Circular motion

“Radial motion” redirects here. It is not to be confused

with radial velocity or rotational speed.

In physics, circular motion is a movement of an object

along the circumference of a circle or rotation along a
circular path. It can be uniform, with constant angular
rate of rotation and constant speed, or non-uniform with a
changing rate of rotation. The rotation around a fixed axis
of a three-dimensional body involves circular motion of
its parts. The equations of motion describe the movement
of the center of mass of a body.
Examples of circular motion include: an artificial satel-
lite orbiting the Earth at constant height, a stone which is
tied to a rope and is being swung in circles, a car turning
through a curve in a race track, an electron moving per-
pendicular to a uniform magnetic field, and a gear turning
inside a mechanism.
Since the object’s velocity vector is constantly changing
direction, the moving object is undergoing acceleration
by a centripetal force in the direction of the center of ro-
Figure 1: Velocity v and acceleration a in uniform circular mo-
tation. Without this acceleration, the object would move tion at angular rate ω; the speed is constant, but the velocity is
in a straight line, according to Newton’s laws of motion. always tangent to the orbit; the acceleration has constant magni-
tude, but always points toward the center of rotation

1 Uniform circular motion

In physics, uniform circular motion describes the mo-

tion of a body traversing a circular path at constant speed.
Since the body describes circular motion, its distance
from the axis of rotation remains constant at all times.
Though the body’s speed is constant, its velocity is not
constant: velocity, a vector quantity, depends on both the
body’s speed and its direction of travel. This changing
velocity indicates the presence of an acceleration; this
centripetal acceleration is of constant magnitude and di-
rected at all times towards the axis of rotation. This accel- Figure 2: The velocity vectors at time t and time t + dt are moved
eration is, in turn, produced by a centripetal force which from the orbit on the left to new positions where their tails coin-
is also constant in magnitude and directed towards the cide, on the right. Because the velocity is fixed in magnitude at
axis of rotation. v = r ω, the velocity vectors also sweep out a circular path at
angular rate ω. As dt → 0, the acceleration vector a becomes
In the case of rotation around a fixed axis of a rigid body perpendicular to v, which means it points toward the center of
that is not negligibly small compared to the radius of the the orbit in the circle on the left. Angle ω dt is the very small
path, each particle of the body describes a uniform circu- angle between the two velocities and tends to zero as dt→ 0
lar motion with the same angular velocity, but with veloc-
ity and acceleration varying with the position with respect
to the axis.

1
2 1 UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION

In the case of uniform circular motion α will be zero.

The acceleration due to change in the direction is:

v2
a = = ω2 r
r
The centripetal and centrifugal force can also be found
out using acceleration:
mv 2
Fc = ma = r
The vector relationships are shown in Figure 1. The axis
Figure 3: (Left) Ball in circular motion – rope provides cen- of rotation is shown as a vector ω perpendicular to the
tripetal force to keep ball in circle (Right) Rope is cut and ball plane of the orbit and with a magnitude ω = dθ / dt. The
continues in straight line with velocity at the time of cutting the direction of ω is chosen using the right-hand rule. With
rope, in accord with Newton’s law of inertia, because centripetal this convention for depicting rotation, the velocity is given
force is no longer there by a vector cross product as

v=ω×r,

which is a vector perpendicular to both ω and r ( t ), tan-

gential to the orbit, and of magnitude ω r. Likewise, the
acceleration is given by

a = ω × v = ω × (ω × r) ,

which is a vector perpendicular to both ω and v ( t ) of

magnitude ω |v| = ω2 r and directed exactly opposite to r
Figure 1: Vector relationships for uniform circular motion; ( t ).[1]
vector ω representing the rotation is normal to the plane of the
orbit. In the simplest case the speed, mass and radius are con-
stant.
Consider a body of one kilogram, moving in a circle of
1.1 Formulas radius one metre, with an angular velocity of one radian
per second.
For motion in a circle of radius r, the circumference of the
circle is C = 2π r. If the period for one rotation is T, the • The speed is one metre per second.
angular rate of rotation, also known as angular velocity,
ω is: • The inward acceleration is one metre per square sec-
ond[v^2/r]

2π dθ • It is subject to a centripetal force of one kilogram

ω= = metre per square second, which is one newton.
T dt
The speed of the object travelling the circle is: • The momentum of the body is one kg·m·s−1 .

• The moment of inertia is one kg·m2 .

2πr
v = = ωr • The angular momentum is one kg·m2 ·s−1 .
T
The angle θ swept out in a time t is: • The kinetic energy is 1/2 joule.

• The circumference of the orbit is 2π (~ 6.283) me-

θ = 2π Tt = ωt tres.

The angular acceleration,α of the particle is: • The period of the motion is 2π seconds per turn.

α = dω
dt • The frequency is (2π)−1 hertz.
1.1 Formulas 3

object and ûR have moved in the direction of ûθ . Hence

the velocity becomes:

d dûR dθ
⃗v = ⃗r(t) = R = R ûθ = Rω ûθ .
dt dt dt
The acceleration of the body can also be broken into ra-
dial and tangential components. The acceleration is the
time derivative of the velocity:

d d
⃗a = dt ⃗
v = dt (R ω ûθ ) .
( )
dω dûθ
=R ûθ + ω .
Figure 4: Polar coordinates for circular trajectory. On the left is dt dt
a unit circle showing the changes d^
uR and d^ uθ in the unit vectors
^
uR and ^ uθ for a small increment dθ in angle θ . The time derivative of ûθ is found the same way as for ûR
. Again, ûθ is a unit vector and its tip traces a unit circle
with an angle that is π/2 + θ. Hence, an increase in angle
1.1.1 In polar coordinates
dθ by ⃗r(t) implies ûθ traces an arc of magnitude dθ, and
as ûθ is orthogonal to ûR , we have:
During circular motion the body moves on a curve that
can be described in polar coordinate system as a fixed
distance R from the center of the orbit taken as origin,
dûθ dθ
oriented at an angle θ (t) from some reference direction. = − ûR = −ω ûR ,
dt dt
See Figure 4. The displacement vector ⃗r is the radial vec-
tor from the origin to the particle location: where a negative sign is necessary to keep ûθ orthogonal
to ûR . (Otherwise, the angle between ûθ and ûR would
decrease with increase in dθ.) See the unit circle at the
⃗r = RûR (t) , left of Figure 4. Consequently the acceleration is:
( dω )
where ûR (t) is the unit vector parallel to the radius vec- ⃗a = R dt ûθ + ω dûθ
dt
tor at time t and pointing away from the origin. It is con-
venient to introduce the unit vector orthogonal to ûR as dω
=R ûθ − ω 2 R ûR .
well, namely ûθ . It is customary to orient ûθ to point in dt
the direction of travel along the orbit.
The centripetal acceleration is the radial component,
The velocity is the time derivative of the displacement:
which is directed radially inward:

d dR dûR
⃗v = ⃗r(t) = ûR + R . ⃗aR = −ω 2 RûR ,
dt dt dt
Because the radius of the circle is constant, the radial while the tangential component changes the magnitude of
component of the velocity is zero. The unit vector ûR the velocity:
has a time-invariant magnitude of unity, so as time varies
its tip always lies on a circle of unit radius, with an angle
θ the same as the angle of ⃗r(t) . If the particle displace- dω dRω d|⃗v |
⃗aθ = R ûθ = ûθ = ûθ .
ment rotates through an angle dθ in time dt, so does ûR , dt dt dt
describing an arc on the unit circle of magnitude dθ. See
the unit circle at the left of Figure 4. Hence:
1.1.2 Using complex numbers

Circular motion can be described using complex num-

dûR dθ
= ûθ , bers. Let the x axis be the real axis and the y axis be
dt dt the imaginary axis. The position of the body can then be
where the direction of the change must be perpendicular given as z , a complex “vector":
to ûR (or, in other words, along ûθ ) because any change
d ûR in the direction of ûR would change the size of ûR .
The sign is positive, because an increase in dθ implies the z = x + iy = R(cos θ + i sin θ) = Reiθ ,
4 2 NON-UNIFORM

where i is the imaginary unit, and 1.2.2 Relativistic circular motion

In this case the three-acceleration vector is perpendicular

θ = θ(t) , to the three-velocity vector,

is the angle of the complex vector with the real axis and
is a function of time t. Since the radius is constant: ⃗u · ⃗a = 0.

and the square of proper acceleration, expressed as a

Ṙ = R̈ = 0 , scalar invariant, the same in all reference frames,

where a dot indicates time differentiation. With this no-

tation the velocity becomes: α2 = γ 4 a2 + γ 6 (⃗u · ⃗a)2 ,

becomes the expression for circular motion,

iθ iθ
d(Re ) d(e ) d(iθ)
v = ż = =R = R(eiθ ) = iRθ̇eiθ = iω·Reiθ = iωz
dt dt dt
α 2 = γ 4 a2 .
and the acceleration becomes:
or, taking the positive square root and using the three-
a = v̇ = iω̇z + iω ż = (iω̇ − ω )z
2 acceleration, we arrive at the proper acceleration for cir-
( ) iθ cular motion:
= iω̇ − ω Re
2

π
= −ω 2 Reiθ + ω̇ei 2 Reiθ . v2
α = γ2 .
r
The first term is opposite in direction to the displacement
vector and the second is perpendicular to it, just like the 1.2.3 Acceleration
earlier results shown before.
Main article: Acceleration

1.2 Discussion
The left-hand circle in Figure 2 is the orbit showing the
velocity vectors at two adjacent times. On the right, these
1.2.1 Velocity
two velocities are moved so their tails coincide. Because
speed is constant, the velocity vectors on the right sweep
Figure 1 illustrates velocity and acceleration vectors for
out a circle as time advances. For a swept angle dθ = ω
uniform motion at four different points in the orbit. Be-
dt the change in v is a vector at right angles to v and of
cause the velocity v is tangent to the circular path, no two
magnitude v dθ, which in turn means that the magnitude
velocities point in the same direction. Although the ob-
of the acceleration is given by
ject has a constant speed, its direction is always changing.
This change in velocity is caused by an acceleration a,
whose magnitude is (like that of the velocity) held con-
dθ v2
stant, but whose direction also is always changing. The a = v = vω =
acceleration points radially inwards (centripetally) and is dt r
perpendicular to the velocity. This acceleration is known
as centripetal acceleration. 2 Non-uniform
For a path of radius r, when an angle θ is swept out, the
distance travelled on the periphery of the orbit is s = rθ. In Non-uniform circular motion an object is moving in
Therefore, the speed of travel around the orbit is a circular path with a varying speed. Since the speed is
changing, there is tangential acceleration in addition to
normal acceleration.
dθ
v=r = rω In non-uniform circular motion the net acceleration (a) is
dt
along direction of Δv which is directed inside circle but
where the angular rate of rotation is ω. (By rearrange- does not pass through its center (see figure). The net ac-
ment, ω = v/r.) Thus, v is a constant, and the velocity celeration may be resolved into two components: tangen-
vector v also rotates with constant magnitude v, at the tial acceleration and normal acceleration also known as
same angular rate ω. the centripetal or radial acceleration. Unlike tangential
 5

can point down in the first place. In the first diagram,

v let’s say the object is a person sitting inside a plane, the
two forces point down only when it reaches the top of the
a a circle. The reason for this is that the normal force is the
aθ sum of the tangential force and centripetal force. The tan-
ω gential force is zero at the top (as no work is performed
aR when the motion is perpendicular to the direction of force
applied. Here weight force is perpendicular to the direc-
tion of motion of the object at the top of the circle) and
centripetal force points down,thus normal force will point
down as well. From a logical standpoint, a person who is
travelling in the plane will be upside down at the top of
the circle. At that moment, the person’s seat is actually
pushing down on the person, which is the normal force.
n mg
n
v
v mg
n
n mg
mg

The reason why the object does not fall down when sub-
acceleration, centripetal acceleration is present in both
jected to only downward forces is a simple one. Think
uniform and non-uniform circular motion.
about what keeps an object up after it is thrown. Once an
In non-uniform circular motion, normal force does not object is thrown into the air, there is only the downward
always point in the opposite direction of weight. Here is force of earth’s gravity that acts on the object. That does
an example with an object traveling in a straight path then not mean that once an object is thrown in the air, it will
loops a loop back into a straight path again. fall instantly. What keeps that object up in the air is its
velocity. The first of Newton’s laws of motion states that
nx an object’s inertia keeps it in motion, and since the object
in the air has a velocity, it will tend to keep moving in that
direction.

n mg 3 Applications
ny Solving applications dealing with non-uniform circular
motion involves force analysis. With uniform circular
motion, the only force acting upon an object traveling in
a circle is the centripetal force. In non-uniform circular
Fc motion, there are additional forces acting on the object
due to a non-zero tangential acceleration. Although there
are additional forces acting upon the object, the sum of
all the forces acting on the object will have to equal to the
This diagram shows the normal force pointing in other centripetal force.
directions rather than opposite to the weight force. The
normal force is actually the sum of the radial and tangen- Fnet = ma
tial forces. The component of weight force is responsi- Fnet = mar
ble for the tangential force here (We have neglected fric- 2
tional force). The radial force (centripetal force) is due Fnet = mv /r
the change in direction of velocity as discussed earlier. Fnet = Fc
In non-uniform circular motion, normal force and weight Radial acceleration is used when calculating the total
may point in the same direction. Both forces can point force. Tangential acceleration is not used in calculating
down, yet the object will remain in a circular path with- total force because it is not responsible for keeping the
out falling straight down. First let’s see why normal force object in a circular path. The only acceleration responsi-
6 6 EXTERNAL LINKS

ble for keeping an object moving in a circle is the radial 6 External links
acceleration. Since the sum of all forces is the centripetal
force, drawing centripetal force into a free body diagram • Physclips: Mechanics with animations and video
is not necessary and usually not recommended. clips from the University of New South Wales
Using Fnet = Fc , we can draw free body diagrams to
• Circular Motion – a chapter from an online textbook
list all the forces acting on an object then set it equal to
Fc . Afterwards, we can solve for what ever is unknown • Circular Motion Lecture – a video lecture on CM
(this can be mass, velocity, radius of curvature, coefficient
of friction, normal force, etc.). For example, the visual
above showing an object at the top of a semicircle would
be expressed as Fc = (n + mg) .
In uniform circular motion, total acceleration of an object
in a circular path is equal to the radial acceleration. Due
to the presence of tangential acceleration in non uniform
circular motion, that does not hold true any more. To find
the total acceleration of an object in non uniform circular,
find the vector sum of the tangential acceleration and the
radial acceleration.
√
a2r + a2t = a
Radial acceleration is still equal to v 2 /r . Tangential ac-
celeration is simply the derivative of the velocity at any
given point: at = dv/dt . This root sum of squares
of separate radial and tangential accelerations is only
correct for circular motion; for general motion within a
plane with polar coordinates (r, θ) , the Coriolis term
ac = 2(dr/dt)(dθ/dt) should be added to at , whereas
radial acceleration then becomes ar = −v 2 /r + d2 r/dt2
.

4 See also
• Angular momentum
• Equations of motion for circular motion
• Example: circular motion
• Fictitious force
• Geostationary orbit
• Geosynchronous orbit
• Pendulum (mathematics)
• Reactive centrifugal force
• Reciprocating motion
• Simple harmonic motion#Uniform circular motion
• Sling (weapon)

5 References
[1] Knudsen, Jens M.; Hjorth, Poul G. (2000). Elements of
Newtonian mechanics: including nonlinear dynamics (3
ed.). Springer. p. 96. ISBN 3-540-67652-X., Chapter
5 page 96