Pennsylvania Building Officials Conference
& Pennsylvania Fire Code Officials
State College, PA – September 18, 2015
Safety Considerations for
Photovoltaic Systems
Ron Celentano of Celentano Energy Services (CES)
also representing
PASEIA/MSEIA
Ron Celentano - Solar Industry Consultant – Design; Project Oversight; Installation; Inspection;
Technical Training & Support; Policy Issues; Interconnection/Net Metering, SRECs;
Pres. Of Pennsylvania Solar Energy Industries Assoc.(PASEIA); VP of MSEIA
215-836-9958; CelentanoR@[Link]
Safety Considerations for
Photovoltaic Systems
About how in the “dead of night” solar panels can deliver quite a jolt. The
importance of recalculating roof loads and capabilities start this
discussion.
• Recognizing and using electrical disconnect mechanisms
• “Will it hold it?” Recognizing the unseen impacts of retrofit projects
Cumulative Solar PV Installed in the World
As of End of 2014
International Energy Agency’s (IEA) Photovoltaic Power Systems Programme (PVPS)
Solar PV Installed in the US
2014: 6,201 MW Installed
Solar PV Installed in the US – Top 10 States
Total (End of 2014): 18,280 MW
Pennsylvania: ~ 220 MW by June, 2015
~220 MW; 7850 Systems
Photovoltaic
Applications
Commercial
Street Lighting
Residential
Photovoltaic
Applications
Commercial
Car Port
3 MW Project - Fairless Hills, PA
Utility Scale
SunTechnics / Conergy
Fixed Tilt vs. Tracking the Sun
Fixed Tilt Array
2-Axis Tracking Array
1-Axis Tracking Array
Photovoltaic
Applications-Building Integrated
Photovoltaic
Applications-Building Integrated – Solar Shingles
Photovoltaic
Applications-Building Integrated
Applications-BIPV – Solar Roofing Tiles
Solar Roofing Systems (Philadelphia)
Applications-BIPV – Solar Roofing Tiles
Solar Roofing Systems (Corona, CA)
Demo Project – Solar Tile vs Conventional PV
30 Solar Roofing Tiles – 450 W
9 BP Solar 350 Polycrystalline Modules – 450 W
Applications-Building Integrated PV – Glazing
Uni-Solar – Peel & Stick
700 kW (Thin Film)
SolarSave Roofing Membranes
PV Systems
PV Systems
in SE PA
in SE PA
PV Systems in SE PA
PV Systems in SE PA
PV Systems in SE PA
Photovoltaic (Solar Electric)
Technologies
Single Crystalline
(Monocrystalline) Amorphous Silicon
Polycrystalline
(Multicrystalline)
Typical Crystalline Cell Module
Solar Cell Solar Array
Solar Panel or Module
Various Configurations (History)
PV Module Specs
Rated Power (watts)
Maximum Power Voltage (Vmp)
Maximum Power Current (Imp)
Open Circuit Voltage (Voc)
Short Circuit Current (Isc)
Short Circuit Current
Isc = 8.81 A
Maximum Power Point
(305 watts @ Vmp, Imp)
Imp = 8.33 A
36.6 V 45.5 V
Weather Impacts on PV
Performance
Irradiance Current (amps) Temperature Voltage
Power (Watts) = Volts x Amps
Based on the NABCEP Study Guide
PV IV Curve ([Link])
Current Irradiance
Standard Testing
Temperature
Increased Isc
1200 W/m2 at 25oC
Approximately 20%
Rated Isc = 3.5 A 1000 W/m2 at 25oC
Decreased Isc 800 W/m2 at 25oC
Approximately 20% Peak Pow er
Points
Voltage
10 VDC 16 VDC Voc = 21 VDC
Battery Voltage Range
10/29/03 INSP-16
Irradiance and Temperature Readings
Pyranometer
or
Radiometer – Estimates
Cell Temperature
Temp. Factor = 1 + ((cell temp (C) – 25 C) x Temp Coeff for Pmax
Typically, Temp Coeff is about 0.5%/C; so above Temp Factor = 1.07
Irradiance Meter
Checking Performance
Nominal PV Capacity (STC) vs Actual Power Output
Nominal Capacity or Rated Power @ Standard Testing Conditions (STC):
- 1000 watts/meter2
- 25 oC Cell Temperature
- 1.5 air mass
Inverter output power = 2000 x 0.7 x 0.9 x 0.885 x 0.97 x 0.94 = 1017 watts
STC array power
700 W/m2 factor (700/1000)
Mismatch & dust factor
Derating Factors –
These can be Array temperature factor
incorporated in
PVWATTS
simulations to Wiring efficiency factor
estimated solar
electric generation Inverter efficiency factor
Based on the NABCEP Study Guide
Grid-Tie PV
Simple Line Diagram
Interconnection through a backfeed breaker - NEC 2008, allows up to 120% rating of
load center for both commercial and residential for; otherwise, needs to be a supply
side connection or line side tap (for example, no more than a 7.68 kW inverter (40
Amp) should backfeed through a 200 Amp service load center, unless main breaker
is downsized accordingly). MUST consider this for expanding PV system capacity.
Location of Solar PV Backfeed Breaker
Larger PV System with Line Side Connection
Inverters
DC Disconnect
/Combiner Switch
Inverter Combiner Panel
(AC Disco)
Utility Isolation Switch
(AC Disco - Outside)
Another Large Residential System (BOS)
DC Disconnect /Combiner Switches, Inverters, Inverter Combiner Panel (AC Disco),
and Solar Generation Meter
More Examples of Balance of Systems
Battery Back Inverter – A.K.A. Bi-Modal Inverter
(DC Coupled System)
AC Coupled System w/UPS – Wiring Diagram
5.89 kW PV System; Only 4.35 kW
Configured on Backup System
23 – 256 mods w/ micro inverters; only
17 mods configued to back up PV system
w/ 4.4 kW Magnum inverter and 200 Ahr
battery capacity
Combiner Box, J-Box and DC Disconnect Configurations
Fused Combiner Box For PV Source Circuits
Inverter Integrated DC Disconnect
J-Box For Wire Transition (USE-2 to THWN-2)
Combiner and DC Disconnect Configurations
Combiner and DC Disconnect Configurations
Combiner and DC Disconnect Configurations
Utility Isolation Switch in PA
CB or pull-out type discos Acceptable Utility Isolation Switch
not acceptable
From the PUC Interconnection
Regulations and found in all PA
Utilities Interconnection Procedures:
“Small generator facilities shall be
capable of being isolated from the
EDC by means of a lockable, visible-
break isolation device accessible by
the EDC.”
Note: PPL waives this requirement
for Level 1 (10 kW or less) systems
Micro-Inverters And DC Optimizers
Shading Impacts
2,798 Watts
2,358 Watts
15.7% less power production due to
shading vs fully exposed modules
1000
900
800
700
600
Watts output
500
400
300
200
100
12:01pm 0
9:07 AM 10:04 AM 11:02 AM 12:00 PM 12:57 PM 1:55 PM 2:52 PM 12:09pm
Time of day
Electric Shock Risks – Solar PV
About how in the “dead of night” solar panels can deliver quite a jolt…..
Recognizing and using electrical disconnect mechanisms
Electric Shock Risks – Solar PV
Firefighter Safety and Photovoltaic Installations Research Project
Underwriters Laboratory, November 29, 2011.
The research included experiments to develop empirical data for
understanding the magnitude of these hazards and unsafe conditions,
including the following:
• Assessment of PV power using a variety of light sources;
• Shock hazard due to severing of conductors and assessment of
potential shock hazard from damaged PV modules and systems;
• Shock hazard due to the presence of water and PV power during
suppression activities; and
• Shock hazard due to direct contact with energized components
during firefighting operations, emergency disconnect and disruption
techniques.
Note: This and the next three slides show excerpts taken from an article in
[Link] , written by one of the authors of this study, Robert Backstrom
Electric Shock Risks – Solar PV
In order to aid firefighters’ understanding of the significance of the results of this
project, hazards were quantified into four levels using milliAmpere (mA), the
base metric unit for electric current. Safe levels are defined as 0-2 mA,
“perception” levels are defined as 2.1-40 mA, “lock on” levels are defined as
40.1-240 mA, and electrocution can result at levels greater than 240 mA.
Assessment with light sources
• Artificial light from fire trucks that used scene lighting during a nighttime fire
event;
• Light from an exposure fire; and
• Light from a low ambient source, such as a full moon.
The results of the experiment indicate that when illuminated by artificial light
sources, such as fire department light trucks or an exposure fire, PV systems
are capable of producing electrical power sufficient to cause a lock-on hazard.
Electric Shock Risks – Solar PV
Severing of conductors
The results of the experiments indicate that a firefighter may be subjected to an
electrical shock hazard due to damaged PV system components, as live
electrical parts may become exposed. Some of this damage may occur during
the fire or overhaul operations.
Suppression techniques
These experiments were conducted using different nozzles, water pressure,
conductivity, voltages and distances. The electric shock hazard due to
application of water is dependent on voltage, water conductivity, distance and
spray pattern.
The research found that slight adjustments in water stream during firefighting
and distance impacted the risk of shock. 20 feet was a safe distance.
Electric Shock Risks – Solar PV
Effect of direct contact
Results from the experiments indicate that severely damaged PV arrays are
capable of producing hazardous conditions ranging from perception to
electrocution. Damage to the array may result in the creation of new and
unexpected circuit paths. These paths may include both array components
(such as module frames, mounting racks and conduits) and building
components (such as metal roofs, flashings and gutters).
Emergency disconnect
Turning off an array is not as simple as opening a disconnect switch. Depending
on the individual system, there may be multiple circuits wired together to a
common point, such as a combiner box. All circuits supplying power to this point
must be interrupted to partially de-energize the system. As long as the array is
illuminated, parts of the system will remain energized.
Tarps or foam may be used to cover the modules in the array to block light.
Tarps offer varying degrees of effectiveness to interrupt the generation of power
from a PV array. The research did find that heavy, densely woven fabric and
dark plastic films reduce the power from PV systems to near zero.
Resources for Municipalities and Code Officials
[Link]/
This very popular course now reflects the
National Electric Codes through 2014 and
includes a new lesson on the International
Fire Code, with building and fire safety
information related to residential PV
systems. The International Association of
Electrical Inspectors continues to offer
expertise and continuing education units
for this course.
A set of three self-directed online modules
is aimed at supporting instructors
interested in teaching solar content online.
The modules teach users effective
instructional strategies and implementation
for online or hybrid instruction.
Resources for Municipalities and Code Officials
Solar America Board of Codes & Standards
Expedited Permitting Guide
[Link]
[Link]/about/publications/
reports/expedited-permit/[Link]
PennFuture
Zoning and Permitting Guidebook
[Link]/sunshot/
Mayor’s Office of Sustainability
City of Philadelphia
Guidebook for Solar Photovoltaic
Projects in Philadelphia
[Link]/green/[Link]
DVRPC
Renewable Energy Ordinance
Framework – Solar PV
Pending
DVRPC’s Solar Ready II
U.S. Dept. of Energy - SunShot Solar II Program
The Delaware Valley Regional Planning Commission (DVRPC) is dedicated to uniting the
region’s elected officials, planning professionals, and the public with a common vision of
making a great region even greater. DVRPC serves a region of nine counties: Bucks,
Chester, Delaware, Montgomery, and Philadelphia in Pennsylvania; and Burlington, Camden,
Gloucester, and Mercer in New Jersey.
Promote best management practices for streamlined and
standardized solar regulatory practices at the municipal level
Solar Ready II will work with municipalities and stakeholders to:
• Identify existing conditions and barriers to solar photovoltaic (PV)
adoption
• Develop and implement a plan to reduce soft costs of solar PV
• Provide free "light" technical assistance and training on solar PV
best management practices
DVRPC Renewable Energy Ordinance Framework –
Solar PV
Setbacks for PV
Setbacks for PV
2012 IFC
Setbacks for PV
Alternate – State of Oregon
Setbacks for PV
Alternate – State of Oregon
Structural Integrity
“Will it hold it?” Recognizing the unseen
impacts of retrofit projects
Wind Loading – Roof Mounted Systems
Calculating Uplift Forces
Uplift forces during windy conditions may reach 50 lbs/ft2 or more. This
would be considered velocity pressure based on high winds in a local
region (for example, the velocity pressure of 12.5 lbs/sqft for eastern
Montgomery County at 70 mph). By assuming a very high velocity
pressure in the calculation inherently assumes a corresponding safety
factor.
Therefore, calculations should be done for lag-bolted roof mounted PV
arrays to ensure they can withstand the withdrawal load;
After calculating the withdrawal load, minimum lag bolt length can be
determined, knowing its diameter and the type of wood its penetrating.
Calculating Uplift Forces
Simple Example
Assume:
- Uplift force to be 40 lbs/ft2;
- 12 modules in array; each module = 10 ft2 or 120 ft2 for the array
- 10 mounting feet lag bolted into Douglas Fir
Determine uplift forces:
- Module: 40 lbs of uplift per sq. ft. x 10 sq. ft. = 400 lbs
- Array: 400 lbs x 12 modules = 4,800 lbs
- Mounting Point: 4,800 lbs / 10 mounting feet = 480 lbs per
mounting foot
Calculating Uplift Forces
Simple Example
Lag Bolt Calculation
- 480 pounds uplift force per attachment point
- Asphalt shingle roof
- Douglas Fir roof framing
- Assumed 5/16” diameter lag bolts are used
How long do they need to be?
Allowable withdrawal loads for lag screws in seasoned wood, pounds per inch of penetration of
threaded part
Source: [Link]
Calculating Uplift Forces
Simple Example
Lag Bolt Calculation
- Minimum length of thread on a lag bolt that needs to penetrate the wood
480 lbs ÷ 274 lbs/inch = 1.75 inches
- Assume combined thickness of mounting bracket, shingles, and roof
membrane is ¾ inches;
Minimum Lag Bolt Length = 1.75” + 0.75” = 2.75 inches
Also see:
- Mounting and Mechanical Design NABCEP Study Guide V4.2
- Pitched-Roof PV Mounting SolarPro 3.2
Confirming the Strength of Residential
Roof Structures for Solar Installations
Sandia National Laboratories (Sandia) conducted a first-of-its-kind study to stress
wood rooftop structures to failure. The research team used a series of tests to collect
actual rooftop load capacity data and compare it to the perceived load-carrying
capacity in building codes.
Study results demonstrate that conservatism in the existing building code and the
engineering analysis methodology significantly underestimates the actual load-
carrying capacity of residential roof structures.
For all sample configurations evaluated, empirical testing revealed a greater ultimate
capacity than the prescribed allowable capacity. On average, rafter based tests
demonstrated a 330% excess load-bearing capacity, as compared to values computed
in the National Design Standard, while composite action increased strength by as
much as 74%.
Confirming the Strength of Residential
Roof Structures for Solar Installations
Empirically Derived Strength of Residential Roof Structures for Solar Installations
SANDIA REPORT
SAND2014-20600
Unlimited Release
Printed December 2014
Structural Code Considerations for Solar Rooftop Installations
SANDIA REPORT
SAND2014-20601
Unlimited Release
Printed December 2014
Reducing Soft Costs of Rooftop Solar Installations by Demonstrating Structural Strength
(Summary)
[Link]
rooftop-strength-for-pv/
[Link]/workforce-education/solar-instructor-training-network/trainer-resources/seminar-series/
Are structural engineering analyses a requirement for PV permits in your area? Are they required even on newer
construction? Do you ever wonder whether this step is really necessary?
The rooftop solar PV permitting process varies greatly, even between neighboring cities. Inconsistencies
between jurisdictions can cause difficulties for solar installers who work across boundaries, adding sizable
permitting costs and delays that may not be required in neighboring jurisdictions.
To address this issue, Sandia National Laboratories conducted a series of tests funded by the U.S. Department of
Energy's SunShot Initiative to evaluate the structural behavior of common residential roof structures. The effort
involved a wide range of destructive tests on numerous scaled wood structures to produce and capture data on
actual rooftop load capacity.
Proposed Inspection Guidelines
Solar PV system inspection should include a checklist covering the
following – at a minimum:
• PV Arrays (Mechanical Attachment , Grounding , Conductors; Standards)
• Inverters - Grid-tied and Stand-alone (Standards)
• Overcurrent Protection (breakers / fuses)
• Electrical Connections
• Disconnects
• Charge Controllers & Batteries (if applicable)
• Grounding
• Conductors
The above should be NEC compliant and meet any other required
standard, such as IEEE, PJM and building codes
Inspection Issues
• COMPLY WITH National Electric Code (NEC)
• Tie up all wires onto PV array racks and/or frames, particularly on roof
installations
• Use the proper type wire and wire size throughout the PV installation
• Always include a DC disconnect and AC disconnect in close proximity
of the inverter
• In addition to grounding everything, include a direct ground between
the inverter (grounding bar or terminal) and the grounding bar in the
main service panel
• Use insulated bushings to protect wires when using metal fittings
• Properly ground metal conduit if it carries wire with a voltage 250 volts
or higher
• Do not wire more than two PV strings of modules in parallel without
including a properly sized fuse
• Properly label and mark all components; including NEC labeling for DC
and AC disconnects
Inspection Issues
Inspection Issues
Inspection Issues
Inspection Issues
DC Fused Disconnect – Fuses Must Be DC Rated AND With the Proper Voltage
Limit (these are incorrect fuses since they are only rated at 125 VDC for a PV system
over 300 VDC)
Inspection Issues
Lower Rail Positioned Too High Underneath Modules: No More
Than 25% of Module Should Overhang Over Rail
Inspection Issues
Inspection Issues
Grounding Bushing Required When Voltage is Above 250 and Metal Conduit is Attached to the
Larger Knockout, Which Could Break Away From the Box (the metal conduit would then not be
grounded).
Inspection Issues
