with majority carrier holes in
the base.
 The holes that are lost must
be replaced through the base
terminal. The flow of such
holes is a second component
of the base current (iB2).
 The total base current is the sum of the above two components.

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 npn Transistor 1-10

 If the concentration of electrons in the n-type emitter is much larger

than the concentration of holes in the p-type base, then the number
of electrons injected into the base will be much larger than the
number of holes injected into the emitter.
 This means that the iB1
component of the base
current will be much smaller
than the collector.
 In addition, if the base width is
small, then the number of
electrons that recombine will
be small, and the iB2 of the
base current will be also much smaller than the collector current.

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 pnp Transistor 1-11

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 pnp Transistor 1-12

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 pnp Transistor 1-13

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 pnp Transistor 1-14

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 Currents in a Transistor 1-15

IE  IC  IB
IC  IE
Note that IC is comprised of two currents:

IC  ICmajority  ICOminority
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 Circuit Symbols and Conventions 1-16

npn bipolar transistor simple

block diagram and circuit symbol.
Arrow is on the emitter terminal
that indicates the direction of
emitter current (out of emitter
terminal for the npn device)

pnp bipolar transistor simple

block diagram and circuit symbol.
Arrow is on the emitter terminal
that indicates the direction of
emitter current (into of emitter
terminal for the pnp device)

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 Common-Base Configuration 1-17

 The base is common to both input (emitter - base) and output

(collector - base) of the transistor.

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 Input Characteristics for a 1-18

Common-Base Amplifier

 This demonstrates the input current IE to input voltage VBE for various
levels of output voltage VCB.
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 Output Characteristics for a 1-19

Common-Base Amplifier

 This demonstrates the output current IC to an output voltage VCB for various
levels of input current IE.
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 3 Regions of Operation 1-20

 Active
Operating range of the amplifier.

 Cutoff
The amplifier is basically off. There is
voltage but little current.

 Saturation
The amplifier is full on. There is little
voltage but lots of current.
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 Common-Base Current Gain 1-21

 Alpha () is called common-base current gain, relates the

DC currents IC to IE:

dc  IC
IE
 Ideally  = 1, but in reality it is between 0.9 and 0.998.

 Alpha () in AC mode:

IC
ac  VCB  constant
IE

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 Reverse Saturation Current or 1-22
Leakage Current
 In the common-base circuit, if the
current source IE = 0, transistor will
be cut off, but the B-C junction will
still be reverse biased.

 A reverse-bias leakage current exists

in the junction, and this current corresponds to the reverse
saturation current in a diode.

 The direction of the reverse-bias leakage current is the

same as that of the collector current.

 The term ICBO is the collector leakage current in the common

base configuration when the emitter is open circuit.
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 Common-Emitter Configuration 1-23

 The Emitter is common to both

input (base-emitter) and output
(collector-emitter).

 The input is on the Base and the

output is on the Collector.

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 Common-Emitter Circuit 1-24

Common-emitter circuit with an npn Common-emitter circuit with a

transistor includes the transistor pnp bipolar transistor.
currents, and base-emitter (B-E) and
collector-emitter (C-E) voltages.

A more usual circuit configuration

using the pnp transistor that allows
positive voltage supplies to be used.

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 Characteristics of Common-Emitter 1-25

 Collector characteristics = output characteristics.

 Base characteristics = input characteristics.
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 Common-Emitter Current Gain 1-26

 Beta () is called common-emitter current gain.

IC
 In DC mode: β dc 
IB

IC
 In AC mode: β ac  VCE  constant
IB

  indicates the amplification factor of a transistor. ( is sometimes

referred to as hfe, a term used in transistor modeling calculations)

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 Determining Beta (β) from a Graph 1-27

2.7mA
βDC  (forVCE  7.5)  108
25 μA
(3.2mA  2.2mA) 1mA
βAC   (forVCE  7.5)  100
(30μA  20μA) 10μA

Note:  AC =  DC

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  Provides a Relationship 1-28

Between Currents

IE  IC  IB

IC  βIB
IE  (β  1)IB
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 Relationship Between  and  1-29

β
α
β 1
α
β
1 α

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 Example 1-30

Example 1
Compute the corresponding values of  if  = 0.99.

Answer:  = 99

Example 2
A certain transistor operated with forward bias of the base-emitter
junction and reverse of the base-collector junction (i.e. operation
is in the active region) has iC = 9.5 mA and iE = 10 mA. Find the
values of iB,  and .

Answer: iB = 0.5 mA,  = 0.95 and  = 19

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 Circuit Conditions for ICEO or 1-31
Leakage Current
 Another leakage current can exist
between emitter and collector with
the base terminal an open circuit.

 The current component αICEO is

the normal collector current
resulting from the emitter current
ICEO. We can write:

or

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 Limitations of Operation for 1-32

Each Configuration

Note: VCE is at maximum and IC is at minimum (ICmax=ICEO) in the cutoff region.

IC is at maximum and VCE is at minimum (VCEmax = VCEsat = VCEO) in the
saturation region.
The transistor operates in the active region between saturation and cutoff.

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 Device Equations 1-33

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 Example 1-34

A certain transistor has β = 50, IS = 10-14 A, vCE = 5 V and iE = 10 mA.

Assume that VT = 0.026 V. Find vBE, vBC, iB, iC and α.

Solution: IE = IS [exp(VBE / VT) - 1]

or, VBE = VT ln [(IE / IS) + 1]
=0.026 V ln [(10-2 A / 10-14 A) + 1]
= 0.718 V

VBC = VBE - VCE = 0.718 V - 5 V = -4.28 V

α = β / (β + 1) = 50 / (50 + 1) = 0.98

iC = αiE = 0.98 x 10 mA = 9.80 mA

iB = iC / β = 9.80 mA / 50 = 0.196 mA

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DC Analysis of Transistor Circuit
 Common-Emitter Circuit 1-36

 A common-emitter circuit with an npn transistor and

the dc equivalent circuit.

 Assume that the B-E junction is forward biased, so

the voltage drop across that junction is the cut-in or
turn-on voltage VBE (on).
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 Common-Emitter Circuit 1-37

 The base current:

 Implicitly assuming that VBB > VBE (on), which means

that IB > 0. When VBB < VBE (on), the transistor is cut
off and IB = 0.
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 Common-Emitter Circuit 1-38

 In the collector-emitter portion of the circuit, we can

write: and

 Implicitly assuming that VCE > VBE (on), which means

that the B-C junction is reverse biased and transistor
is biased in the forward-active mode.
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 Common-Emitter Circuit 1-39

Example
Calculate the base, collector and
emitter currents and the C-E
voltage for a common-emitter
circuit by considering VBB = 4 V, RB
= 220 Ω, RC = 2 kΩ, VCC = 10 V, VBE
(on) = 0.7 V and β = 200.
The circuit without
explicitly showing the
voltage sources

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 Common-Emitter Circuit 1-40

 A common-emitter circuit with an pnp bipolar transistor

and the dc equivalent circuit.

 In this circuit, the emitter is at ground potential, which

means that the polarities of the VBB and VCC power
supplies must be reversed compared to those in the
npn circuit.
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 Common-Emitter Circuit 1-41

 The analysis proceeds exactly as before.

 The base current:

 In the collector-emitter portion of the circuit, we can

write: and

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 Common-Emitter Circuit 1-42

Example
Find IB, IC, IE and RC such that VEC =
½ VCC for a common-emitter circuit .
Consider:
VBB = 1.5 V, RB = 580 Ω, RC = 2 kΩ,
VCC = 5 V, VEB (on) = 0.6 V, β = 100.

The circuit without

explicitly showing the
voltage sources

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 Load Line and Models of Operation 1-43

 The input load line is obtained

from Kirchhoff’s voltage law
equation around the B-E loop,
written as follows:

 Both the load line and the quiescent base current change as either
or both VBB and RB change.
 For the C-E portion of the circuit, the load line is found by writing
Kirchhoff’s voltage law around the C-E loop. We obtain:

or,

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 Load Line and Models of Operation 1-44

 The input load line is essentially

the same as the load line
characteristics for diode circuits.

 IBQ = 15 μA

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 Load Line and Models of Operation 1-45

 The two end points of the output load line

are found:

 by setting IC = 0,
yielding
VCE = VCC = 10 V

 by setting VCE = 0,
yielding
IC = VCC / RC = 5 mA
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 Load Line and Models of Operation 1-46

 If VBB < VBE (on), then IB = IC = 0

 The transistor is in
cut off mode.

 All transistor currents

are zero, neglecting
leakage currents:
VCE = VCC = 10 V

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 Load Line and Models of Operation 1-47

 As VBB increases (VBB > VBE (on))  The base current IB

increases and the
Q-point moves up
the load line.

 As IB continues to
increase, a point is
reached where the
collector current IC
can no longer
increase.

 The transistor is in
saturation mode.

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 Load Line and Models of Operation 1-48

 As VBB increases (VBB > VBE (on))

 The transistor C-E

voltage in saturation,
VCE (sat) is less than
the B-E cut-in voltage
 Typically, VCE (sat) is
in the range of 0.1 to
0.3 V.
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 Load Line and Models of Operation 1-49

Example
Calculate the characteristics of a circuit containing an emitter
resistor. For the circuit, let VBE (on) = 0.7 V and β = 75.

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 Load Line and Models of Operation 1-50

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 Load Line and Models of Operation 1-51

Since the C-E voltage is 6.32 V,

VCE > VBE (on) and the transistor
is biased in the forward-active
mode, as initially assumed.

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 Voltage Transfer Characteristics 1-52

 A plot of the transfer characteristics (output voltage versus input

voltage) can also be used to visualize the operation of a circuit or
the state of a transistor.

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Basic Transistor Application
 Switch 1-54

 A bipolar circuit called an inverter, in which the transistor in the

circuit is switched between cutoff and saturation.

 The load, for example, could be a

motor, a light-emitting diode or
some other electrical device.

 If vI < VBE (on), then iB = iC = 0 and

the transistor is cut off.

 Since iC = 0, the voltage drop

across RC is zero, so the output
voltage is vO = VCC.

 Since the currents in the transistor are zero, power dissipation in

the transistor is zero that would turn off the LED if the load is LED.
© Electronics ECE 1231
 Switch 1-55

 If vI = VCC and if the ratio of RB to RC, where RC is the effective

resistance of the load, is less than β, then the transistor is usually
driven into saturation, means that:

and

 In this case, a collector current is induced that would turn on the

motor or the LED, depending on the type of load.
© Electronics ECE 1231
 Digital Logic 1-56

 In the simple inverter circuit, if the input is approximately zero volts,

the transistor is in cutoff and the output is high and equal to VCC.

 If the input is high and equal to VCC, the transistor is driven into
saturation, and the output is low and equal to VCE (sat).

© Electronics ECE 1231

 Digital Logic 1-57

 If the two inputs are zero,

both transistors Q1 and Q2
are in cutoff, and VO = 5 V.

 When V1 = 5 V and V2 = 0,
transistor Q1 can be driven
into saturation, and Q2
remains in cutoff. With Q1
in saturation, the output
voltage VO = VCE (sat).

 If V1 = 0 and V2 = 5 V, then Q1 is in cutoff,

and Q2 can be driven in saturation, and
VO = VCE (sat).

© Electronics ECE 1231

 Digital Logic 1-58

 If the two inputs are zero,

both transistors Q1 and Q2
are in cutoff, and VO = 5 V.

 When V1 = 5 V and V2 = 0,
transistor Q1 can be driven
into saturation, and Q2
remains in cutoff. With Q1
in saturation, the output
voltage VO = VCE (sat).

 If V1 = 0 and V2 = 5 V, then Q1 is in cutoff,

and Q2 can be driven in saturation, and
VO = VCE (sat).

© Electronics ECE 1231

 Digital Logic 1-59

 If both inputs are high,

meaning V1 = V2 = 5 V,
then both transistors can
be driven into saturation,
and VO = VCE (sat).

 In a positive logic system,

meaning that the larger
voltage is a logic 1 and the
lower voltage is a logic 0,
the circuit performs the NOR logic
function.

 The circuit is then a two-input bipolar

NOR logic circuit.

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Bipolar Transistor Biasing
 Bipolar Transistor Biasing 1-61

 Biasing refers to the DC voltages applied to

the transistor to turn it on so that it can amplify
the AC signal.

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 Biasing and the 3 States of Operation 1-62

 Active or Linear Region Operation

Base - Emitter junction: forward biased
Base - Collector junction: reverse biased

 Saturation Region Operation

Base - Emitter junction: forward biased
Base - Collector junction: forward biased

 Cutoff Region Operation

Base - Emitter junction:
reverse biased
Base - Collector junction:
reverse biased

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 Biasing Circuits 1-63

 The circuit is one of the simplest transistor circuits is known as

fixed-bias biasing circuit.
 There is a single dc power supply, and the quiescent base current
is established through the resistor RB.
 The coupling capacitor C1
acts as an open circuit to dc,
isolating the signal source
from the base current.
 Typical values of C1 are in
the rage of 1 to 10 μF,
although the actual value
depends on the frequency
range of interest.
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 Base-Emitter Loop 1-64

Using Kirchoff’s voltage law:

+VCC – IBRB – VBE = 0

VCC  VBE
Solving for IB: IB 
RB

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 Collector-Emitter Loop 1-65

Knowing: I C  βI B

Using Kirchoff’s voltage law:

VCE  VCC  I C RC

Because: VCE VC VE

Since VE = 0V, then: VCE  VC

And knowing: VBE VB VE

And VE = 0V, then: VBE VB

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 Example 1-66

Determine the following:

(a) IBQ and ICQ
(b) VCEQ
(c) VB and VC
(d) VBC

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 Transistor Saturation Level 1-67

 When the transistor is operating in the saturation region, it is

conducting at maximum current flow through the transistor.

VCC
ICsat 
RC

VCE  0V

Saturation regions: (a) actual; (b) approximate.

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 Load Line Analysis 1-68

 The end points of the line are: ICsat and VCEcutoff

ICsat:
VCC
IC 
RC VCE  0 V

VCEcutoff:

VCE  VCC
IC  0 mA

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 Emitter-Stabilized Biasing Circuit 1-69

 Adding a resistor to the emitter circuit stabilizes the bias circuit.

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 Base-Emitter Loop 1-70

Applying Kirchoffs voltage law:

VCC  I B RB VBE  I E RE  0

Knowing: I E  (β  1) I B

Combining these two formulas:

VCC  I B RB  VBE  (β  1) I B RE  0
VCC  VBE
Grouping terms and solving for IB: IB 
RB  (β  1)RE

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 Reflecting Impedance Level of RE 1-71

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 Collector-Emitter Loop 1-72

Applying Kirchoff’s voltage law:  I E RE VCE  I C RC VCC  0

Knowing that IE  IC and solving for VCE: VCE VCC  I C ( RC  RE )

Finding VE: VE  I E RE

Finding VC: VC VCE VE

or
VC  VCC  I C RC

Finding VB: VB  VCC  I B RB

or
VB VBE VE
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 Improved Bias Stability 1-73

 Adding RE to the Emitter improves the stability of a

transistor.

 Stability refers to a bias circuit in which the currents

and voltages will remain fairly constant for a wide
range of temperatures and transistor Beta’s ().

 The temperature surrounding the transistor circuit is

not always constant; the Beta () of a transistor is not
a fixed value.

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 Saturation Level 1-74

VCC
ICsat 
RC  RE
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 Load Line Analysis 1-75

The load line end points can be calculated:

VCEcutoff : VCE  VCC

IC  0 mA

VCC
ICsat : IC 
RC  RE VCE  0 V
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 Voltage Divider Biasing Circuit 1-76

This is a very stable bias circuit.

The currents and voltages are almost independent of variations in .

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 Analysis 1-77

Redrawing the input side of the network.

RTh: the voltage source is replaced

by a short-circuit equivalent

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 Analysis 1-78

ETh: the voltage source Vcc is

returned to the network and the
open-circuit Thevenin voltage is
determined.

Inserting the Thevenin

equivalent circuit

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 Analysis 1-79

The Thevenin equivalent circuit

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 Transistor Saturation Level 1-80

VCC
ICsat  ICmax 
RC  RE

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 Load Line Analysis 1-81

The load line end points can be calculated:

VCEcutoff: VCE  VCC

IC  0mA

VCC
ICsat: IC 
RC  RE VCE  0V

© Electronics ECE 1231