13

CHAPTER - 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction

A number of investigators have studied the forced convection

heat transfer from jet arrays. The effect of orientation of jet arrays on

the heat transfer rate from the electronic components has been the

subject of investigation by many researchers. A detailed review of

literature is presented below both the experimental and theoretical

studies carried out on the problem of forced convection heat transfer

from jet arrays.

2.1 Effect of nozzle configuration

Ashforth-Frost and Jambunathan1(1996) performed

experiments to investigate the effect of nozzle geometry on heat

transfer at stagnation point. The tests were conducted for four jet exit

conditions, namely, flat and fully developed velocity profiles for

unconfined and semi-confined jets. They found from the experiments

that the semi-confinement reduces the stagnation point heat transfer

by about ten per cent.

Anja Royne and Christopher2(2006) performed experiments to

investigate the effect of nozzle configuration on the stagnation point,

average heat transfer coefficient and pressure drop for arrays of

submerged jets. The configurations under consideration are four-

nozzles, viz, contoured, short, long, and sharp-edged nozzles, all of

 14

them with the same diameter. They found that the higher average heat

transfer coefficient is more in sharp-edged and contoured nozzles

compared to the straight nozzles. They also observed that the sharp-

edged nozzle is preferable in many cases because it required a lower

total flow rate.

The effect of nozzle geometry on local convective heat transfer to

a confined impinging air jet was experimentally investigated by

Colucci and Viskanta17(1996) for different Reynolds numbers and

nozzle-to-plate spacings. They found that the local heat-transfer

coefficients for confined jets were more sensitive to Reynolds number

and nozzle-to-plate spacing than those for unconfined jets.

Dae Hee Lee et al.29(2004) performed an experimental

investigation to determine the effect of nozzle diameter on heat

transfer and fluid flow for a round turbulent jet impinging on the

surface of a flat plate for a dimensionless distance ranging from 2 to

14 between the nozzle and plate surface. The experiments are

confined to Jet Reynolds numbers of 23,000. In their investigation,

the local Nusselt numbers increased with increase of nozzle diameter

in the stagnation region.

Jungho Lee and Sang-Joon Lee48(2000) studied the effects of

nozzle exit configurations on the heat transfer enhancement of an

axisymmetric impinging orifice jet in the stagnation region, with

different nozzle, viz sharp-edged orifice nozzle, standard-edged orifice

nozzle, and square-edged orifice nozzle. They observed that in the

stagnation region, the sharp-edged orifice jet yields significantly

 15

higher heat transfer rates than either the standard-edged orifice jet or

square-edged orifice jet.

Suresh Garimella and Borisnenaydykh83(1996) made

experimental investigation on the influence of nozzle geometry in the

local heat transfer coefficient distribution on a small, square heat

source for submerged and confined liquid jet impingement. They

observed that the effect of nozzle aspect ratio (length-to-diameter) was

less pronounced as the nozzle to target spacing increased. The jet

Reynolds number did not appear to influence the role of nozzle aspect

ratio on heat transfer.

To provide additional experimental results, Luis and Garimella

59 (2000), conducted studies on the effects of nozzle-inlet chamfering

on pressure drop and local heat transfer distribution on a small heat

source. They compared experimental results obtained with chamfered

nozzles to those obtained with a square-edged (non-chamfered) nozzle

of the same diameter for different Reynolds numbers in the turbulent

regime. They found that the ratio of average heat transfer coefficient to

pressure drop was enhanced by about 39 percent, due to of

chamfering of the nozzle.

Lee et al.58(2004) studied the effect of nozzle diameter on

impinging jet heat transfer and fluid flow. They reported that the local

Nusselt numbers in the region corresponding to 0 ≤ r* ≤ 0.5, increased

with increasing nozzle diameter.

Eiamsa-ard and Promvonge30(2006) experimentally determined

the effects of V-nozzle inserts on heat transfer and friction

 16

characteristics in a tube heated by a uniform heat flux. The results

showed that using a V-nozzle can help increase the heat transfer rate

by about 270 percent over the plain tube. They observed that the

enhancement of efficiency decreases with increasing Reynolds

number.

2.1.1 Effect of Reynolds number

Ertan Baydar31(1999) performed an experimental investigation

on the impinging jet flow for low Reynolds numbers at various

distances between the jet exit and impingement plate. From the

experiments, he found that low nozzle-to-plate spacing creates a

subatmospheric region on the impingement plate. This region

becomes prominent with increase in Reynolds number and reduction

in nozzle-to-plate spacing.

A detailed knowledge of the flow field, the distribution of

turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) and its dissipation rate of a jet were

obtained from experiments of Florian Schwertfirm et al33(2007). They

conducted a direct numerical simulation (DNS) of a confined

impinging jet reactor (CIJR) at low Reynolds Numbers and compared

the experimental results, obtained with particle image velocimetry

(PIV) to the results from a direct numerical simulation. They found

that high intensities of turbulent kinetic energy and dissipation rate in

the impingement zone decrease rapidly towards the exit of the

confined impinging jet reactor.

 17

Wang and Mujumdar97(2005) analyzed five versions of low

Reynolds number k–ε models for the prediction of the heat transfer

under a two dimensional turbulent slot jet . They observed that the

Reynolds number k-ε model performs better than the original ones for

jet impingement configurations.

The experimental results of Dae Hee Lee et al.22 (1999) showed

the effects of the high Reynolds number on the heat transfer from a

hemi spherically convex surface to a round impinging jet. They

observed that the Nusselt number values for the convex surface are

higher than those for the flat surface. The change in the exponent of

the Reynolds number occurs due to the transition of laminar

boundary layer to turbulent boundary layer from stagnation region to

wall jet region.

Cong Tam Nguyen et al.18(1999), conducted experimental

investigation in a confined and submerged impinging jet using nano-

fluid, composed of distilled water and Al2O3–nanoparticle of size 36

nm average diameter. They found that highest surface heat transfer

coefficients can be achieved using an intermediate nozzle-to- surface

distance and a 2.8 percentage particle volume fraction nanofluid.

They also observed that nano fluids with high particle fractions are

not appropriate for the heat transfer enhancement purpose under the

configuration of a confined and submerged impinging jet. They

cautioned that the use of nano-fluids might cause reduction in the

heat transfer coefficient, if not properly used.

 18

Behnia et al.11(1999) conducted numerical study on the heat

transfer and fluid flow phenomena on circular confined and un

confined impinging jet configurations. They found that the

confinement leads to a decrease in the average heat transfer rates, but

the local stagnation heat transfer coefficient remains unchanged. They

also developed a numerical turbulence model based on nozzle-to-

target distance and Reynolds number. The jet-exit profiles, heat

transfer and fluid flow determined using this model on axi-symmetric

impinging jet is in good agreement with the experimental results.

2.1.2 Effect of Peclet number

Dhiman et al.23(2005) performed experiments to study the flow

and heat transfer characteristics of an isolated square cylinder in

cross flow placed symmetrically in a planar slit. They proposed heat

transfer correlations in the steady flow regime for the constant

temperature and constant heat flux conditions. The average Nusselt

number increases monotonically with an increase in the Reynolds

number and Prandtl number.

2.1.3 Effect of Mach number

Matt Goodro et al.67(2007) conducted extensive experimental

investigation and presented, the Mach number effects on the

performance of an array of impinging jets. They found from the

experimental results that the discharge coefficients, local and spatially

averaged Nusselt numbers, and local and spatially average recovery

 19

factors are unique. They also observed that at constant Reynolds

number (60,000) the Mach number (0.74) is varying and also at

constant Mach number the Reynolds number is varying.

2.1.4 Effect of Prandtl number

Leland and Pais60(1999) carried out an experimental

investigation to predict the heat transfer rates for an impinging free-

surface axi-symmetric jet of lubricating oil. The experiments were

conducted for a wide range of parameters like Prandtl numbers, jet

Reynolds numbers, nozzle orifice diameters, and heated surface

diameter. They presented correlations for heat transfer coefficients

and Nusselt numbers.

2.1.5 Effect of heat transfer coefficient

Buddhika N. Hewakandamby12(2009) investigated numerically

the effect of heat transfer coefficient with respect to the oscillation

frequency, geometric parameters and the flows with low Reynolds

number. He observed that the oscillatory flow jets achieved

approximately 100 percentage improvement of heat transfer over

conventional steady flow jets.

Lee et al.64(2005) investigated numerically the local heat

transfer from confined jet flow in the presence of magnetic field. They

measured heat transfer and thermal quantities in the channel at

different Stuart numbers. They developed numerical simulations for

 20

local heat transfer in the confined jet for different Prandtl and

Reynolds numbers in the presence of magnetic fields.

Robinson and Schnitzler82(2007) performed experiments to

obtain data for the heat transfer and pressure drop characteristics of

liquid jet arrays impinging on a heated surface for both confined-

submerged and free-surface flow configurations. They found from the

experimental data that the heat transfer is insensitive to changes in

the jet-to-target spacing when the nozzle is in close proximity to the

heated surface.

Brevet et al.13(2002) made experimental investigation on heat

transfer characteristics of one row of jets impinging on a flat plate.

They conducted experiments for a wide range of parameters such as

the dimensionless impingement distance H/d, injection Reynolds

number Re and dimensionless span wise spacing p/d between two

holes of the row. Local and averaged Nusselt numbers on the flat plate

were measured. They found that the Reynolds number Re increases at

low span wise spacing p/d due to increase in heat transfer rates.

Alan McGuinn et al.4(2007) reported heat transfer profiles,

fluctuating heat transfer distributions and velocity measurements for

an axially symmetric synthetic air jet impinging normal to a heated

surface. The experimental data showed that synthetic jets are more

dependent on turbulence in the jet flow than on mean velocity. At low

nozzle to impingement surface spacings, secondary peaks similar to

those reported in the literature for impinging continuous jet flows can

be seen in the mean heat transfer distributions.

 21

A detailed knowledge of the local convective heat transfer

coefficient for an obliquely impinging circular air jet on a flat plate,

were obtained from experiments of Yan and Saniei103(1997) with

different oblique angles and different Re. They observed that the

maximum heat transfer changes away from the different parameters

on impingement point near the compression side of the wall jet on the

axis of equilibrium. They also observed from experimental results that

the low oblique angle and minimum distance between nozzle-to-plate

spacing is better than larger angle and maximum distance between

nozzle-to-plate spacings.

Baughu and Shimizu14(1998) performed experiments to study

the flow characteristics and heat transfer related to impinging air jet

on flat surface with single jet and multiple jets. They observed that the

jet temperatures and rotating surfaces are strongly affected by single

circular turbulent air jet at ambient temperature impinging on flat

surfaces. They also observed from experimental data that the

maximum stagnation heat transfer obtained at H/d ratio of 6.

2.1.6 Effect of velocity

Danielle et al.24(2005) studied experimentally the effect of

velocity of semi-confined impinging jet over a heated flat plate. They

observed that the level of the logarithmic portion of the velocity of the

wall increases with increasing maximum jet velocity and decreasing

minimum temperature.
 22

The experimental results of Daeseong kim et al.25(1996) has

illustrated the effects of the flow characteristics like, mean velocity

and turbulence intensity profiles, and the effects of the Reynolds

number and offset ratio on heat transfer from a uniformly heated plate

to the wall attaching offset jet (WAOJ). They observed that initial

development of the wall attaching offset jet is strongly affected by the

maximum velocity decay and the suction pressure field in the

recirculation region. They also observed that the maximum velocity

decay in the wall jet region is similar to that of the plane wall jet.

Tadhg et al.93(2007) performed experiments to study the

temporal nature of both the fluid flow and heat transfer with different

Reynolds numbers and non-dimensional surface to jet exit distance.

They presented experimental data in the form of surface heat transfer

and fluid velocity signal spectra, coherence and phase difference

between the corresponding velocity and heat flux signals. They also

found from the experimental results that axial velocity fluctuations

close to the impingement surface have a far greater influence on the

heat transfer than fluctuations parallel to the surface.

Gardon and Akfirat38(1965) presented a method for the

calculation of the variation of local heat-transfer coefficients, velocity

and turbulence distributions produced by impinging submerged jets.

They found that increase in velocity also enhances the local heat

transfer coefficient.

Dong et al26(2007) performed an experimental study to

investigate the feasibility of inverse diffusion flame for impingement

 23

heating. They found that the flame shape and structure are mainly

dependent on the air jet velocity and the ratio of the air and fuel

velocities. They also found that the carbon dioxide and emission index

of carbon dioxide decrease with the increase in Ψ, while nitrogen

oxide, ultra low levels of nitrogen oxide, emission index of nitrogen

oxide, and emission index of ultra low levels of nitrogen oxide increase

with Ψ.

2.1.7 Effect of temperature

Matthieu Fénot et al77(2005) conducted experiments to measure

the rate of heat transfer using thin foil technique during the high

temperature of impinging jet. They observed that the reference

temperature provides Nusselt number distributions which do not

depend on the injection temperature up to 1400 C.

Danielle et al.24(2005) presented experimental data for the

pressure distribution, velocity and temperature fields. The heat

transfer data confirmed the existence of a minimum value of

temperature away from the wall. The existence of a velocity and a

temperature equilibrium layer was also investigated. The results of the

investigation indicate that the level of the logarithmic portion of the

velocity and the temperature of the wall increases with increase in

maximum jet velocity and decrease in minimum temperature.

Ferruh Erdogdu et al.34(2005) illustrated the numerical solution

of the problem of transient time-temperature change during cooling of

slab. From the experiments, they found that the spatial variation of
 24

the heat transfer coefficient (h), especially at lower air velocities is

important to predict transient heat transfer under different

impingement conditions, like d, H/d ratio, air velocity, and nozzle

configurations. They also found that different parameters in the

impingement configuration affect the spatial variation of heat transfer

coefficient. The information on them may be used in further

optimization studies, especially for cooling system designs with

variable air velocity impingement.

2.1.8 Effect of Nusselt number

The experimental results of Hajime Nakamura and Tamotsu

Igarashi45(2004) showed that the Nusselt number in the separated

flow behind a circular cylinder to the cross-flow varies greatly with

Reynolds number. According to them the Nusselt number at the rear

stagnation point increases with Reynolds number in the laminar

shedding regime, and the shear-layer transition regime corresponding

to the shortening of the vortex formation region. The Nusselt number

decreases with Reynolds number in the regime, in which the wake

develops to a complex three-dimensional flow, corresponding to the

lengthening of the vortex formation region. They also derived a

correlation for the overall Nusselt number.

Jorge et al.49(2007)conducted experiments to investigate the

local Nusselt number and local heat transfer coefficient in impinging

jets, show a strong dependence on various parameters like Reynolds

number, rotational rate, impingement height, disk thickness, solid

 25

material properties, and fluid properties. They found from the

experimental data, increase in the Reynolds number with increases in

the local heat transfer coefficient distribution values over the entire

solid–fluid interface. The effect reduces the solid–fluid temperature

and also improves the cooling effectiveness of the process. They also

presented correlation equations for average Nusselt number in terms

of Reynolds number, Ekman number, nozzle to target spacing ratio,

and the thermal conductivity ratio.

2.2 Types of jets used in impingement cooling

Different types of jets have been investigated by various

researchers based on some assumptions in the phenomenon of

impingement cooling. Some of them are discussed below:

2.2.1 Effect of slot jet

The effects of slot jet on the cooling of heated flat plat were

studied by Haydar Eren and Nevin Celik46(2006). Experiments on the

heated flat plate of different angles (90° to 30°) and dimensionless

distance (H/d) were conducted. They found that the minor variations

of local temperatures with respect to dimensionless distance (H/d).

Lin et al.61(1997) has studied experimentally the heat transfer

behavior of a confined slot jet impingement. They estimated the jet

mean velocity and turbulence intensity distributions at nozzle exit.

They found that heat transfer on stagnation, local and average Nusselt

number increases with increase in jet Reynolds number. They also

 26

presented correlations for stagnation and average Nusselt numbers on

the heated target surface.

Yahya Erkan Akansu et al.100(2008) experimentally investigated,

the local heat transfer characteristics of an impinging slot jet on a pre-

heated flat plate. They found that the effects of the inclination angle of

the plate (α) and the spacing between the nozzle exit and the plate

(H/d) on the flow field and heat transfer characteristics in the

Reynolds number range of 2500–7500. They also observed that the

local Nusselt number increases with the increase of Reynolds number.

Narayanan et al.78(2004) conducted an experimental study on

the flow field, surface pressure, and heat transfer rates associated

with transitional and potential-core slot jet impingement. They found

from the experimental results that the turbulence near the surface

prior to impingement and the presence of span wise vortices in the

stagnation region indicated an increase in the turbulence near the

wall. They could be the main factors that enhanced heat transfer rate

from the surface in the transitional jet compared to the potential core

slot jet impingement.

Dipankar Sahoo and Sharif27(2004) developed a numerical

model to predict the flow and heat transfer characteristics in the slot

jet impingement cooling of a constant heat flux surface. They observed

that the flow and thermal fields change with the Richardson number

for a particular set of jet exit Reynolds number and domain aspect

ratio. They also observed that the skin friction coefficient increases at

high Richardson number due to decrease in aspect ratio.

 27

Geunyoung Yang et al.39(1999) conducted experiments to

measure the rate of heat transfer rate under a constant heat flux

condition with different slot nozzles, viz., round shaped nozzle,

rectangular shaped nozzle and 2D contoured nozzle, for a wide range

of nozzle exit Reynolds numbers, and nozzle-to-surface distance. They

found that average heat transfer rates for impingement on the concave

surface are more enhanced than the flat plate due to the effect of

curvature.

Senter and Solliec84(2007) conducted an experimental study for

the flow field topology of a confined turbulent slot air jet impinging

normally on a moving flat surface with an image velocimetry (PIV). The

experiments were conducted for a wide range of parameters such as

nozzle-to-plate spacing, the jet Reynolds numbers and four different

surface-to-jet velocity ratios. They found that the turbulence intensity

at stagnation region increases with an increase in the surface-to-jet

velocity ratio. They also compared their experimental results with

those obtained from RANS-based turbulence models and direct

numerical simulation.

2.2.2 Effect of conical jet

Shuja et al.85(2007) tackled experimentally the problem of flow

structure and heat transfer characteristics in a cylindrical cavity with

conical jet, with an angle of 550. According to them the heat transfer

coefficient is influenced by the cavity depth and diameter. Heat

transfer coefficient also increases towards the cavity edge. They

 28

observed that the velocity in the cavity increases and the stagnation

region moves towards the cavity bottom surface in the case of conical

jets.

2.2.3 Effect of circular jet

Fenot35(2005) has investigated experimentally, the convective

heat transfer on a flat plate with a single circular jet. He found that

the independence of heat transfer coefficients and the effectiveness

from the jet injection temperature within the range of 20 to [Link]

influence of confinement on heat transfer coefficient is weak, but a

great impact on effectiveness.

Jung-Yang San et al.50(2007) measured heat transfer coefficient

with five impinging circular jets. The results showed that the

stagnation Nusselt number of the center jet considerably decreases

with an increase of the jet plate width-to-jet diameter ratio (W/d), but

it appears to have a weak dependence on the jet plate length-to-jet

diameter ratio (L/d).

To provide additional experimental results, Erick A. Siba et

al32(2003) conducted experiments for the flow and heat transfer

characteristics of a turbulent submerged circular air jet impinging on

a horizontal flat surface, when free stream turbulence exceeds 20

percent. They found that the turbulent component of the heat transfer

coefficient in the stagnation region and in the wall-jet region is a

function of the root mean square value of the fluctuating component

of velocity in the bulk flow direction.

 29

Jung-Yang San et al51(1997) conducted an experimental

investigation to determine the local Nusselt number of a confined

circular air jet, vertically impinging on a flat plate. A correlation for

the local Nusselt number and the jet-to-adiabatic wall temperature

difference was developed as a function of surface heat flux, Reynolds

number and surface heating width. From the experimental data they

found that the surface heating width on the impingement plate is a

factor dominating the Nusselt number, for a specific jet hole diameter.

Greater the surface heating width, the lower the Nusselt number. They

also observed that the flow recirculation around the stagnation point,

the surface heat flux might become a factor slightly affecting the

Nusselt number for confined jets.

Astarita and Cardone5(2008) studied experimentally the local

visualizations of the reconstructed thermal maps and quantitative

measurements of the convective heat transfer coefficients over a

rotating disk with a small centered jet impinging. The nozzle exit

diameter, the disk to nozzle distance, the disc angular speed and the

initial jet mass flow rate were changed over wide ranges. They

observed that the Flow visualizations show a strong interaction

between the turbulent jet and the laminar boundary layer over the

rotating disc. They also found that for relatively high laminar disc

Reynolds numbers and intermediate jet Reynolds numbers, the

Nusselt number increases towards the disk limb as a consequence to

the interaction of the turbulent jet with the disc.

 30

Amy and Sharareh7(2004) conducted an experimental study on

the influence of a protruding pedestal on a single circular impinging

air jet on heat transfer rate with different Reynolds numbers , jet exit

diameters and jet exit-to-surface distances. They found that, at

constant Reynolds numbers, the Nusselt number increases due to

increase in jet diameters.

Vadiraj and Prabhu95(2008) conducted experimental and

theoretical investigation for the local heat transfer distribution

between smooth flat surface and impinging air jet from a circular

nozzle. They found that an increase in Reynolds number increases the

heat transfer at all radial locations for a given r/d. They also

presented correlations for the local Nusselt numbers in different

regions.

Goldstein et al.40(1990) investigated experimentally the

convective heat transfer from a heated circular air jet impinging on a

flat surface with different parameters, like the radial distribution of

the recovery factor, the effectiveness, and the local heat transfer

coefficient. They found, from the experimental results, that the

recovery factor and the effectiveness depend on the spacing from jet

exit to the impingement plate, but do not depend on jet Reynolds

number. They also found that the effectiveness does not depend on

the temperature difference between the jet and the ambient. They also

presented correlation for the effectiveness.

Zumbrunnen and Aziz104(1993) performed experiments to

investigate the effect of flow intermittency on convective heat transfer

 31

to a planar water jet impinging on a constant heat flux surface. They

observed enhancement in heat transfer was achieved by periodically

restarting an impinging flow and thereby forcing renewal of the

hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layers. They also presented a

correlation for local heat transfer for steadily impinging jets.

2.2.4 Effect of rectangular jet

Zhou and Sang-Joon Lee105(2007) performed experiments to

obtain, the fluid flow and heat transfer characteristics of a rectangular

air jet impinging on a heated flat plate. They found from the

experiments that the jet Reynolds number, the nozzle-to-plate spacing

and the turbulence intensity have an important influence on the heat

transfer of impinging rectangular jets, especially on the impingement

region. They also derived a correlation for local Nusselt number and

the free-stream turbulence intensity.

Sfeir86(1976) determined the mean velocity and temperature

profiles of rectangular jets with different aspect ratios and nozzle

geometries by hot-wire anemometry. He found from the flow field that

the values of velocity and temperatures are not similar in potential

core, the two-dimensional region and the axi-symmetric region. He

also found that the flows in the two-dimensional region as well as the

transition to axi-symmetry are strong functions of the nozzle

geometry.
 32

2.2.5 Effect of critical heat flux (CHF) on a dielectric

coolant (FC- 77)

Sara et al91(2008) conducted experimental investigation on the

problem of reducing inter-chip temperature difference in forced

convective direct immersion cooling of semiconductor chips. Dielectric

liquid (FC-77) was used, covering Reynolds number from 1000 to

7500. They found from the experimental results that, the

enhancement of heat transfer coefficient is about 17% in the

transitional flow regime.

Garimella and Schoeder92(1993) conducted experiments to

determine the rate of critical heat flux (CHF) during forced-convection

boiling in the presence of dielectric liquid (FC-77) on a chip

protrusion. They found that the higher single-phase heat transfer

coefficients and higher CHF values of the protruded chips are similar

to the flush-mounted chips.

2.2.6 Effect of entropy

Drost and White28(1991) numerically investigated the local

entropy generation in an impinging jet. They found from the numerical

results that the heat transfer across finite temperature differences for

isotropic and Newtonian fluids from the temperature and velocity

fields in a thermal process. They also developed a numerical

procedure for the prediction of local entropy generation rates and

applied that procedure to convective heat transfer associated with a

fluid jet impinging on a heated wall.

 33

2.3 Correlations of impingement cooling heat transfer data

A number of correlations were developed by various investigators

around the world for heat transfer during impingement cooling. Some

of the correlations, due to Metzger et al.68(1974), Jiji and Dagan52

(1988), Nakoryakov et al.79(1978), Faggiani and Grassi36(1990), and

Stevens and Webb88(1991), Brdlik and Savin16(1965) and

Sitharamayya and Raju 87(1969) etc., are presented below.

Metzger et al.68(1974) proposed a correlation based on the

effects of Reynolds number, Prandtl number, and the ratio of the

heated surface diameter to the nozzle diameter on the average Stanton

number at an isothermal impingement surface.

0.074
 0.625  0.513 D  s 
St  2.74 Re d Pr d    (2.1)
    aw 

over the ranges 2.2 X 103 < Red < 138.2 X 103, 3 < Pr < 151, and 1.75
< D/d < 25.1
Jiji and Dagan52(1988) proposed the following correlation based

on free-surface jet impingement of 12.7 mm-square heated surface as

the target and nozzles of diameter 0.5 mm and 1 mm.

Nul  l 
 3.840.008   1 Re d
0.5

d  
0.33
Pr 

Nakoryakov et al.79(1978), Faggiani and Grassi36(1990), and

Stevens and Webb88(1991), proposed a correlation based on the local

Nusselt number at the stagnation point of the impinging jet

 34

0.0336 0.251
S  Ue 
NuO  2.67 Re d    
0.567 0.4
Pr
d   d  (2.3)

Burmeister,15(1983); Ma et al.,74(1988) Proposed the following

correlation based on the wall jet region using least-squares technique

for the experimental data.

(2.4)
 C1 Re di  Ar  C 2 Re L  (1  Ar )
Nu l m l n 1
0.4
Pr d L
whereAr  d i / 4l
2 2

From experimental results m indicate the exponent is found to be 0.5,

C1 and C2 are optimal values which are to match water and FC-77.

Martin70(1977) for the parameter ranges 2 < S/d < 12, 5 < D/d <

15, and 2000 < Red < 400,000, proposed the following correlation:

 d 
 2  4.4  (2.5)
 F Re d  Pr 0.42
d D
Nud  
D   
1  0.2  6   
S d
 d  D  

 Re d 0.55 
0.5

F Re d   2Re d  1 
0.5
Where 
 200 

McMurray et al.71(1966), proposed the following correlation

based on the results of heat transfer measurement in an experiment.

NuO  0.73 Re 0.5 Pr 0.33 (2.6)

Vader et al96(1991), proposed a new correlation based on

stagnation Nusselt number
NuO  0.505 Re 0.5 Pr 0.376 (2.7)

valid in the range 1500 < Re <4x104 and 0.68 < Pr < 0.71
 35

Kendoush54(1998), proposed the following correlation based on

theoretical stagnation heat transfer from calculations

0.5
   Z  
Nu O  0.75Re Pr1.02  0.024   (2.8)
   B  

Where Z/B = distance between nozzle-to-plate spacing

valid in the range 9000 < Re < 4x104, and 0.68 < Pr < 0.71

Ma et al69(1988) proposed a correlation for predicting local

Nusselt number in the following form

1
Nu  1.29 Re 0.52 Pr 3 (2.9)

Sitharamayya and Raju87(1969) proposed a correlation which

includes the ratio between diameter of circular impingement surface

to nozzle diameter and nozzle diameter to diameter of circular

impingement surface diameter.

  d 
2
D 
Nu d  32.49 Re d  0.266  8  Re 0.828   Pr 0.33 (2.10)
0.523

 d   D 
 36

Table 2.1

Detail values of the constant and powers of previous investigators

[Link] Author H/d r/d C m Re rms

1 Zhou and 690- 0.99
2 0 1.32 0.499
Ma 106 (2006) 34466

690- 1.00
2 2 0.505 0.539
34466

5 0 1.27 0.502 1153-

47634 0.99

5 2 0.545 0.524 965-

34451 0.96
2 Robinson and
Schnitzler82
4 1.5 0.344 0.5 6500 0.88
(2004)
3 Chin-Yuan Li
and Suresh 4000-
1-5 0- 5 1.427 0.495 0.96
V.Garimella19 23000
(2001)
4 Mao-Yu Wen
and Kuen- 750-
3-16 1-7 0.442 0.696 0.89
Jang 27000
Jang72(2003)

These experimental relations form a bench mark for verification and

comparison of the present work.
 37

2.4 Impingement heat transfer data for electronic cooling

Moffat and Anderson73(1990) measured heat transfer

coefficients with direct air cooling of the electronic components. The

results showed, that the heat transfer coefficient is a function of the

adiabatic temperature of the component and mean fluid temperature

rise of the electronic components by 20-30 percent or more.

Matteo Fabbri and Vijay K. Dhir75(2005) carried out an

experimental investigation on the optimized heat transfer for high

power electronic cooling by arrays of micro jets. They developed a heat

transfer correlation based on the three independent dimensionless

parameters for the cooling requirements of the electronic component.

Wolf et al.98(1990) performed experiments to find the effects of a

nonuniform velocity profile on the local convection coefficient for a

uniform heat flux surface over a range from 0.24 to 1.47 MW/m2 and

Reynolds numbers from 15,000 to 54,000. They found that the

majority of the heat transfer enhancement is not due to the shape of

the velocity profile but is, instead, a consequence of the higher

turbulence levels in the jet.

Kurt A. Estes and Issam Mudawar55(1995) did the experimental

study on the performances of free jets and sprays in cooling of

electronic component of dimensions 12.7 × 12.7 mm. They observed

that the spray cooling produce higher value of critical heat flux when

compared with jet cooling. They also observed that the individual

spray drops were more effective at securing liquid film contact with
 38

the surface at low sub cooling, which delay critical heat flux relative to

jet cooling with the same flow rate.

Anna Pavlova8(2006) conducted experiments to study the

efficiency of synthetic jet impingement cooling of electronic

components and the mechanisms associated with the removal of heat

from a constant heat flux surface using thermocouples and particle

image velocimetry. They found from the experimental results that

synthetic jet cooling presents a very efficient means of heat removal

from the surface, it is about three times better than continuous jet

cooling at the same Reynolds numbers.

Graham and Ramadhyani41(1996) conducted experimental and

theoretical study on mist jet impingement cooling of small heat

sources with air and liquid jet diameters ranging from 2 mm to 190

µm. The experiments were performed on a square of side

[Link] found from the experimental results that an increase in

temperature of target surface of heated square plate depends on

constant rate of heat flux.

Lee and Vafai62(1999) presented a comparative analysis of jet

impingement and micro channel cooling for high heat flux. The

analysis was done for a wide range of geometries. They observed that

the micro channel cooling is preferable for a small target plate, while

the jet impingement is better for a larger target plate due to increase

in flow rate after the impingement.

 39

Wang et al97(2005) developed an analytic model to predict the

conjugate heat transfer for jet impingement cooling of a

microelectronic components. They observed that the surface

temperature increases with increase in heat flux distribution, surface

temperature and Reynolds number decreases due to small diameter of

the jet.

2.4.1 Effects of heat transfer in a confined jet impingement

Fitzgerald and Garimella37(1997) carried out an experimental

investigation on the Velocity and turbulence measurements in the flow

field of a confined impinging liquid jet. They conducted experiments

on a target plate for a wide range of Reynolds numbers, and nozzle-to-

target plate spacing. According to them, stagnation heat transfer rate

increase with nozzle-to-target plate spacing and nozzle diameter.

Jorge and Muhammad49(2008) performed numerical

investigation on the simulation of conjugate heat transfer during a

semi confined liquid jet impingement on a uniformly heated spinning

solid disk with finite thickness and radius. They found that the local

heat transfer coefficient increases considerably with an increase of

Reynolds number. They also presented empirical correlation for

average Nusselt number in terms of Reynolds number, Ekman

number, dimensionless nozzle-to-target spacing ratio, thermal

conductivity ratio, and confinement plate-to-disk radius ratio

respectively.
 40

Morris and Garimella76(1998) conducted experiments to

investigate the flow fields in the orifice and the confinement region of a

normally impinging, axi-symmetric, confined liquid jet on an orifice-to-

target plate using finite volume method. The rate of heat transfer rate

and pressure drop across the orifice were estimated from turbulence

model involving combinations of flow patterns and k-ε models in the

confinement and separation regions. They found that the results of k-ε

separation and confinement flows are in good agreement with the

experimental results.

Li-Kang Liu et al.63(2004) performed experiments to investigate

transient heat transfer behavior from a horizontally confined ceramic-

based MCM disk with jet impingement. They found that the effect of

jet Reynolds numbers on chip temperature distribution is more

significant than that of H/d ratios and steady state Grashof number.

They also found that the jet Reynolds number increases, with the

dimensionless chip temperature distribution along the radial direction

will become more non-uniform. They derived a correlation equation for

the transient convective heat flux for a confined stationary MCM disk

with jet impingement.

Kadem et al.56(2007) made an experimental and numerical

investigation on simulation of heat transfer in an axi-symmetric

turbulent jet impinging on a flat plate. They analyzed the effect of the

physical parameter (Reynolds number) and the geometrical parameter

(wall dimension and nozzle-wall distance) on heat transfer using with

the k - ε turbulence model. They found that the results of k-ε

 41

turbulence model for the axi-symmetric, incompressible, jet flow are in

good agreement with the experimental results.

2.4.2 Effects of heat transfer in a submerged jet impingement

Garimella and Rice42(1995) conducted experiments to

investigate the local heat transfer from a small heat source to a

normally impinging, axi-symmetric, and submerged liquid jet in

confined configurations. The experiments were conducted for a wide

range of parameters such as nozzle diameter, Reynolds number, and

nozzle-to-heat source spacing. They presented correlation equations

for the stagnation and average Nusselt numbers in terms of Reynolds

number and nozzle-to-heat source spacing.

Gardon and Akfirat38(1965) presented a method for the

calculation of the variation of local heat-transfer coefficients, velocity

and turbulence distributions produced by impinging submerged jets.

They discussed the velocity and local heat transfer characteristics of

submerged jets.

Zhou and Ma 106(2006) carried out an experimental investigation

on the radial heat transfer behavior of impinging submerged circular

jets. They conducted experiments on local heat transfer rate at several

fixed radial locations and different nozzle-to-plate spacings. According

to them, the jet being far from the stagnation point, the coefficient in

the correlation Nu~ Re decreases while the exponent characterizing

the flow pattern of the working liquid increases.

 42

2.4.3 Effects of heat transfer in an inclined jet impingement

Abdlmonem et al.9(2000) performed experiments to study the

effect of the inclination of an impinging two-dimensional air jet on the

heat transfer from a uniformly heated flat plate. They found from the

experimental results that the region of maximum heat transfer shifts

towards the uphill side of the plate. Decreasing the maximum Nusselt

number leads to decrease in inclination angle. They also presented

correlation for local Nusselt number in terms of angle of inclination

relative to nozzle axis, and Reynolds number.

The surface curvature effect on the impinging flow structure and

the heat transfer along a concave and a convex surface obtained from

experiments of Gau and Chung43(1991).They found that an increase

of surface curvature can increase the size of the counter rotating

vortices, which results in further increase of the stagnation point

Nusselt number. They also found that the flow structure in the region

far from the stagnation point is turbulent. The heat transfer

measurements indicate that the local Nusselt number increases with

increase in surface curvature.

 43

2.5 Scope of the present work

The present literature review reviled that there are number of

parameters that can influence the heat transfer rate from the surface

of any electronic component. These parameters include the fluid flow,

geometric parameters like size of the nozzle, geometric shape,

orientation of the jet and surface. Fluid flow parameters include

velocity of the jet, viscosity of the fluid, density and thermal

conductivity. The ratio of distance between the nozzle and the target

surface to diameter of the nozzle has a dominating role on the heat

transfer rate from the target.

 To develop an experimental test facility with which

experiments can be conducted in wide range of geometric

and fluid flow parameters.

 To investigate the effect of the above geometric parameters

on the heat transfer rate.

 To investigate the effect of fluid flow parameters on the heat

dissipation rate from the electronic components and also

consider the effect of shape of the jet and inclination.

 To generate a large body of experimental data base in

connection with impingement cooling.

 To develop heat transfer correlations from the experimental

data generated from the present investigation.

 Finally validate the results and conduct an error analysis

and the results are presented in tabular and graphical form

along with correlations.