MATERIAL STUDIES| Flint & Obsidian

Flint & Obsidian

1| Properties
 98% Silicate concentrate
 Isotropic material – same splitting properties in all
directions
 Not as ductile
 Hardness of flint on Mohs scale = 7 (Diamond = 10)
 Makes it easy to control and split

Have similar properties: Flint, Obsidian, Chalcedony, Agate,

Jasper, fine grained Basalt and Rhyolite in some cases

2| Formation of Flint
Flint is formed in limestone and it belongs to the quartz group of oxide compounds.

There are two theories concerning its origin however both begin the same

1. Silicon oxides (silicates, SiO2) are dissolved with bound water from the soil
2. Dissolved silicates are transported by rivers to the sea
3. Used by sea organisms (e.g: diatoms, Radiolaria, sponges) to create their exoskeleton
4. Organisms sink to the sea floor when dead releasing a silicate concentrate

The syn-sediment theory

5. Silicate concentrate is concentrated into silica gel

6. Silica gel absorbed into lime deposit
7. Scavengers burrow through sediment creating channels
8. Channels fill with silica gel creating flint pipes

The post-sediment theory

5. Silicate concentrate concentrates around initiation points (cavities of dissolved skeletons,

animal tunnels) in already existing chalk layers after they have been raised above sea level by
tectonic movement
6. Percolating ground water (containing silicate concentrate in dissolution) comes to rest in
favourable environment
7. Dissolved silicate concentrate can precipitate, silicifying chalk

Note: Vertical fissures in the chalk filled with flint argue in favour of this theory.
 MATERIAL STUDIES| Flint & Obsidian

Factors of the variable morphology of flint:

 Flint is usually formed around irregular shapes (e.g: tunnels and fossils)
 Pressure can create cracks and fissures in the chalk  sheet-like flint forms
 Coagulation during formation  globular/lumps
 Degree of silicification (indicated by light/dark patches)

Impurities will discolour the flint:

 Carbon  grey to black
 Iron oxide  red to brown
 Sulphur  yellow

Note: Obsidian is created during a volcanic eruption due to the rapid cooling of magma. No crystals
are formed creating a homogenous mass. It has a 5.5 on the Mohs scale.

3| Geography of flint and obsidian

Primary locations

 Flint has not been moved in its natural matrix sediment

 Can be recognised in outcrops by chalk faces with layered flint banks
 Deposits occur at or near the surface

Secondary locations

 Post-formation, flint can be subjected to endogenous, exogenous processes

 The erosion of the matrix sediment allows for the transportation and deposition of
the flint
 Displaced by water bodies = Alluvial flint
 Flint found at the surface = Eluvial flint

Mining Flint
1. Vertical shafts were hacked away to
access the flint layers in chalk
2. Passages were made, and flint was
collected
3. Quarries could also be made  cutting of
horizontal shafts into slopes
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4| Fracturing principles and basic terminology

A conchoidal fracture forms when a flint nodule is struck with apt force.

Nodule Piece of flint

(natural) Cortex Rough crust surrounding nodule directly taken from chalk it is the transition
between silicification and the surrounding chalk and is probably the result
of dehydration on the outside nodule. In non-weathered form it is a white
colour and thickness can vary.
Core Flint nodule from which a few flakes/blades have been struck. It typically
has one or more striking platforms and a reduction plane where flake
negatives are visible
Rejuvenation Core Removal of a cones whole striking platform to create a new one
Core Preparation
Blade/Flake
Block Flaking debris. Useless, often unintentional waste
Bulb of Percussion (Hertzian core)
Point of impact where the flint was struck
Ripples striations radiating concentrically from the point of impact. In the shape of a
cone.
Striking platform Top of the cone
Flakes Chips or shards struck off the flint nodule
Blades Flakes that have parallel sides and at least twice as long as wide
Dorsal Ridge
Decortification
Flake/blade
Erailleur scar
Radial Fissures
Flake Scars
Splinter
Distal end Top
Medial end Middle
Proximal end Bottom
Dorsal Exterior surface
Ventral Interior surface
MATERIAL STUDIES| Flint & Obsidian
 MATERIAL STUDIES| Flint & Obsidian

Based on the shape of the distal end, flakes and blades can be further subdivided:

Feather termination: Regular, tapering distal end

Hinge termination: A rounded distal end, sometimes

curling back

Step termination: Abrupt and perpendicular to the

ventral plane

Plunging termination: full length of core (also outre

passe)

5| Flint Knapping
How do we know?

 Anthropological studies of modern hunter-gatherers

 Experimental archaeology
 Refitting

Basic techniques:
Direct hard percussion Hand-held stone hammer tool (e.g: hammerstone) is used while the
flint is held in the other hand, sometimes supported on the knee

Bipolar Reduction Variant of hard percussion in which the flint is supported on an anvil
and then worked simultaneously with a hard hammer stone

Direct soft percussion Direct blows with a softer tool (e.g: antler/wooden hammer; soft types
of stone such as sandstone/limestone)

Indirect percussion An intermediate piece (or ‘punch’) of antler or wood is used. Flakes
show a smaller platform scar. The advantage of a punch is that the
angle of force can be determined more precisely. This is often a follow-
up of preparatory work with direct percussion.

Contre-coup technique Variant of indirect percussion where the piece is placed on an anvil or
punch and struck with an instrument of soft-percussion. This technique
creates smaller flakes that should shape a blade or flake (retouching)
 MATERIAL STUDIES| Flint & Obsidian

Direct pressure Piece is held freely in the hand and can be retouched very finely. Thus,
it is usually associated with the last stages of artefact working.

Direct pressure on an Typically limited to the retouching of tools as the flakes obtained are
anvil very small

Indirect pressure (with the aid of an intermediate piece) through a short and powerful
push with the upper body on a T-piece, long, regular blades could be
obtained. Cores associated with this technique are referred to as
prismatic cores.

Finishing This includes retouching and grinding.

Hard Percussion Soft Percussion

Relatively large bulb of percussion Often no or a small, diffuse bulb of percussion

Often presents a percussion scar and Often no percussion scar, and very minor
(prominent) percussion cone percussion cone

Relatively wide and thick flakes Relatively long, thin flakes

Relatively wide striking platform Small, thin striking platform

Large striking angle (100-130°) Small striking angle (≥ 90°)

Circular fracture near point of impact No point of impact visible

A lip at the transition from the ventral plane to

No lip
the striking platform

Retouching the removing of flakes to give an artefact a certain form. It also strengthens the
working edge or blunts another making it suitable to its function.

Suitable techniques for this

include the contre-coups, soft
direct percussion, direct pressure
with a punch, pressure technique
on an anvil. However, it can also
be produced accidentally during
working (spontaneous retouch)
or by trampling (edge damage).

Different types of retouch

include:

 Steep retouch
 Edge retouch
 Surface retouch
 MATERIAL STUDIES| Flint & Obsidian

6| Stages of Burning
1. Patches with a reddish discolouration and an oily sheen
2. Small cone-shaped chips produced (pot-lids)
3. Flint gets a dark grey colour and starts to show hair fractures
4. Flint gets increasingly lighter in colour and crackles more
5. Falls apart into dust

Burning is accompanied by water loss making it feel lighter.

Obsidian changes to pumice when heated to 1000°C

Heating can increase the workability of the stone making its structure more homogenous and thus
easier to fracture

7| Surface Alterations
Nature affects many changes on flint. These can occur within the flint matrix but also on eluvial flint,
exposed to the elements.

Chemical Processes in the Soil:

Colour Patina Discolouration on the surface of flint. Red to brown patinas are often caused
by:
 oxidation of the minerals in flint
 deposition of iron oxides in groundwater on the flint surface.

White Patina Reflection of light on the porous outer layer. It is a product of a chemical attack
from dissolved acids in groundwater which has infiltrated the soil.

Glossy Patina Lustrous surface layer appearing on very smooth, fine grained flint surfaces.
Caused by the dissolution of protruding silicate dioxides filling any pores. (in
the instance of irregularities, a white patina is formed)

Dissolution Rounding of protruding edges due to pressure and chemicals from the soil
Phenomena

Processes on Eluvial Flint:

Desert Varnish Oily sheen on the surface of flint due to a polishing effect of wind laden with
sand and silt

Frost Action Repeated cycles of frost and thaw create fine fissures which can lead to
internal fracture. A frost fracture is characterised by:
 Irregular concentric rings
 ‘Point of impact’ at the centre
 Grainy fracture plane

Scouring & Frequently occurs in a sandy matrix

Abrasion
 MATERIAL STUDIES| Flint & Obsidian

Processes Connected with Soil Movement

Stones lying close to each other are susceptible to attrition due to soil movements. This causes
visible damage on the flint such as scratches, pressure cones and ‘cryoturbation retouch’.

8| Knapping Techniques Through Time

Early Palaeolithic
Stone technology is often characterised by the “alternating platform
technique” in which the edge is struck two-sided:

 Negative is used as a striking platform for the removal of a flake on

the other
 Artefact is repeatedly rotated
 Cutting tools created by bifacial working on one side  sharp edge

Middle Palaeolithic
Two stages can be distinguished in the manufacture of bifacial tools/hand-axes:

1. Creation of S-shaped cutting edges using a direct hard or soft percussive ‘alternating
platform technique’. It aims to:
 create an object symmetrical in cross-section
 Sharp edge as close to the central axes to the piece of flint as possible
2. Thinning of the artefact by soft percussion. Known as the ‘turned edges’ technique.
 Preparation of the striking platform is necessary for obtaining a right angle between
the striking angle and reduction plane
 Done with ‘truncating’
 Creates an edge with and angle between 40° and 60°

Middle Palaeolithic| Levallois Technique

The Levallois technique is a collective name for related methods for making prepared cores. Three
main Levallois cores can be distinguished:

 Cores for Levallois flakes

 Cores for Levallois points
 Cores for Levallois blades

The sequence of working is similar for all three:

1. Preparation of edge around the striking

platform
2. Preparation of reduction planes
3. After preparation of the proximal plane
the end products are removed from the
core.
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Late Palaeolithic| Blade Technology

New technology enabled the creation of long, thin, regular blades with an aim to maximise the
amount of cutting edge from a singular nodule.

The process:

1. Preparation of striking platform

2. Hard or soft ‘alternate flaking’ creates the first dorsal ridge over the length of the reduction
plane. First blade is the crested blade with preparation negatives on dorsal side.
3. With direct soft percussion or indirect punch technique a series of regular blades is
produced
4. Blades retouched into different types of tools

Note: It is possible to create blades with the Levallois technique, but these are relatively wide and
thick

Mesolithic| Stone Technology

Microliths are characteristic of the Mesolithic. They are much smaller than former blade technology
varying between 2 and 4 cm and made with a ‘punch’ technique. They can easily be hafted and
retouched along one or two sides. Small triangles, trapeziums and points are common shapes

Micro burin technique:

1. Longest, regular blades are selected

2. Small notch made on lateral side of the blade where the blade is broken producing a
microlith

Macrolithic elements were also used. For example, a tranchet axe created using a tranchet blow:

1. Narrow side of the core axe is used as a striking platform for removing the tranchet flake at
the blade end.
2. Cutting edge must lie symmetrically in relation to the axe body
3. Direct percussion probably used

Neolithic & Bronze Age

General trends in flint working from the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic are no longer present from the
beginning of the Neolithic.

 regional differences starting to appear

 There is a transition from blade to flake technology
 Flint mines begin to appear in the Middle Neolithic  increased axe production
 Flint assemblages from settlement context are technologically of poor quality
 Flint tools from a grave or depot context show great technological expertise and
craftmanship
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 Scrapers  60° angle retouche marks in arc across cutting edge

 Borer 
 Arrowhead/spear  Triangular
 Arrowheads  shaft
 Firestones 
 Axe 
 Burin