CHAPTER TWO

BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF BEHAVIOR

At the end of this chapter the student is expected to:
􀂃 Relate the physiological mechanisms of the body to mental processes;
􀂃 Discuss the relationship between physiology, mental processes and behavior;

This chapter attempts to answer the following questions.

1. Why do psychologists study the brain and nervous system?
2. What are the basic elements of the nervous system?
3. How does the nervous system communicate electrical and chemical messages from one part
to another?

2.1. Definition and general remark

Sometimes Biological psychology is referred to as physiological psychology or
psychobiology. It studies the relationship between the mind and the body and how one
influences the other. Biopsychologists are professionals who study the ways biological
structures and body functions affect behavior.
In order to understand how the brain exerts control over the different body movements
involved in simple and complex tasks, it is essential to examine the neurons and the ways in
which nerve impulses are transmitted throughout the brain and body.

2.2. Neurons: Neurons are specialized cells that are the basic elements of the nervous system
that carry massages. The most important feature of neurons is their ability to communicate with
other cells. It is estimated that about two billion neurons exist in the brain alone and the number
of neural connections within the brain to be one quadrillion.

The structure of the neurons

In playing the piano, driving a car, or throwing a ball to the basket, different muscles are
involved. The body system sends messages to the muscles and coordinates these messages to
produce successful results. Such messages are passed through specialized cells called
neurons.

a. Dendrites: They are cluster of fibers at one end of a neuron that receives messages
from other neurons.
b. Axon: It is a tube like long extension from the end of a neuron that carries messages
to other cells through the neuron. The length of axons range from several
millimeters to three feet.
c. Terminal buttons: They are small branches at the end of an axon that relay massages
to other cells. Electrical messages travel through neuron beginning with
detection of messages by dendrites, continue into the cell body(nucleus) and
pass down the axon.
d. Myelin sheath: It is the axons protective coating, made of fat and protein. Its function
is to prevent messages from short circulating by insulating the axons.

In certain diseases like multiple sclerosis, the myelin sheath loses its function,
exposing parts of the axon. In this case, there will be a message disturbance between
the brain and muscles and results in the inability to walk, vision disabilities, and general
muscle impairment.
 Chemical substances needed for the nourishment of the cell nucleus move also
in a reverse direction i.e. axons-to-cell body. When vital material is not
transported to the neuron in this reverse direction, the neuron dies from
starvation and the disease amyotrphic lateral sclerosis develops. Similarly,
rabies is caused by the transmission of the rabies virus by reverse flow along
the axon from the terminal buttons. The firing of electrical charges in a neuron
follows an all –or none law. They are either on firing or resting state. When
neurons are off or at resting state, there is one thousandth of a volt (70 milli
volts). When a message arrives, the cell wall in the neuron allows positively
charged ions to rush in at rates as high as 100 million ions per second. The
sudden arrival of positive ions causes the charge to change from negative to
positive in the cell. When the charge reaches a critical level, an electrical
impulse known as an action potential travels down the axon of the neuron.

The speed at which an action potential travels along axon is determined by the
axons size and the thickness of the myelin sheath. Axons with small dendrites
carry impulses at about two miles per hour; longer and thicker ones can have
average speeds of more than 225 miles per hour.

Neurons also differ in their potential capacity to fire impulses. Some neurons
have the potential to fire as many as 1000 times per second. This potential
depends on the intensity of a stimulus.

Example: a strong stimulus such as a bright light or a loud sound leads to a

higher rate of firing than a less intense stimulus does.

Conclusion: our understanding of several primary psychological processes like

sensation, perception, and learning is based on fundamental knowledge of the
structure, operation and function of the neurons.

Synapse: It is the gap between two neurons through which chemical messages
are communicated.

2.3. Neurotransmitters: They are chemicals that carry messages across the synapse to
the dendrites of a receiver neuron. They can be produced in the form of chemical
liquids or gases like nitric oxide.

If a receiving neuron fires and an action potential travels down the axon, it is
excitory message.
If the neuro-transmitters chemical information prevents or decreases the likelihood
of the neuron fire, it is inhibitory message.

The integration of simultaneous messages by the dendrites depends on the number

of messages. If the number of excitory message outweighs the number of inhibitory
ones, the neuron will fire. On the other hand, if the number of inhibitory messages
outweighs the excitory ones, nothing will happen. The neuron will remain in its
resting state. Effective communication across synapse becomes impossible when
receptor neurons are constantly stimulated by neurotransmitter. In this case the
terminal button reabsorbs the neurotransmitter. It is called reuptake.
 The major neurotransmitters are:
1. Acetylcholine (Ach)
􀂃 It is found throughout the nervous system, and involved in our every move.
􀂃 The drug curare used by South American Indians on the tips of poisoned darts
keeps Ach from reaching receptor cells, thereby paralyzing the skeletal muscles
and ultimately producing death by suffocation.
􀂃 Ach is closely related to memory capabilities.
Example: Alzheimer disease is associated with a deficiency in the production of
Ach.

2. Gamma- amino butyric acid (GABA)

􀂃 It is found in the brain and spinal cord
􀂃 It is primarily an inhibitory neuro transmitter.
􀂃 It moderates activities, such as, eating and aggression.
􀂃 The poison Strychnine prevents GABA from carrying out its inhibitory role,
permitting neurons to fire wildly, thereby producing convulsions.
􀂃 Tranquilizers (e.g. Valium) and alcohol are effective because they permit GABA
to operate more effectively.

3. Dopamine (DA)
􀂃 Muscular rigidity and shaking (Parkinson’s syndrome) seems to be caused by a
deficiency of dopamine in the brain.
􀂃 Researchers have hypothesized that schizophrenia and some other severe
mental disturbances are caused by the presence of unusually high levels of
dopamine.

4. Adenosine tri-phosphate (ATP)

􀂃 It is the fuel used by the body to produce energy within cells.
􀂃 Because it works very quickly, some investigators hypothesized that ATP is
essential in the formation of synapses vital to memory.

5. Endorphins
􀂃 They are a family of chemicals similar in structure to painkillers.
􀂃 They are found in large concentration in the brains of people afflicted with
diseases that produce long term severe pain.
􀂃 In addition to pain reduction, endorphins also produce euphoric feelings that
joggers experience.
􀂃 The belief that patients can be relieved from pain due to acupuncture and
placebos can be partly explained by the release of endorphins.

2.4. Major parts of the brain and their relationship to behavior

2.4.1. Major parts of the brain and their function

a. The central core

􀂃 It is similar to that found in all vertebrates
􀂃 Its function is to control eating, sleeping and breathing.
b. The reticular formation
􀂃 It is made up of groups of nerve cells that can immediately activate other parts of the
brain to produce general bodily arousal.
Example: If we are startled by a loud noise the reticular formation prompts us to respond. The
reticular formation as well allows sleeping by guarding us from disturbing background
noises.

c. The cerebellum
􀂃 Its function is to enable us to walk straight and control body balance It constantly
monitors feedback from the muscles to coordinate their placement, movement and
coordination. Drinking too much alcohol affects the activity of the cerebellum, leading the
person to stagger.

a. The thalamus
􀂃 It is a station for messages coming from the eyes, ears, and skin and
communicated upward to higher parts of the brain.
􀂃 It integrates and sorts out information from higher parts of the brain and sends
to the cerebellum and medulla.
b. The hypothalamus
􀂃 It is located just below the thalamus
􀂃 It helps to maintain a balanced internal environment
􀂃 It regulates such behaviors as eating, drinking, sexual behaviors, aggression
and nurturance of off springs.
c. The cerebral cortex
􀂃 It is part of the brain that distinguishes human kind from all other animals.
􀂃 Unique function of the brain, that allows human beings to think evaluate and
make complex judgments are principally located in the cerebral cortex.
􀂃 The three major areas of the cortex are:

1. The motor area

􀂃 This area is responsible for the voluntary movement of particular
parts of the body
􀂃 Every portion of the motor area corresponds to a specific locale
within the body.
Example: If mild electrical stimulation were applied to a particular
portion of the motor area, there would be involuntary
movement in the corresponding part of the body.

2. The sensory area

􀂃 This area includes three regions corresponding to the senses.
􀂃 The somatic sensory area corresponds to touch and pressure
􀂃 The auditory corresponds to sight
􀂃 The visual area corresponds to sound. Raw sensory inputs from the
eyes are transformed into meaningful stimuli.

3. The association areas

􀂃 The association areas are generally considered to be the site for
higher mental processes such as thinking, language, memory and
speech.
Damage to the association areas can result in:
􀂃 Personality changes that affect the ability to make moral
judgments
􀂃 Apraxia: a condition in which an individual is unable to integrate
activities in a rational or logical manner
 Example: a person with apraxia when asked to open a lock with a key
may be unable to do so in response to the request.
􀂃 Aphasia: problem of verbal expression
Example: speech becomes halting, laborious and often
ungrammatical
􀂃 Difficulty in understanding others

2.5. Major components and functions of endocrine systems

Definition: Endocrine system is a chemical communication network that sends messages

through the nervous system via the blood stream and secretes hormones that affect body
growth and functioning.

Major components of the endocrine system are:

􀂃 Pituitary glands;
􀂃 Thyroid glands;
􀂃 Adrenal glands.
Major functions of the endocrine glands are:
􀂃 Regulate metabolism and growth;
􀂃 Regulate absorption of nutrients;
􀂃 Regulate fluid balance and ion concentration;
􀂃 Regulates the body’s response to stress;
􀂃 Regulates sexual characteristics, reproduction, birth and lactation.

Self assessment questions

1. What are neurons?

2. What are neurotransmitters?
3. How does exchange of information take place within the neuron?
4. How do researchers identify the major parts and functioning of the brain?
5. What are the major parts of the brain and what are the behaviors for which each part is
responsible?
6. List down major functions of the endocrine system.
7. Sketch the different parts of the neuron and the brain and label its parts.

Due date: February 16, 2018