Chapter 1
What is logic?
Logic is the study of argument. An argument is not a quarrel or dispute, but an
example of reasoning in which one or more statements are offered as support,
justification, ground, reasons, or evidence for another statement. The statement being
supported is the conclusion of the argument, and the statements that support it are the
premises.
Example:
All humans are mortal. premise
Socrates is human.
Therefore, Socrates is mortal. Conclusion
Example:
All cats have four legs.
A table has four legs.
Therefore, the table is a cat.
Argument
An argument is a series of propositions the complete expression of which is divided into
assumptions and conclusions by an inference indicator.
Argument Components (for an complete expression)
1. Assumptions (from which conclusions are supposed to follow) and
2. Conclusions (that are supposed to follow from the assumptions) distinguished
by
3. Inference Indicators (‘thus’, ‘hence’, therefore’, etc.)
Deductive vs Inductive
An argument is deductive if the premises claim (may not be true) to give
conclusive grounds for the truth of the conclusion or if the premises claim to support the
conclusion with necessity. In other words, deductive arguments are supposed to have
necessarily true conclusion if all the premises were true.
An argument is inductive if it makes the milder claim that its premises support
but do not guarantee its conclusion. Inductive arguments have probably true
conclusions when the premises are true.
Symbolic Logic Student Guide 1
Valid vs Invalid
An argument is valid if the truth of its premises guarantees the truth of its
conclusion; or if the conclusion would necessarily be true on the assumption that all the
premises were true; or if it is impossible for the conclusion to be false and all the
premises true at the same time. If an argument is not valid, it is invalid.
When the reasoning in an argument is valid and all its premises are true, then it
is called sound. Otherwise the argument is unsound. If an argument is sound, then its
conclusion must be true and we would be illogical to disbelieve it.
Example:
If yesterday was Saturday, then today is Sunday
Yesterday was Saturday
Therefore, today is Sunday
If this is a rattlesnake, then this is a poisonous reptile.
This is a poisonous reptile.
Hence, this is a rattlesnake.
If this is a rattlesnake, then this is a poisonous reptile.
This is not a rattlesnake.
Thus, this is not a poisonous reptile.
Symbolic Logic Student Guide 2
Truth of Statements, Validity of Reasoning.
True Premises, False Conclusion
0 Valid Impossible: no valid argument can have true premises and a false conclusion
1 Cats are mammals.
Invalid Dogs are mammals.
Therefore, dogs are cats.
True Premises, True Conclusion
2 Valid Cats are mammals.
Tigers are cats.
Therefore, tigers are mammals.
3 Cats are mammals.
Invalid Tigers are mammals.
Therefore, tigers are cats.
False Premises, False Conclusion
4 Valid Dogs are cats.
Cats are bird.
Therefore, dogs are birds.
5 Cats are birds.
Invalid Dogs are birds.
Therefore, dogs are cats.
False Premises, True Conclusion
6 Valid Cats are birds.
Birds are mammals.
Therefore, cats are mammals.
7 Cats are birds.
Invalid Tigers are birds.
Therefore, tigers are cats.
The seven sample arguments above help us establish the following general principles:
• True premises do not guarantee validity (#1 and #3)
• A true conclusion does not guarantee validity (#3 and 7)
• True premises and a true conclusion together do not guarantee validity. (#3)
• Valid reasoning does not guarantee a true conclusion. (#4)
• False premises do not guarantee invalidity. (#4 and #6)
• A false conclusion does not guarantee invalidity. (#4)
• False premises and a false conclusion together do not guarantee invalidity.
(#4)
• Invalid reasoning does not guarantee a false conclusion. (#3 and #5)
Summary of results:
Premises Conclusion Validity
T T ?
T F Invalid
F T ?
F F ?
Symbolic Logic Student Guide 3
In Class Activity:
The following arguments are deductive. Determine whether each is valid or invalid.
1) Since Moby Dick was written by Shakespeare, and Moby Dick is a science fiction
novel, it follows that Shakespeare wrote a science fiction novel.
2) The longest river in South America is the Amazon, and the Amazon flows
through Brazil. Therefore, the longest river in South America flows through
Brazil.
3) All leopards with lungs are carnivores. Therefore, all leopards are carnivores.
4) Since some fruits are green, and some fruits are apples, it follows that some
fruits are green apples.
5) If you drink either coffee or tea, you can stay alert while solving logic problems.
You cannot drink coffee. If you are going to stay alert while solving logic
problems, you must drink tea.
Answer True or False
1) Some arguments, while not completely valid, are almost valid.
2) A valid argument may have a false premise and a false conclusion.
3) A valid argument may have a false premise and a true conclusion.
4) A sound argument may be invalid.
5) If a deductive argument has true premises and a false conclusion, it is
necessarily invalid.
Symbolic Logic Student Guide 4
