Geography of Food

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sailors.”
— African proverb

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Tested Topics
Introduction to food consumption, production and distribution
• Agricultural production

Trends in food consumption, production and distribution since the 1960s

• Variations in food consumption between Developed and Less Developed
Countries
- Factors affecting trends in food accessibility and consumption

• Variations in food production and distribution

- Factors affecting food production/distribution
a) physical
b) economic
c) technology
d) social
e) political

Balancing food consumption and food production

• Population theories – Malthus vs Boserup
• Technology

Globalization of food consumption, production and distribution

• Food technology & Case Studies

– Green Revolution
– Blue Revolution
– High-tech farming
– Hydroponics, Aeroponics,
– Organic farming
– Genetic Modified

• Food safety & Case Studies

– Diseases associated with poultry, pigs, cow, fish
– Precautionary measures

• Food security and insecurity & Case Studies

– World food crisis
– Global imbalance
– Food aid

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Copyright © 2010 Liang QiYun
SBQs:

LORMs Essays:

1. Read question
2. Highlight keywords/things to focus on.
3. Write
i. Give your stand. – I agree to a large/small extent. *Must
take a stand; never sit on the fence. Saying “I agree to a
certain extent” is akin to committing suicide.
ii. State point (for your stand).
 Point must be related to the question.
iii. State evidence.
 Evidence must be specific. Specific case studies are
extremely useful.
iv. State link
 Link must show how your point is related to the
question. Cannot simply restate your point. At the
back of the link, it’s advisable to put “hence, [your
point] causes/leads to/etc [insert keywords from the
question]”
v. State second point (for your stand)
vi. Repeat steps iii to iv.
vii. State third point (against your stand)
viii. Repeat steps iii to iv.
ix. Write conclusion.
 Restate your stand and the question’s keywords.
 Briefly restate your points.
 Link back:  say that your points show how [insert
keywords from the question].
Page 3 of 17
Copyright © 2010 Liang QiYun
Different types of Agriculture

• Pastoral farming
o Aimed at producing livestock
o Incentives to maintain land
o Sedentary farming
o Large land size
• Nomadic Farming
o Wandering but controlled movement of livestock
o Herding dogs
o Extensive system of land use
• Cattle Ranching
o Involves horses, cattle and over 1000 acres of land
• Extensive Farming
o Small inputs of labour, fertilizer and capital relative to
land area being farmed (per unit area of land)
o Uses huge areas of land
o High amounts of machinery per unit area of land, as
compared to traditional farming
o More affordable as it is further from the markets
• Commercial Farming
o Produces crops for sale, intended for widespread
distribution to wholesale retailers
o Modern farming, high-tech, uses a lot of machines
o Less labour, innovative methods
o Managed like a factory
• Market gardening
o Small-scale
o Fruits, vegetables, flowers, and other cash crops
o Sold directly to purchasers
o Nearer to the markets
o Perishable foods
o Commercialized
o Found at the edge of cities
• Intensive farming
o High-input of capital, labour, pesticides and fertilizers
relative to the area of land used (per unit area of land)
• Plantation farming
o Widespread disturbance/modification to natural
landscape
o Cultivation of economically desirable species of plants
o Export-oriented
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Copyright © 2010 Liang QiYun
 • Mixed Farming
• Wet Rice – subsistence
• Shifting Cultivation
o Land cultivated temporarily then abandoned
o Small-scale, low-tech.
o Crops are easy to grow (e.g. corn, sweet potato,
tapioca, beans millet, tapioca, yams etc
• Agribusiness

Trends in food consumption, production and distribution since the 1960s

• Variations in food consumption between Developed and Less Developed

Countries
o Amount of food consumed:
 MEDCs consume more than LEDCs, but LEDCs are
closing the gap.
//Bet. 1997 and 1999, MEDCs consumed 3380
calories while LEDCs consumed 2681 calories, with
most of the increase in East Asian countries like
China.
 Rate of increase in food consumption is greater in
LEDCS as compared to the MEDCs.
//By year 2030, LEDCs would have increased food
consumption by almost 14 percent to reach 3050
calories while the rate for MEDCs is 3.5 percent to
reach 3500 calories.
o Food preferences:
 MEDCs: more meat, fish, fruits, vegetables and high-
value food are consumed, as compared to cereals,
roots and tubers
 LEDCs: Slight decline in consumption of rice, but
consumption of carbohydrate-rich foods like wheat is
increasing. Significant increases in the consumption
of vegetable oils too.

- Factors affecting trends in food accessibility and consumption

o Food accessibility:
o Food consumption:

•Variations in food production and distribution

- Factors affecting food production/distribution
Page 5 of 17
Copyright © 2010 Liang QiYun
a) physical
 Weather (Natural disasters, etc)
 Climate
 Terrain & type of soil. E.g. mountains
unsuitable for growing crops. Flood plains and
deltas preferred. Wet rice requires flooded
fields on level lowlands or terraced hill-slopes
that can retain water.

b) economic
 Capital
• Farmers can invest in advanced
technology (e.g. high-yielding seeds,
fertilizers, pesticides, machines) to
increase yields.

c) technology
 Machines make work more efficient
 Transport – good transport system facilitates
movement of agriculture inputs to the farms,
and outputs to the markets. Perishables can be
transported and arrive fresh at the markets
 R&D produces high-yielding seeds, quick-
maturing crops, and plants which are more
resistant to pests and diseases. This increases
yields.

d) social
 Disrupt food production
• E.g. Rural urban migration results lack of
young able-bodied men working on the
farms.
 Food Stability
• Food stability — MEDCs attain food
stability and security by stockpiling and if
there is a shortage, these stock piles will
help to maintain supply and prices.
LEDCs, on the other hand, face • Large-
scale natural disasters e.g. drought or
floods which can significantly reduce the
amount of food produced.
• Food instability — low surplus of food
stored from previous seasons to alleviate

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Copyright © 2010 Liang QiYun
 food shortage; inability to purchase
additional food supplies during extreme
food shortages.

e) political
 Government can influence farming thru their
policies and assistance. – promote certain
types of farming (e.g. S’pore promotes high-
tech farming via developing agrotech parks &
provides infrastructure & other supporting
services as well as other attractive tax and
financial incentives.
 Corrupt government may disrupt and affect
food distribution by seizing control of the
farmers’ crops.

Balancing food consumption and food production

• Population theories – Malthus vs Boserup

• Technology

Globalization of food consumption, production and distribution

Food technology & Case Studies

 Green Revolution
o Movement to increase yields of crops using New Crop
Cultivators, Irrigation, Fertilizers, Pesticides, Herbicides,
Mechanization
o Purposed to eliminate hunger by increasing crop
yield/crop performance (E.g. IR8 “Miracle Rice”
matures early, yielded 10 tons of rice per hectare
under optimal conditions with fertilizers and pesticides,
10 times the yield of traditional rice. Rice yields in India
rose to 6 tons per hectare in 1990s from 2 tons per
hectare in 1960s. In the 1970s, rice cost about $550 a
ton; in 2001, it cost under $200 a ton. India became
one of the world's most successful rice producers, and
is now a major rice exporter, shipping nearly 4.5 million
tons in 2006.)

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o Advantages: Higher output/Higher yields. (E.g.
Indonesia used to import 25% of rice, but after planting
HYV of rice, became an exporter of rice in the 1980s) ♦
Higher standard of living - [Check farmers in Punjab].
o Disadvantages: Higher cost of production – HYV rice
seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation facilities, fuel for
machines all cost money. Adoption of new technology
will raise the cost of rice production. ♦ Widening
income gap – Rich farmers can afford the more
expensive, new tech, while poorer farmers cannot and
their yields remain low/decrease. ♦ Over-irrigation ♦
Pollution ♦ Occurrence of diseases and pests – esp
when there’re only one or two varieties planted in one
field, cos when the disease/pest attacks, there’s
massive destruction. (E.g. when a disease attacked an
area planted with a HYV of rice seeds in Central Luzon,
Philippines 1971, around 35% of the rice crop was
destroyed) ♦
o Increasing production: High-Yielding Varieties ♦
Fertilizers and Pesticides used (HYVs require more
fertilizers than traditional seeds to grow well) ♦
Irrigation Facilities ♦ Mechanization of farm activities ♦
Farm co-operatives ♦ Land consolidation.

Case Study:
Green Revo in India
• India – 982 million people in 1998, with 65%
depending on rice as staple food.
• Many people go hungry.
•  Need to increase food in terms of quality and
quantity.
• Many rice farmers live in poverty.  raise their
output = raise their standard of living + improve
their health.
• Double/Triple-cropping
• Green Revo in Punjab, India – Successful
o HYVs of rice seeds are used extensively, cos
the progressive farmers use them willingly.
o > 75% of the farms are irrigated. 
successful cultivation of HYVs of rice which
requires an adequate and timely water
supply.

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 o Fertilizers & pesticides are generously used.
Also, farming activities are being
mechanized via the usage of tractors etc.
o Generally rich Punjab farmers (they grow
crops mainly for sale) can afford to invest in
modern agricultural inputs.
o Credit facilities have been extended to
farmers, to enable them to buy HYVs,
fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation pumps to
draw water from tube wells, etc. Rich
farmers who can repay the loans use this to
increase their output.
o Prices have been at levels to give farmers
incentive to increase production.
o Govt have constructed more metalled roads
& increased no. of market centres where
farmers can sell their produce  encourages
farmers to produce more.
o Legislative measures implanted to
consolidate small fragmented farms so that
farmer works on single plot.  makes
farming more efficient.

 Blue Revolution
o Creation of Man-Made enclosures to protect and raise
aquatic life forms to ensure sufficient food stock
available for present and future generations
o Aquaculture:
 Farming of freshwater & saltwater organisms in
controlled conditions.
 Solves problem on declining wild fish stock.
 Generates 12% of the annual world harvest of
fish.
 Advantages:
• Increase in production of proteins
• Cheaper per pound of meat (beef cattle
require 7 lbs of grain to produce 1 pound of
meat, while catfish only requires 2 lbs of
grain.)
• Increased Revenue
• Ability to control health of fish
• Stop overfishing
 Disadvantages:
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 • Causes environmental problems
o Water pollution – due to chemical
inputs that mix with the buildup on the
pond bottoms of unused feeds and
faeces  spread of shrimp diseases +
early pond closures due to
accumulation of toxics like antibiotics,
pesticides etc.
• Causes social issues
o Millions of indigenous coastal people
are being adversely affected, many
losing their: Livelihoods, Homes,
Cultures to unsustainable aquaculture
development
o Needed because:
 Overfishing (e.g. in Alaska: overfishing of Halibut.)
 Damage to ecosystems
 Wild fisheries unable to meet the demands (E.g.
Afghanistan)
 Pollution (e.g. BP Oil Spill)
Case Study:
Alaska Overfishing:
• Alaska costal waters have provided bountiful fishing
for hundreds of years
• Conditions began to change in 1970 to 1980
• Local fishing industry grew; fishing fleets started
pulling in large hauls from the sea.
• 1990, the halibut population was in serious decline
• Limit on amount of Halibut that each farmer was
allowed to catch
• Reason: Fewer fish caught, more would remain in the
sea, more time to build their stock, ensuring good
fishing for generations to come.
• Fewer fish to catch  Fishing crew tried to catch the
largest possible share out of the total
• Commercial & Environmental nightmare.
• 1995  Fishing season reduced to two days
• Fishing crew went out for 48 hrs despite dangerous
weather conditions  Boats & Lives lost
• 2-day season: fishing crew had to sell their catch only
to the larger fish processors who were equipped to
handle massive hauls.

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Copyright © 2010 Liang QiYun
 • No market for fresh fish (all frozen products)
• Depressed price of catch
Afghanistan (15th July 2010):
• Afghans love fish. (Fish contains lots of proteins and
vitamins)
• Demand too high; countries 300+ fisheries unable to
meet the demand.
• Imported from Pakistan.  Concern about freshness.
Thailand
• In Thailand, vast stretches of invaluable mangrove
forests are cleared to make way for shrimp ponds.
• The operations of industrial shrimp aquaculture
caused the degradation of several coastal habitats
([Link] flats, sea grass beds, coral reefs etc.)
Ecuador
• Once productive farmlands left fallow
• Impt waterways & underground aquifers dangerously
contaminated.
SE Thailand
• In the Southeast region of Thailand, shrimp
aquaculture affects its essential food production
processes.
• Both agriculture and fisheries are adversely affected.
• Salinization and pollution of both land and waterways
by the shrimp farms ruins both fisheries and crop
production..
• In some years, severe rice production losses have
caused the local agricultural economy to begin
importation of what was once the region's staple food
crop.
 High-tech farming
o Application of modern science & tech into intensive
farming systems  produce high-value, high-quality
farm products. Farm yields are very much higher
than conventional and traditional farms.
o Soiless culture
 Hydroponics
• Vegetables grown with roots immersed in
nutrient soln.
• Vege grown in S’pore via hydroponics: cai
xin, xiao bai cai, kai lan, bayam
 Aeroponics

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Copyright © 2010 Liang QiYun
 • Vegetables placed in a Styrofoam trough
with the roots suspended in mid-air below an
insulating cover in a greenhouse. Roots fed
at intervals by a fine spray of dissolved
nutrients from a sprinkler system. “Climate”
& Temperatures can be controlled by
controlling the temperature of the fine spray.
 temperate & sub-tropical crops such as
Hong Kong Gailan, Japanese caixin &
butterhead lettuce can be grown.

 Organic farming
o Relies on crop-rotation, green manure & compost to
maintain soil productivity
o Biological pest control (e.g. Ladybirds to keep
population of aphids under control)
o Environmentally-friendly
o Use of synthetic pesticides/fertilizers strongly
discouraged. GM products banned from usage.
o Livestock provided with healthy lifestyle & are allowed
to organic feed and access to larger living space.
o Good:
 Minimal usage of chemicals  no toxic buildup
from use of chemicals.
 Prevents land degradation caused by nitrate
runoff and eutrophication (presence of excess
nutrients) in rivers.
 Uses less energy (25% less than the 10 calories of
fossil fuel per 1 calorie of food needed by the
world to produce food)
 Not too reliant on water. (agriculture consumes
72% of the world’s water)
o Bad:
 Transition period
 Dropping yields (cos chemical fertilizers no longer
used)
 Increase in weeds (due to lack of pesticides)
Case Study:
Mexico:
• Scientists discovered dead zone at Gulf of Mexico.
Aquatic life cannot be supported by low oxygen levels
in the zone.
• Caused by fertilizer runoff and excess manure runoff.
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Copyright © 2010 Liang QiYun
 • Researchers at the U.S National Academy of Sciences
have found that organic fertilizers reduce “harmful
nitrate leaching” significantly.  Reduce damage to
the environment.

 Genetic Modified
o Good:
 Increased resistance to pests and diseases.
 Increased sustainability  crops can grow in
harsher environments
 Less pesticide needed  Less environmental
damage
 Better quality Crops
 Initially costly, cheaper in log run
 Increased farm income by more than US$44
billion (1996-2007)
 Higher yield  meet rising demand
 Contains more vitamins and minerals

Case Study (China):

• In the past: low yield gains, heavy pesticide used.
• But, with GM: Produced two transgenic constructs of
IR cotton that confer insect resistance ♦ Low
transgenic seed prices, higher returns ♦ 7.5 million
farmers farming IR cotton ♦ Compared to past ♦
Heavy pesticide used, lower yield gains.
Case Study (Argentina):
• Herbicide tolerant soybeans
• Increase of total factor productivity by 10%
• Welfare more than 1.2 billion
• 53% going to consumers
• Cost savings higher for small farms
• Lower seed prices as they use uncertified seeds
o Bad:
 Expensive.
• High-tech
• GM seeds possess beneficial traits such as
resistance against weeds, pests, which
increases the value
• Does not help solve world hunger
• GM crops may have cost the US economy at
least $12 billion net from 1999 to 2001
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 o Due to farm subsidies, lower crop
prices, loss of major export orders and
product recalls.
 Unpredictable and risky
• GM food may have health problems as it is a
young technology thus, there may be
unknown effects
• Scientist may not know where in the DNA to
precisely insert these genes
• No way of controlling gene expression.
Changing a few genes could change
everything, with unpredictable and different
effects under different circumstances

 Loss of food diversity

• Growing the same standardized crops
• No variety of types of crops grown
• The global use of GM crops increased by
12% in 2007 to reach 114m hectares across
23 countries  Lesser land is used for non-
GM crops  Lesser variation of crops
 Harmful to Human Health
• Allergy  Introducing a gene into a plant
may cause an allergic reaction in susceptible
individuals
• Diseases  Some GM crops are engineered
with DNA from bacteria and viruses ♦
Occurrence of new diseases

Case Study (Brazil):

• In the mid 1990s, Pioneer Hi-Bred transferred the
allergen from the Brazil nut into genetically
engineered soybeans, to improve soybean nutritional
quality for animal feed use.
• The GM soybean contained methionine-rich protein
which was the major source of Brazil nut allergy.
• It was tested and showed that the individuals allergic
to Brazil nuts were also allergic to the new GM
soybean.
• Pioneer Hi-Bred discontinued further development of
the GM soybean
 Harms Ecology

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Copyright © 2010 Liang QiYun
 • GM crops harms animals due to the
pesticides produced
• GM crops indirectly kills animals due to its
pollen which causes poisoning
• GM crops will cause contamination to non-
GM crops
• Due to contamination, non-GM crops farmers
are at a potential cost of over $90 million
(£60 million) annually

Case Study (Transgenic Maize):

• B.t. corn on Monarch butterfly caterpillars
• In 1999, researchers discovered that pollens from B.t.
corn may drift onto the milkweed plants.
• Caterpillars of the Monarch butterfly feeds on
milkweed plants causing them to consume the pollen
and perish from poisoning
• Tests showed that 44% of caterpillars of the monarch
butterfly died when fed large amounts of pollen from
GM corn.
Case study: GM Soya in Argentina
• In 1997, genetically-modified soya has been planted
over almost half of Argentina’s arable land.
• Now, more and more herbicides are needed
• To control the resistant weeds as herbicide-tolerant
'super weeds' have started to spring up.
• Super weeds, which are resistant to the herbicides, are
created when GM crops 'swop' their resistant genes
with weeds
• Overuse of herbicides led to poisoning of the soil
• Normal bacteria found in 'healthy' fertile soil are
declining
• Soil itself is becoming inert, causing damage to the
soil's fertility.
• Argentina is estimated to have used 200 million litres
of glyphosate in 2008, compared with 13.9 million litres
in 1996.
• This shows that not all GM crops are useful as some
causes contamination.
Case study: GM Bacteria in food supplement
• GM bacteria in food supplement causes disease
• In 1989, a disease "Eosinophilia-Myalgia-Syndrome"
(EMS) caused an epidemic to break out in the US
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 • 37 deaths, 1500 people permanently disabled
• Due to highly poisonous substance, produced by
genetically engineered bacteria, in the food
supplement tryptophan
• Appearance of poison is caused by disturbances of the
natural metabolic processes due to genetic engineering
• This shows that not all GM food are safe for
consumption
Case Study(Flavr Savr Tomato)
• Created by California-based company Calgene,1992
• Received FDA(Food and Drugs Adminstration) approval
on 18 May 1994
o Issue at hand:
 Vegetables and fruits travel long distances
for shipping
 Ripe fruits are soft, can easily be damaged
during handling and processing
 Rot during period of shipping
 Vegetables and fruits are harvested when
still green
 Then artificially ripened with ethylene gas.
 Artificially ripened fruit and vegetables lose
their natural taste
o Solution:
 Antisense gene inserted
 Interfered with the production of the plant
enzyme polygalacturonase.
 Slowed down the rotting process
• HOWEVER.
• Method did not prevent tomatoes’ skin from softening
• Tomatoes can burst during handling and processing
• Chose a inferior, not very tasty variety of tomato.
• Gave tomatoes a bland taste
• Ceased business shortly
• Overtaken by rival Monsanto.
Case Study(Golden Rice)

• First prototype Golden Rice developed in 1999

• With a grant from the Rockefeller Foundation
• Aim to achieve daily Vitamin A intake (vit. A deficiency
results in blindness & corneal affliction) in 100-200g of

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Copyright © 2010 Liang QiYun
 rice (amt that children in rice-based countries eat (e.g.
India, Vietnam, Bangladesh
• Method:
o Two genes are injected into rice
o Phytoene synthase and phytoene desaturase
o Accumulation of β-carotene in endosperm
o Contains 35 micrograms of beta-carotene per
gram.

Food safety & Case Studies

 Diseases associated with poultry, pigs, cow, fish
 Precautionary measures

Food security and insecurity & Case Studies

 World food crisis – world hunger
o Case study of US dumping grain:

 Global imbalance
 Food aid

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Copyright © 2010 Liang QiYun