Wheels and Tyres

Student Guide
Caterpillar Service Technician Module
APLTCL048
Wheels and Tyres

Published by Asia Pacific Learning

1 Caterpillar Drive
Tullamarine Victoria Australia 3043

Version 3.2, 2003

Copyright © 2003 Caterpillar of Australia Pty Ltd Melbourne, Australia.

All rights reserved. Reproduction of any part of this work without the permission of the copy-
right owner is unlawful. Requests for permission or further information must be addressed to
the Manager, Asia Pacific Learning, Australia.

This subject materials is issued by Caterpillar of Australia Pty Ltd on the understanding that:

1 Caterpillar of Australia Pty Ltd, its officials, author(s), or any other persons involved in the
preparation of this publication expressly disclaim all or any contractual, tortious, or other
form of liability to any person (purchaser of this publication or not) in respect of the
publication and any consequence arising from its use, including any omission made by any
person in reliance upon the whole or any part of the contents of this publication.

2 Caterpillar of Australia Pty Ltd expressly disclaims all and any liability to any person in
respect of anything and of the consequences of anything done or omitted to be done by any
such person in reliance, whether whole or partial, upon the whole or any part of the contents
of this subject material.

Acknowledgements

A special thanks to the Caterpillar Family for their contribution in reviewing the curricula for this
program, in particular:
„ Caterpillar engineers and instructors
„ Dealer engineers and instructors
„ Caterpillar Institutes.
 MODULE INTRODUCTION

Module Title
Wheels and Tyres.

Module Description
This module covers the knowledge and skills of Wheels and Tyres. Upon satisfactory completion
of this module students will be able to competently remove, fit and adjust Wheels and Tyres.

Pre-Requisites
The following module(s) must be completed prior to delivery of this module:
„ APLBUS006 Occupational Health and Safety
„ APLTCL007 Workshop Tools.

Learning & Development

Delivery of this facilitated module requires access to the Wheels and Tyres Activity Workbook.
The successful completion of the curriculum provides the knowledge for competency assessment,
on further learning outcomes, by an Accredited Workplace Assessor.

Suggested References
„ APLTCL007 Facilitator Guide
„ APLTCL048 Facilitator Guide.

Assessment Methods
Classroom and Workshop
To satisfactorily complete this module, students must demonstrate competence in all learning
outcomes. Consequently, activities and assessments will measure all the necessary module
requirements.
For this module, students are required to participate in classroom and practical workshop activities
and satisfactorily complete the following:
„ Activity Workbook
„ Knowledge Assessments
„ Practical Activities.

Workplace
To demonstrate competence in this module students are required to satisfactorily complete the
Workplace Assessment(s).

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KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS ASSESSMENT

Learning Outcome 1: Explain the construction and characteristics of light vehicle tyres
and wheels.
Assessment Criteria
1.1 Identify tyre construction
1.1.1 Tyre construction
[Link] Plies
[Link] Ply rating
[Link] Tubed and tubeless tyres
1.1.2 Tyre types
[Link] Cross-ply
[Link] Radial
[Link] Belted bias
[Link] Steel belted
1.2 Describe characteristics of wheels and tyres
1.2.1 Slip angle
1.2.2 Tyre profiles
1.2.3 Tyre footprint
1.2.4 Tyre identification
[Link] Cross-ply
[Link] Radial
[Link] Millimetric markings
[Link] Alpha-numeric markings
[Link] P-metric system
[Link] Performance rating
[Link] Load-carrying capacity
1.2.5 Tyre tread patterns
1.2.6 Tyre inflation
1.2.7 Tyre wear
[Link] Under inflation
[Link] Over inflation
[Link] Wheel camber
[Link] Wheel alignment
[Link] Cornering
[Link] High speed operation
[Link] Mechanical conditions
1.2.8 Tyre rotation
[Link] Radial tyres
[Link] Cross-ply tyres
1.2.9 Wheels
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[Link] Rims
[Link] Rim size
[Link] Rim offset
1.3 Identify the procedures for removal, balancing and refitting
wheels and tyres
1.3.1 Removing and fitting tyres
[Link] Removal
[Link] Fitting
[Link] Changing tyres manually
1.3.2 Wheel balance
[Link] Effects of unbalance
[Link] Static balance
[Link] Dynamic balance
[Link] Correcting unbalance
1.3.3 Balancing wheels
[Link] Off-vehicle wheel balancer
[Link] On-vehicle wheel balancer
[Link] Fitting balance weights
[Link] Tyre and rim runout
[Link] Tightening wheel nuts.

Learning Outcome 2: Explain the construction and characteristics of heavy vehicle tyres
and wheels.
Assessment Criteria
2.1 Describe the characteristics of heavy duty wheels
2.1.1 Wheels and rims
2.1.2 Cast spoke wheels
2.1.3 Disc wheels
[Link] Stud-piloted wheel
[Link] Hub-piloted wheel
2.1.4 Wide-base wheels
2.1.5 Tyre to rim hardware
2.2 Identify tyre construction and characteristics
2.2.1 Tyres
[Link] Radial tyres
[Link] Bias ply tyres
[Link] Body ply, breaker and belt materials
[Link] Rib tyre tread
[Link] Lug type treads
[Link] Special service treads
2.2.2 Tyre size
2.2.3 Low profile tyres
2.3 Describe tyre care and maintenance

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2.3.1 Tyre inspection

[Link] Under inflation
[Link] Over inflation
2.3.2 Mechanical irregularities
[Link] Toe-in
[Link] Toe-out
[Link] Camber
[Link] Caster
2.3.3 Proper load distribution
2.3.4 Speed rating
2.3.5 Tyre rotation and replacement
2.3.6 Tyre, rim and wheel service
2.3.7 Tyre and rim safety
[Link] Removal from a vehicle
[Link] Deflation and disassembly
[Link] Inspection
[Link] Tyre to rim
[Link] Inflation
2.3.8 Spoke wheel installation
[Link] Spoke wheel runout
2.3.9 Disc wheel installation
[Link] Disc wheel with conical nuts
[Link] Disc wheel with flange nuts
– Tube type radial tyres
– Tubeless type radial tyres
2.3.10 Tyre inflation
2.4 Describe tyre matching
2.4.1 Dual tyre matching
[Link] Square method
[Link] Straight edge
2.4.2 Dual spacing
2.5 Identify the procedures for balancing wheels and tyres
2.5.1 Wheel and tyre balancing
[Link] Static balancing
2.5.2 Alignment
[Link] Runout
[Link] Wheel bearings
[Link] King pins
[Link] Wheel weights and distribution
[Link] Rim/wheel preparation
[Link] Inflation pressures
[Link] Inspection
[Link] Correct wheel weights.
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WHEELS AND TYRES K NOWLEDGE AND SKILLS ASSESSMENT

Learning Outcome 3: Remove, fit and adjust wheels fitted to a vehicle.

Pre-requisite: All students must have completed the knowledge
assessment prior to attempting this learning outcome.
Assessment Criteria
3.1 The facilitator must ensure that the student is conducting the
activity:
3.1.1 Using and interpreting correct information from the
manufacturer's specifications
3.1.2 Without causing damage to components or equipment
3.1.3 Using appropriate tooling, techniques and materials
3.1.4 According to industry/enterprise guidelines, procedures
and policies

NOTE:
During the testing procedures, students may replace
defective items or reinstall items removed from assem-
blies, providing any reports of defective materials are
notated and reported to the facilitator.

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TABLE OF C ONTENTS

TOPIC 1: Light Vehicle Wheels and Tyres

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Tyre Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Types of Tyres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Characteristics of Tyres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Tyre Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Tyre Tread Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Tyre Inflation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Tyre Wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Wheels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Removing and Fitting Tyres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Wheel Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Balancing Wheels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

TOPIC 2: Heavy Vehicle Wheels and Tyres

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Wheels and Rims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Tyres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Tyre Care and Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Tyre, Rim and Wheel Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Tyre and Rim Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Spoke Wheel Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Disc Wheel Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Dual Tyre Matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Dual Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Wheel and Tyre Balancing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Wheel Hubs, Bearings and Seals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

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TOPIC 1
Light Vehicle Wheels and Tyres

INTRODUCTION
Tyres provide a cushion between the road and the vehicle to reduce road shocks. They
also provide friction with the road surface. During acceleration, friction is in the form of
traction to propel the vehicle along the road. Friction also provides adhesion, which
opposes the tendency to skid on turns and allows quick stops to be made during braking.

Figure 1 - Tyre construction

TYRE CONSTRUCTION
The construction of a tyre can be seen in Figure 1. The main body of the tyre, referred
to as the casing, is made of a fabric consistingof layers of cords impregnated with
rubber, over which the rubber for the sidewalls and the tread is applied.

During manufacture, the fabric is formed over a moulding device and rubberised, the
sidewall and tread materials are then applied, and the partly manufactured tyre is
subjected to a process which heats the rubber under pressure. This takes place within
a metal mould so that the process both moulds the rubber into the desired shape and
gives it the characteristics required.

The rubber used in tyres is mainly synthetic, being manufactured from the products of
the coal and petroleum industries. Carbon-blacks are added to increase the toughness
and strength of the rubber, particularly for the treads. Natural rubber, a tropical product,
is used to a lesser extent in tyre construction, being most suitable for sidewals

Plies
The layers of cords in the fabric of the casing are referred to as plies, and the number
of plies varies according to the use to which the tyre will be put. Passenger car tyres
may have four plies, heavy-duty trucks and bus tyres may have up to fourteen
plies,while tyres for extremely heavy duty service, such as those used on earthmoving
machinery, may have thirty two plies.

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Ply Rating
Cords were originally made of cotton, the tyres being marked '4 ply' or '6 ply' etc.
to indicate the number of cotton plies used in the particular tyre. Development of
higher strength cords such as rayon, nylon, polyester and steel enabled the
number of plies to be reduced, while the same tyre strength was maintained.
Therefore, a passenger car tyre might be constructed with two plies for the
sidewalls and four or six plies beneath the tread.

The method of tyre marking was adjusted to suit the stronger cords, the word 'rating'
being added. For example, the marking on a tyre is shown as '4 ply rating' or '6 ply
rating' etc. This does not state the actual number of plies used, but says that the tyre
is, in effect, equal in strength to one with an equivalent number of cotton plies.

The ply rating of a tyre is used as an indication of the strength of the tyre and enables
one tyre to be compared with another.

Tubed and Tubeless Tyres

Figure 2 - Sectional view of a tubeless tyre and rim

Tyres may be tubed or tubeless. A tubed tyre has a separate inner tube which is fitted
into the tyre when it is mounted to the tyre rim. When inflated with air, the tube
maintains the shape of the tyre under the load of the vehicle.

A tubeless tyre does not require an inner tube because it has a soft rubber lining on
the inside of its casing, and beads that fit tightly against the wheel rim. When the tyre
is inflated, air is retained between the wheel and the tyre casing. A section of a
tubeless tyre, mounted on a rim, is shown in Figure 2 with the parts of the tyre
identified. It also includes the air valve, which fits tightly in a hole in the rim.

TYPES OF TYRES
In the two basic types of tyre construction, the cords in the casing are arranged differently,
and because of this, tyres are referred to as either cross ply tyres or radial tyres. A third
type, belted bias tyres, combines some of the features of both previous types.

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Cross-Ply Tyres

Figure 3 - Bias-ply tyre

Cross ply tyres are also known as bias ply or conventional tyres. The cords of these
tyres run diagonally in alternate layers (Figure 3). They are referred to as 'cross ply'
because the cords cross at an angle, and also as 'bias ply' because the cord fabric
from which the plies are made is cut on a bias, or at an angle to the cords. Tyres of
this design have stiffer sidewalls than radial tyres because of the cross bracing effect
of the diagonal cords.

Radial Tyres

Figure 4 - Radial tyre

Radial tyres are the most commonly used.

Cords in the casing of a radial tyre run in a radial direction, that is, straight across the
tyre section without crossing (Figure 4).

Figure 5 - The radial tyre has a belt of cords around its circumference beneath the tread

Radial tyres also have a belt of reinforcing material between the casing and the tread
as shown in Figure 5. The belt, consisting of two or more layers of cords, runs around
the circumference of the casing.

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The cords in the layers of the belt are set at an angle to each other, so that they cross
in a similar manner to the cords of a cross ply tyre. The belt provides a firm base to
support the tread, at the same time holding it against the effects of centrifugal force
which are present when the tyre is rotating.

Belted Bias Tyres

These are a bias ply design with the addition of a reinforced belt beneath the tread.
They are a compromise between a cross ply tyre and a radial tyre, and possess some
of the characteristics of each design. They are not in general use.

Steel Belted Tyres

Steel belted tyres have cords of steel wire built into the reinforcing belt beneath
the tyre tread. The steel provides a strong belt which does not stretch under
inflation pressure. This gives the tyre greater stability in the tread area while still
allowing flexible sidewalls.

CHARACTERISTICS OF TYRES
Cross ply tyres and radial tyres have different characteristics; that is, they perform
differently on the road.

With radial ply construction, tyres can have two plies of cords on the sidewalls and up
to six plies under the tread. This provides a stable base, which reduces distortion from
centrifugal force and contact with the road surface. Radial tyres have flexible sidewalls
but less distortion because the cords are under tension to hold the tread in place.

Figure 6

Because of its construction, a radial tyre performs differently to a cross ply tyre on
curves. When a car is travelling around a curve in the road, centrifugal force pulls it
towards the outside of the curve. This deflects the tyre as shown in Figure 6.

A radial sidewall bends easily in the direction of the force to allow the tread to remain on
the road almost undisturbed, thereby providing normal traction and good resistance.

A cross ply tyre, with its stiffer sidewalls, tends to lift the tread from the ground,
reducing traction and also reducing resistance to skidding.

Some of the advantages claimed for radial tyres include reduced tread wear, fuel
saving, greater stability of the vehicle and greater safety.

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Slip Angle

Figure 7

This is the angular difference between the direction in which the tyre is pointed and
the path that it actually follows on a curve Figure 7.

Centrifugal force on the vehicle produces a side thrust on the wheel, and this causes a
distortion of the tyre where it is in contact with the ground, forcing it to follow a slightly
wider curve. The slip angle is influenced by the speed, load, inflation pressure and
characteristics of the tyre. Radial tyres have a lower slip angle than cross ply tyres,
and so will follow a 'tighter' curve.

Because of the construction and characteristics of different tyres, which influence

such factors as slip angle, it is essential that all four wheels are fitted with tyres of the
same type and preferably of the same make.

Tyre Profiles
The tyre profile is the shape of the tyre section when it is mounted on the rim of the
wheel. Older tyres were designed with a circular section, but modern tyres are
available in a number of different profiles.

Figure 8 - Section through a low-profile tyre: height (B) is 80% of width (A) for the tyre shown

The profile relates to the height/width ratio of the tyre section (Figure 8), and this is known
as its aspect ratio, where B is a ratio of A. The aspect ratio is less than one; it is sometimes
shown as a decimal (for example, 0.78) but usually the decimal point is omitted. The aspect
ratio can also be stated as a percentage (78%). The trend is towards squatter and wider
tyres, and aspect ratios as low as 50 will be used on special tyres.

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Figure 9 - Examples of tyre aspect ratios

Tyres are made in a number of different aspect ratios: 95, 87, 80, 78, 70 and 60,
with radial tyres generally tending towards lower profiles. The P-metric system
(discussed later) also provides for aspect ratios of 75 and 65. Three different tyre
sections are shown in Figure 9.

Tyre Footprint
The area of tread pattern in contact with the road is referred to as the tyre footprint.
When the vehicle is stationary, or moving in a straight ahead direction, the footprint
will be of uniform shape. Generally, radial tyres will have a wider footprint than
equivalent cross ply tyres.

Figure 10 - Tyre footprints on the road surface for different aspect ratios; L is contact patch
length, W is contact patch width

A tyre with a low profile will have a shorter and wider footprint than a high profile tyre
of similar size and load carrying capacity, but the footprint areas will be approximately
the same (Figure 10). Changes in the footprint can occur as the result of load, speed,
cornering and tyre pressure.

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TYRE IDENTIFICATION

Figure 11 - Information on the tyre sidewall (the tyre is fitted to an aluminium wheel)

Information is moulded into the tyre sidewall. This includes the manufacturer's name,
the size, type of construction, performance rating and ply rating. Additional information
such as the maximum tyre load and maximum tyre pressure may also be included.
Light truck tyres are shown by LT, and special types of tread may be identified; for
example, M + S indicates mud and snow. The type of cord material may be identified
by the word 'rayon', 'nylon', 'polyester' or 'steel' (Figure 11).

Cross Ply Tyres

Cross ply tyres have their size shown in inches, such as 6.00 14 or 6.70 15. The first
three figures represent the nominal tyre section width in inches when fitted to a
standard rim, and the last two represent the rim diameter.

Radial Tyres

Figure 12 - Interpretation of radial tyre markings

There are three different methods of marking radial tyres: millimetric, alpha numeric,
and P-metric. An example of each of these is shown in Figure 12.

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Millimetric Markings
This method of identification was introduced for radial tyres. The table shows the
markings for a 165SR14 tyre. This includes the nominal section width of the tyre in
millimetres (165) and the rim diameter in inches (14). S is a symbol from the speed
rating or performance code, and R is used to signify that it is radial tyre.

Alpha-Numeric Markings
The markings for a BR78S14 tyre are shown. These have an alpha or letter code, B to
designate the loadcarrying capacity of the tyre, and R for radial, and a numeric code (78)
for the aspect ratio. They also show the speed or performance rating, S, and the rim
diameter in inches (14). This system supersedes the metric system of identification.

P-Metric System
The markings for a P185/75SR14 tyre are shown in the table. This system uses P to
indicate passenger car tyre. It shows the nominal width of the tyre in millimetres (185)
and the aspect ratio (75). S is the performance rating code, R is for radial tyre, and
the rim diameter is in inches (14). The system was drawn up by the International
Standards Organisation with the aim of establishing a uniform worldwide system for
passenger car tyres. As well as radial tyres, it also makes provision for other types by
assigning D (diagonal) for cross ply tyres and B for belted bias tyres.

Performance Rating
Code letters are used to identify the performance or maximum speed rating of tyres.
For example, a tyre marked 165SR14 has the S to show that it has a maximum speed
rating of 180 km/h. Other codes are H for 210 km/h and V for over 210 km/h.

Load Carrying Capacity

Code letters are also used to identify the load carrying capacity of passenger car
tyres with alpha numeric markings. The tyre marked BR78S14 has the B to show that
it is rated to carry 445 kg when inflated to 166 kPa. A tyre with E instead of B is rated
at 540 kg at the same pressure.

TYRE TREAD PATTERNS

Tyre treads are made in various patterns designed to suit different vehicles and operating
conditions. These range from passenger cars operating at high speeds on constructed
roads to tractors and earthmoving equipment operating under rough conditions.

The types of treads used on passenger cars operating on highways are shown in
Figure 22.9. These are designed to provide the necessary friction with the road
surface for both wet and dry conditions during acceleration, braking and steering.

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Figure 13 - Types of tread for passenger vehicles: (a) pattern for normal use (b) lower profile
and more open tread (c) low-profile high-performance tyre (d) wide tyre with low profile for
sports car (directional)

On wet roads, the various parts of the tread act like a squeegee to push water from
beneath the tyre so that it can grip the road surface. Where pools of water cover the
road, the tread pattern is designed to force water to the rear through the
circumferential grooves in the tread and also, by means of the zigzag groove pattern,
to push water aside. Small cuts or slots in the tread are intended to squeeze out most
of the water that remains on the road surface beneath the tyre, so that the tyre runs on
a relatively dry surface.

Apart from reduced friction between the tyre and road under wet conditions, a tyre
can actually aquaplane on a very wet surface, particularly if the tread of the tyre is
badly worn and the tyre is subjected to severe braking. Under these conditions, a
wedge of water under the tyre causes it to lift from the road surface. Tyre tread
patterns are designed to minimise this possibility.

Figure 14 - Light truck tyres: (a) normal road use (b) on-road and off-road use (c) mainly off-
road use

Tyres for commercial vehicles have different treads from passenger cars (Figure 14).
Tyres for off highway vehicles usually have a tread with lugs or bars. Depending on
the particular design and the purpose for which the tyre will be used, the lugs may
form part of a tread pattern, or they may extend right across the tyre so that the tread
consists of parallel lugs and grooves.

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TYRE INFLATION

Figure 15 - Effects of correct and incorrect inflation on the contact that the tread makes
on the road surface

Tyres should be inflated to the pressure recommended by the vehicle manufacturer or

as shown on the placard attached to the vehicle. Incorrect pressures can cause tyre
wear as well as steering and braking problems. Figure 15 shows the effect of correct
and incorrect inflation on tread contact with the road surface.

Underinflation will cause heavy steering and tyre squeal on turns. It will also allow
the tyre to flex excessively. This builds up excessive heat and imposes a greater
load on the tyre cords.

Overinflation gives a hard ride and subjects the tyre to road shocks because the tyre
does not flex normally. Uneven tyre pressures, particularly on the front wheels, tend
to steer the vehicle to one side.

TYRE WEAR

Figure 16 - Tyre tread-wear indicator

Tread wear indicators are moulded into the tread pattern of passenger car tyres. The
indicators show up as plain bars across the tread in a number of places when only 1.5
mm of tread remains. The tyre should then be replaced (Figure 16).

There are many factors that cause tyre wear, and some of these are quite normal.
However, where abnormal wear occurs, the type of wear can indicate the likely
cause of the problem.

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Underinflation

Figure 17 - Shoulder wear

If a tyre is underinflated, the sides of the tyre will bulge and this tends to lift the centre
of the tread away from the road. The load will be concentrated on the outer edges of
the tread, causing excessive wear (Figure 17). The centre of the tread will carry a
reduced load and so receive comparatively little wear.

Underinflation also allows greater flexing of the tyre sidewalls, imposing higher loads
on the cords. Flexing also generates excessive heat, causing tyre temperatures to rise
to the extent that the rubber compounds can soften and allow the plies or tread to
separate from the casing.

An underinflated tyre can suffer rim damage to the sidewalls. If the tyre strikes an
obstruction such as a kerb or hole in the road, then the sidewalls could be pinched
between the obstruction and the rim. This could cause immediate damage to the tyre,
or break the cords and lead to early tyre failure.

Overinflation

Figure 18 - Centre wear

An overinflated tyre has a reduced tread area in contact with the road surface. This
increases the load on the centre of the tread so that it wears much more quickly than
the sides of the tread (Figure 18)). The tyre fabric also receives shock loads which,
combined with high tyre pressure, can cause tyre failure.

Wheel Camber

Figure 19 - Side of tread worn

Excessive camber of a wheel causes the outer edge of the tyre to wear more rapidly
than the inner (Figure 19). This occurs because the face of the tread does not sit flat
on the road.

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Wheel Alignment

Figure 20 - Sharp edges on tread

Front wheels are provided with a small amount of toe in or toe out, but if this is
excessive, the tyre will tend to drag sideways while it is being moved forwards. A
characteristic of this type of wear is the feather edges of rubber that appear on one
side of the tread (Figure 20).

Cornering
Tyre wear, caused by taking corners at too high a speed, can be similar to camber
wear or toe in or toe out wear. When cornering, centrifugal force on the vehicle is
resisted by the tyres on the road surface. At high speed, some side slip of the tyre
occurs and this produces a diagonal type of wear which rounds the outer shoulder of
the tyre.

Figure 21 - Wear due to high speed cornering

In severe cases, fins or sharp edges can be found on the inner edges of the
treads (Figure 21).

High Speed Operation

In general, tyres will have a faster rate of wear at high speeds because of the higher
temperatures, greater amount of scuffing and more rapid flexing to which the tyres
are subjected.

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Mechanical Conditions

Figure 22 - Uneven tread wear due to mechanical faults, unbalance or tread separation.

Uneven tread wear - where the tread is worn unevenly or in spots (Figure 22) - can be
the result of a number of mechanical conditions. These include misaligned wheels, out
of balance wheels, defective brakes, inoperative shock absorbers and loose or worn
steering or suspension parts.

Tyre Rotation
The amount of wear and also the type of wear that a tyre receives varies according to
its location on the vehicle. To equalise wear, the wheels and tyres are rotated
(interchanged) at regular intervals.

Figure 23 - Three different sequences of tyre rotation (a) tyres on same side (b) using spare (c)
diagonal rotation

Figure 23 illustrates three different sequences. Radial tyres are usually treated
differently to cross ply tyres.

Rotating Radial Tyres

Radial tyres are often interchanged on a front to rear basis so that they are kept on the
same side of the vehicle. This tends to even out tread wear while still maintaining the
same direction of wheel rotation, which is generally favoured for radials.

With rear wheel drive vehicles, tyres on the front of the vehicle, which are used for
steering, have different wear to those on the rear, which are used for driving. Front tyres
may wear more on the edges of the tread, and rear tyres may wear more in the centre.

With front wheel drive vehicles, the front tyres will wear more rapidly than the rear
tyres because they are used for both driving and steering; they also carry more of the
vehicle load than the rear tyres.

A sequence of five tyres can also be used and this includes the spare tyre. The spare
can be part of the normal sequence, or only introduced when there is damage or
abnormal wear to one of the tyres on the vehicle. The spare tyre should, as far as
possible, be paired with a tyre which has a similar amount of tread.

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Rotating Cross Ply Tyres

Diagonal interchanging is most suitable for cross ply tyres as this not only repositions
the tyres on the vehicle, but also changes their direction of rotation.

Where all tyres are in good condition and the spare wheel is to be used, the tyres can
be rotated as shown in Figure 23(b). Subsequent interchanging should be as
indicated by the wear pattern of the tyres with the object of maintaining uniform wear.

For interchanging truck tyres, see the heading 'Positioning Truck Tyres', later.

WHEELS
Passenger car wheels are either of pressed steel or cast aluminium alloy
construction. They consist of two main parts: the flange or disc and the rim. Steel
wheels have the rim formed separately from the pressed flange, the two parts then
being welded together to form the wheel. Ventilation holes in the flange allow air
circulation to help dissipate beat from the brakes and associated parts.

Aluminium alloy wheels are sometimes used for appearance, but also because
aluminium and its alloys are not as heavy as steel. Wheels can be cast in aluminium
alloy with much thicker sections than steel wheels. This provides stiffness and
enables the stresses to be distributed over a wider area. Also aluminium alloy is a
good conductor of heat and this helps to dispose of the heat generated by the brakes
and tyres.

Rims

Figure 24 - Wheel with safety rims

- Wheel with safety rims

Rims for passenger cars are of the drop centre or well base type. With these wheels,
the centre of the rim is 'dropped', or reduced in diameter, to form a well which enables
the tyre to be removed and replaced. A rim of this type is shown in Figure 22.18. The
rim also has safety ridges or humps which hold the bead of the tyre in position against
the edge of the wheel rim if a tyre fails.

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Rim Size
Rims are designated by their width and their profile. For example, a common
passenger car wheel has a rim of 5.5 JJ. The 5.5 represents the rim width in inches,
and JJ is a code for a particular rim profile. Any replacement wheel should have the
same size rim as the original, or should comply with the rim size shown on the tyre
placard attached to the vehicle.

The width of the rim will determine the spread of the beads of the tyre when it is
mounted, so it must be correct for the size of tyre.

An oversize tyre fitted to a rim will not scat correctly and will be distorted in the bead
area. If the tyre has a tube, then the tube will be overstretched around the beads of
the tyre and will deteriorate much sooner than it normally would. With tubeless tyres,
sealing of the bead to the rim will be difficult.

Rim Offset
The flange of the wheel is not located in the centre of the rim, but is closer to the
outside. This gives the rim offset.

The amount of offset is the distance from the mounting surface of the flange to the
centre of the rim. Altering the offset will affect the steering geometry of the vehicle. A
replacement wheel should have the same offset as the original, or comply with the rim
size shown on the vehicle placard.

REMOVING AND FITTING TYRES

Figure 25 - A wheel mounted on a tyre-changing machine

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Tyres are removed and fitted with a tyre changing machine (Figure 25). The machine
holds the wheel horizontally and uses air operated or electrically operated tools to
remove the tyre. It uses a flat ended bead breaking tool to force (or break) the beads
of the tyre from their seats against the wheel rim, and a removing tool to lever or roll
the beads over the edge of the rim to remove the tyre from the wheel. When refitting
the tyre, the machine is used to install the beads of the tyre over the edge of the rim.

Removing a Tyre
The procedure for removing a tyre is as follows:

1. Mount the wheel on the machine and remove the core from the valve to release
the air. Completely deflate the tyre.

2. Loosen the tyre beads with the bead breaking tool. The tool forces the bead of
the tyre away from the edge of the wheel rim and over the safety hump on the
rim.

3. Once the beads on both sides of the tyre have been 'broken', insert the bead
removing tool of the machine between the upper bead and the edge of the wheel
rim. The tool rolls or levers the bead of the tyre over the rim. Lubricating the
beads and rim with soapy water will assist in removal.

4. Remove the tube, if fitted, from the tyre, and use the machine to remove the
second bead so that the tyre is completely removed from the wheel.

5. When removing the bead from the rim, hold the bead on the opposite side of the
tyre into the well in the centre of the rim, which is provided for this purpose.
Without a well in the rim, the tyre could not be fitted or removed as it is not
possible to stretch the bead of the tyre over the edge of the rim.

Fitting a Tyre
Proceed as follows:

1. Before fitting the tyre, remove all dirt or rust from the rim. A coating of vegetable
oil or soapy water applied to the beads assists in mounting the tyre.

2. Place the tyre over the wheel and, with the machine, lever the lower bead over
the rim. A new tyre may have a paint mark to identify the light spot, and to
preserve balance, this should be positioned at the valve.

3. If a tube is being used, it should now be installed in the tyre. The valve stem hole
in the wheel is offset towards the outside of the wheel. When fitting the tube, the
valve stem must point to the outside of the wheel.

4. Lever or roll the upper bead of the tyre onto the rim of the tyre with the machine,
and inflate the tyre.

5. Inflate the tyre to about 300 kPa pressure and see that the beads are seating
correctly by checking the bead indicator, which is a moulded ring on the sidewall
of the tyre. If it is not, deflate the tyre completely, adjust the position of the wheel
and inflate the tyre again. Finally, inflate the tyre to the correct pressure.

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6. For a tubeless tyre, it is necessary to inflate the tyre quickly to force the beads
onto the rim. To assist this, the valve core may be temporarily removed to allow a
free flow of air into the tyre.

7. To test the tyre and wheel to ensure that there are no leaks, immerse the
complete wheel in water. Leaks will be shown by air bubbles.

Changing Tyres Manually

Tyres can be changed manually, although this is much slower and more difficult than
when using a machine. The operations are similar, but a bead breaking tool is needed
to force the bead of the tyre over the safety humps on the rim. Tyre levers are then
used to lever the bead over the edge of the rim. This is a method that would only be
used in an emergency.

WHEEL BALANCE
Wheels and tyres need to be in balance to prevent vibration and to minimise wear of
tyres, suspension components and steering parts.

When a wheel rotates, centrifugal force acts on each part of the wheel and tyre, and a
number of forces pull outwards against the tyre. These forces become stronger as the
rotational speed of the wheel increases.

Figure 26 - Centrifugal force acting on a balanced (a) and an unbalanced (b) wheel

Where the mass is evenly distributed around the wheel and tyre (there are no heavy
spots), all the forces will be equal. The wheel and tyre are balanced, so centrifugal
force will have no obvious effect (Figure 26). However, if the tyre has a heavy spot, it
will be unbalanced. Centrifugal force will be greater at that spot than at any other part
of the tyre, and there will be a strong pulling force which rotates with the tyre. This will
pull the tyre and wheel, which could move up and down or from side to side.

Effects of Unbalance

Figure 27 - Effects of static (a) and dynamic (b) unbalance on a wheel

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There are two types of balance (and unbalance): static and dynamic. The effects of
both types of unbalance are shown in Figure 27. Unbalance in both cases is caused
by heavy spots on the tyre, but the position of the heavy spots will determine whether
the tyre has static unbalance or dynamic unbalance.

A heavy spot in the centre of the tread will produce static unbalance and cause the
wheel to move up and down. A heavy spot, or spots, on the side of the tyre will
produce dynamic unbalance and cause the wheel to move from side to side.

Static Balance
A wheel and tyre in static balance, free to rotate on their axle, will remain in any
position to which it is turned. If out of balance, the heavy spot which causes the
unbalance will rotate the wheel until it is at the bottom.

Figure 28 - Difference between static and dynamic balance: corrective weights have been
added

Figure 28(a) shows a wheel and section through a tyre which has a heavy spot in the
centre of the tread. This has static unbalance but can be balanced by fitting weights
to the wheel rim directly opposite the heavy spot. Two weights are needed, each
equal to half the mass of the heavy spot. If only one weight is used, then dynamic
balance could be affected.

Without balance weights, the wheel shown would tend to be pulled up and down as it
rotates. This is referred to as tramp. The force that rotates with the wheel would also
try to pull the wheel to the front and back, but this is prevented by the suspension.

Dynamic Unbalance
Figure 28(b) shows a tyre with a heavy spot on its side. In the diagram, the force will
pull the front of the tyre and try to turn the wheel on its steering axis. As the wheel
rotates, it is pulled from side to side because the force changes its direction with each
half turn of the wheel. It pulls the front of the wheel and then the back to produce a
side to side movement of the wheel, which is referred to as wheel wobble or shimmy.

The effect of the force is noticed only when it is at the front or the rear of the wheel,
where the steering allows the wheel to pivot from side to side.

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When the forces are at the top or bottom, the wheel is held and so has no side to side
movement, although it can have tramp.

Figure 29 - Dynamic balance: the wheel is in static balance but weights needed for dynamic
balance

The tyre in Figure 29 has two heavy spots which are diagonally opposite each other. It
is in static balance and so will remain in any position on its axle. This is because one
heavy spot balances the other. However, while the wheel has static balance, it has
dynamic unbalance. When this wheel (without the weights) is rotating, centrifugal
force acts on both heavy spots. A force will pull the front of the tyre and a force will pull
the rear of the tyre. Together, they form a couple which produces shimmy. The
weights shown in the figure give the wheel dynamic balance.

Correcting Unbalance
Balance weights are fitted to the rim of the wheel to balance the heavy spot, or spots.

Figure 30 - Correction of static unbalance: (a) heavy spot causes wheel tramp (b) corrective
weights added

Figure 30 shows a wheel with static unbalance. Two balance weights are used to
correct it so that the mass is evenly distributed on the wheel.

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Figure 31 - Correction for dynamic unbalance: (a) heavy spot causes wheel shimmy (b)
corrective weigts added

Figure 31 illustrates a wheel which has dynamic unbalance. Two weights are needed
for correction here also. When in dynamic balance, the mass is distributed evenly on
each side of the wheel centreline.

In most instances, it is not a case of either static or dynamic balance. Most tyre and
wheel assemblies that need balancing require a combination of static and dynamic
balancing to correct the out of balance condition.

BALANCING WHEELS
Wheel balancing machines are used to provide accurate balance. There are two
general designs: one type spins the wheel while it is off the vehicle, and the other
spins the wheel while on the vehicle. They both use the vibrations that occur when
the wheel is rotating to locate any unbalance in the wheel and tyre. They check both
static and dynamic balance.

Off Vehicle Wheel Balancer

This is a floor mounted machine which balances wheels while they are off the vehicle.
The wheel is mounted on the spindle of the machine and spun by an electric motor.

Figure 32 - Spindle-type wheel balancer with direct reading instruments

A balancer of this design is illustrated in Figure 32; it has direct reading instruments.
With a single spin of the wheel, the machine gives readings for both static and
dynamic balance. The instruments show the balance weights required, their location
on the wheel and whether the unbalance is on the inner or outer rim of the wheel.

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Basically, machines of this type consist of a lightly mounted spindle for the wheel, and
electronic sensors to measure the vibrations of the spindle when the wheel is rotating.
The vibrations are picked up by the sensors and then transferred to the instruments
which show the out of balance readings. A wheel assembly which is in balance
produces no vibrations.

Wheel balancing machines have electronic components and circuits which make them
easy to operate. In most cases, the wheel size is selected by the operator and the
machine then automatically provides readings to suit the size of the wheel being
balanced,

Safety Precautions
Wheel balancing machines are provided with a safety hood which covers the wheel
while it is being spun. The wheel can reach high speed; covering the wheel protects
the operator from wheel weights that might fly off. Stones should be removed from the
tread before spinning to avoid injury to the operator and to obtain accurate balance.

On Vehicle Wheel Balancer

Figure 33 - On vehicle wheel balancer spins the wheel while on the vehicle

Balancers of this type balance the tyre, wheel and hub assembly on the vehicle. The
balancer has an electric motor with a metal driving wheel which operates against the
shoulder of the tyre (Figure 33). A pickup head under the suspension is used to sense
vibrations caused by unbalance. Instruments are used to record the unbalance and to
show where balance weights are needed.

To balance a wheel, it is raised above the ground and a chalk reference mark is
placed on the tyre. The pickup head is usually part of the lifting jack or stand, so that it
is in place under the suspension to pick up the vibrations.

The machine is rolled up to the side of the wheel to be balanced, and its driving wheel
is used to spin the wheel of the vehicle at speed. The vibrations received by the
pickup are changed into electric impulses and transmitted to the machine. The
instruments of the machine show the amount of unbalance and the correction needed.

After fitting the balance weights, the wheel is given another spin to check that its
balance is correct.
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Wheel Spinner

Figure 34 - Wheel spinner being used to spin a wheel

A separate wheel spinner is used with some wheel balancers (Figure 34), particularly
for spinning heavy wheels. This type of spinner is used against the tread of the tyre.

Precautions to be Observed
For on vehicle balancing of the driving wheels of the vehicle, the engine can be used
to spin the wheels. This applies to both front wheel drive and rear wheel drive.

The wheel spin should be limited to 55 km/h as shown on the speedometer. This is
necessary because, with one wheel on the ground, the speedometer will read only
half the true speed of the wheel. Unless precautions are taken, the wheel which is
spinning could reach dangerous speeds, possibly causing personal injury, tyre
disintegration, damage to the differential assembly, or vehicle damage.

Where the final drive has a limited slip differential, both driving wheels must be raised
off the ground when spinning the wheels. If one wheel is left on the ground, it will
have torque which would force the vehicle off the jack or stand.

Fitting Balance Weights

Figure 35 - Balance weights: (a) fitting a weight to a rim with a soft-faced hammer (b) weight
for an aluminium wheel (c) weight for a steel wheel

Balance weights are shown in Figure 35. These have a spring clip which holds them
on the rim of the wheel. They are fitted by being tapped into place with a hammer.
When properly installed, they fit neatly into the shape of the rim.

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Different weights are used for aluminium and steel wheels. Aluminium wheels have a
different shaped rim to steel wheels, and so the weights need a different cross
section.

Flat weights are also used for aluminium wheels. These have an adhesive which
sticks them to the flat part of the rim.

Balance weights are made in a number of different sizes; the mass, in grams, is
shown on the balance weight.

Tyre and Rim Runout

Figure 36 - Checking tyre and rim runout: (a) radial runout time (b) lateral runout of rim, (c)
radial runout of tyre, (d) lateral runout of tyre

A wheel with runout could be in static balance, but could have dynamic unbalance.
Where a wheel is difficult to balance, the wheel and tyre should be checked for
excessive runout. Runout is checked with a dial gauge mounted on a base
(Figure 36). Generally, runout should not be more than about 2 mm.

The tyre is checked at the centre of the tread for radial runout and against the sidewall
for lateral runout. The rim is checked in two places so that both radial runout and
lateral runout are measured. A more accurate check of the rim can be made with the
tyre removed. Before checking tyre runout, the vehicle should be driven to warm up
the tyre and get rid of any flat spots on the tyre due to standing.

Tyre runout and unbalance can sometimes be reduced by removing the tyre from the
wheel and rotating it 180° before refitting.

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Tightening Wheel Nuts

Figure 37 - Sequence of tightening wheel nuts

Wheel nuts and studs should be tightened to the specified torque. To ensure that the
wheels are seating correctly and not distorted, they should be tightened in the correct
sequence as shown in Figure 37.

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TOPIC 2
Heavy Vehicle Wheels and Tyres

INTRODUCTION
Often considered part of the vehicle's suspension system, wheels and tyres play a
vital role in the safe operation of all heavy-duty trucks and trailers. They carry all the
weight of the vehicle and operate on a variety of road conditions. After fuel costs, tyres
represent one of the biggest cost factors of operating a truck.

Wheels and tyres and must be properly maintained and serviced. Improperly mounted,
matched, aligned, or inflated tyres can create a dangerous on road situation. Poorly
maintained tyres will also wear unevenly and at a faster rate. Chances of a blowout or
other major failure are also increased.

Wheel bearings, lubricant seals, and other components in the wheel hub that keep the wheel
and tyre turning smoothly on the axle spindle also require regular maintenance and service.

For many years, there was little difference in the wheel configurations used on heavy-
duty trucks. Today, advances in technology and changing customer needs have
increased the number of wheel configurations available. It is now possible to operate
on cast spoke or disc wheel systems in steel or aluminium. Rims can be removable or
part of the wheel body. They can be single or multipiece.

Wheels can be clamp mounted, stud piloted, or hub piloted. Dual-wheel or wide-base
single wheels are available. Wheel bearings can be either grease or oil lubricated.
Several different wheel seal designs can be used. The tyres mounted to the wheels
can be bias ply or radial, tube or tubeless, standard or low profile, Brake drums can be
inboard or outboard mounted.

The wheel system chosen will affect payload, fuel efficiency, tyre mileage, and
hardware requirements. It will also have a major effect on service and maintenance
procedures. Regardless of the system used, truck wheels and tyres are extremely
heavy. Inflation pressures can also exceed 100psi. This combination of weight and
pressure can create dangerous work situations if proper safety and working
procedures are not followed.

WHEELS AND RIMS

There is often confusion over the terms wheel and rim. Many use the two terms
interchangeably, but this is incorrect. The rim supports the tire. On a spoke wheel, the
rim and wheel are separate components. On a disc wheel, the rim is a distinct section
of a wheel assembly.

Cast Spoke Wheels

Although disc wheel configurations are increasing in popularity, cast spoke wheels are far
from obsolete. Their record of high-strength performance make cast spoke designs a popular
choice on dump, construction, refuse, and leased trucks and trailers. Spoke wheels are often
chosen when heavy front axle loadings of 16,000 pounds and above are encountered.

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Figure 38 - Components of a cast spoke wheel

A spoke wheel consists of a one-piece casting that includes the hub and spokes
(Figure 38). Spokes are made of ductile iron, cast steel, or aluminium. Tyres are
mounted on a separate rim that is clamped onto the spokes.

‘
Figure 39 - Position of the spoke wheel dual mounting spacer band

In dual-wheel applications, a spacer band is positioned between the inner and

outer rims (Figure 39).

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Figure 40 - Cross-section view of mounted dual wheels

This spacer band holds the two rims apart and provides for exact spacing of the
tyres (Figure 40).

Spoke wheels are manufactured in three styles: three, five, and six-spoke
configurations. Six-spoke designs are often used on heavily loaded front axles. Five or
six spokes are used on drive axle duals, but six-spoke designs are often preferred
because added wheel clamping force is on the rim, which reduces the chance of rim
slippage. Three-spoke wheels have wider spokes, using two wheel clamps per spoke.
Trailers are their most popular application.

Spoke wheels use multipiece rims that clamp to the spokes with wheel
clamps (Figure 40). If the clamps are not installed correctly, the wheel might go out-of-
round and wobble. The proper installation and torquing sequence is critical to true
running. Generally, spoke wheels experience greater alignment and balance problems
than disc designs, but with proper installation and torquing, it is possible that spoke
wheels can run virtually trouble free. They produce significantly fewer "wheel-off"
incidents than disc wheel assemblies.

Disc Wheels

Figure 41 - Components of a typical disc wheel

In disc wheels the rim is permanently attached to a centre disc (Figure 41). Holes in
the centre disc allow mounting to the hub studs with nuts.

These one-piece forged steel or aluminium wheels run extremely true. The result is
reduced vibration with longer tyre life, less overall maintenance, easier handling, and
improved driver comfort. Aluminium disc wheels are lighter than steel, so payloads
can be increased. They also dissipate heat faster so tyres run cooler.

Like spoke wheels, disc wheels can be used in single and dual configurations. There
are also two different mounting systems: stud piloted and hub piloted.

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Stud-Piloted Wheel

Figure 42 - Aluminium disc wheel stud-piloted mounting configuration: Single wheel

Figure 42 illustrates a stud-piloted mounting for a single disc wheel. The wheel simply
mounts onto studs on the hub and is secured using single cap nuts.

Figure 43 - Aluminium disc wheel stud poloted mounting configuration: Dual wheel

Figure 43 shows a dual-disc wheel configuration.

Inner cap nuts screw onto the hub studs. The flange on the nut caps rests in the seat
created between the inner and outer wheel. This helps centre the two wheels and
clamp them together. Finally, outer cap nuts screw onto the threaded ends of the
inner cap nuts, thereby securing the entire assembly to the hub.

Hub-Piloted Wheel

Figure 44 - Aluminium disc wheel hub-piloted mounting configurations: (A) Single wheel and
(B) Dual wheel

The hub-piloted system simplifies centring and clamping wheels to hubs. In a hub-
piloted system, the hub centres the wheel. The nuts and studs provide only clamping
force (Figure 44).

A hub-piloted wheel uses one cone locknut per stud, eliminating the need for inner
cap nuts. This significantly reduces the amount of wheel fastening hardware
compared to stud-piloted wheels.

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Over- or under-torquing of stud-piloted wheels can cause broken studs and cracked or
loose wheels. The single flange nuts of hub-piloted wheels are less susceptible to this
problem. In stud-piloted systems, a loose inner nut can easily go undetected,
eventually pounding out the nut's ball seat. With hub-piloted systems, both the inner
nut and its ball seat are eliminated. With the cone locknut design, a flat washer is
seated directly against the wheel face. The non-rotating washer prevents galling of the
wheel surface.

Wide-Base Wheels
Wide-base wheels can also be referred to as high flotation, super single, wide body,
duplex, or jumbo wheels.

Figure 45 - Wide-base wheel mounting configurations

One wide-base wheel and tyre replaces traditional dual wheels and tyres (Figure 45).
Instead of 18 tyres, a tractor/trailer needs only 10. Two traditional wheels are used at
the steering axle, and eight wide base wheels are used at the other axle positions.

Interest in wide-base wheels today is operating costs. Wide-base performance has

steadily improved and the system is now widely available.

Wide-base tyres have been specifically designed to replace duals. Depending on the
dual tyres replaced and the load capacity required, retrofitting with wide-base tyres
need not greatly affect vehicle gear ratios or top speed capability.

Compared to steel dual wheels and tires, aluminium wide-base wheels and tyres are
significantly lighter in weight. This can increase payload capacity. Wide-base wheels
also increase fuel efficiency by decreasing weight and rolling resistance. One factor in
rolling resistance is sidewall flexing. A wide-base tyre has two flexing sidewalls,
compared to four side

walls in a dual configuration. In addition, duals can consume more energy when they
are mismatched by even slight diameter differences or by air pressure differences.
These are not factors when a single wide-base wheel is used.

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Tyre-to-Rim Hardware

Figure 46 - Single piece demountable rim

The tyre can be held on the rim in a number of ways. The simplest is the single piece
rim. A fixed flange built into the edge of the rim supports both sides of the tyre
(Figure 46). Single piece rims are used in combination with tubeless tires.

Tube-type tyres are held on the rim using various side ring and/or lock ring
combinations. Side ring and lock ring designs vary from manufacturer to
manufacturer, so it is important to always use properly matched components.

Two types of side rings are used:

Figure 47 - Side ring configuration: Split side ring

„ Split Side Rings

In two-piece assemblies, the side ring retains the rim on one side of the rim. The
fixed flange supports the other side (Figure 47). The split side ring is designed so
that it acts as a self-contained lock ring as well as a flange.

Figure 48 - Side ring configuration: Continuous side ring with separate split lock ring to secure
it to the rim

„ Flange or Continuous Side Rings.

In three-piece assemblies, the flange, or continuous side ring, supports the tyre
on one side of the rim. The continuous side ring is, in turn, held in place by a
separate split lock ring (Figure 48).

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TYRES
There are two basic types of tyre construction used in heavy-duty applications: bias
ply and radial. It is critical that radial and bias ply tyres not be installed on the same
axle. Radial and bias ply tyres differ in their tread profile, surface contact, and
handling characteristics. The best tyre performance can be achieved by using one
type of tyre construction on all axles.

Dual configurations must never use mismatched tires. All tyres on an axle must be of
the same construction; mismatched tyres on opposite sides of the same axle can cause
drive axle failure. If the left duals are radial, the right duals must also be radials. If the
vehicle has two or more drive axles, the tyres on the drive axles must be either all bias
ply or all radial. It is best if all eight drive axle tyres on a tandem unit are matched.

Figure 49 - Comparison of footprint between a radial (left) and bias (right) ply-type truck tyre

One of the reasons for matching radials is that they deflect more than bias ply tyres
under load. Mixing tyres can cause overloading of the bias ply tyres on the vehicle.
Typical contact profiles or footprints made by a non-radial tyre and radial truck tyre are
shown in Figure 49.

Figure 50 - Construction of (A) bias ply, and (B) radial tires

Radial Tyres
The body ply cords are placed perpendicularly across the tread from bead to bead
(Figure 50a). In addition, radial tyres have belt plies that run circumferentially around
the tire, under the tread. They constrict the radial ply cords and give rigidity to the
tread.

Bias Ply Tyres

The body ply cords lie in a diagonal direction from bead to bead(Figure 50b). The
tyres may also have narrow plies under the tread, called breakers, with cords strung in
approximately the same direction as the body ply cords.

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Body Ply, Breaker and Belt Materials

Tyre body plies, breakers, and belts may be of polyester, rayon, nylon, fiberglass,
steel, or aramids. In radial ply tires, these materials can be used in various
combinations such as steel body steel belt, polyester body fiberglass belt, or nylon
body steel belt.

The basic types of highway truck tread designs are rib, lug, and special service mud
and snow lug.

Rib Type Tread

Figure 51 - Rib Type Thread

Tires with rib type tread are all position tyres (Figure 51).They can be used on all
wheel positions at legal highway speeds. These tyres are always recommended for
front wheel use on tractors and large, straight trucks in long haul highway service.
The open groove design provides maximum steering control and good skid
resistance.

Lug Type Treads

Figure 52 - Lug type tread

Cross lug or cross rib and rib lug type tyres are designed for drive wheel service and
are suitable for most highway operations (Figure 52). These tread designs provide
maximum resistance to wear and better traction. The tyres are suitable for some off-
road operations but do not provide maximum off-road traction.

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Special Service Mud and Snow Lug Treads

Figure 53 - Special service type treads

Special service mud and snow lug tyres are designed for traction on drive wheels for
on and off-road service. They should be selected only when maximum traction in mud
or snow is required (Figure 53).

The type of tyre tread design used is determined by vehicle application and in some
cases by personal preference. The rib type tread is most common for on-highway
operations and is used almost exclusively on steering (front) axles.

Tyre Size
The 22.5in wheel/tyre size has been gaining popularity over 24.5in sizes and is
predicted to be the more widely used wheel/tyre size in coming years.

Size 19.5in tyres are gaining a growing share of the high-cube truck/trailer market
because they are suited for applications in which low trailer floor and fifth wheel
heights are needed to get 110in to 120in door openings. Size 17.5in tyres are used on
some high-cube applications, but these smaller wheel/tyre combinations can
accommodate only a 121/16in brake drum, and the 19.5in wheel can take a 15in brake
drum.

Low-Profile Tyres

Figure 54 - Dividing width by height equals the profile

Low-profile radial truck tyres enhance the 'radial design to produce even lower costs
per mile. The low-profile name comes from the tire's aspect ratio (Figure 54), which,
for any tire, is calculated by dividing the tire's section height (tread centre to bead
plane) by its section width (sidewall to sidewall). Simply put, low-profile tyres are
"squatter" than conventional radials. Advantages offered by lowprofile radials include
lower weight (up to 10 percent less than standard radials), lower rolling resistance

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(again about 10 percent less), greater vehicle stability due to a lower centre of
gravity, a better footprint as a result of improved pressure distribution, high
retreadability, improved fuel economy, better traction, and increased tread life.

TYRE CARE AND MAINTENANCE

Proper tyre care and maintenance is second only to increasing fuel mileage in
reducing overall cost per mile of truck operation. Although this subject appears to be
a simple one, it has been established that most tyres wear fast or fail early due to
neglect. tyre care and maintenance is relatively simple, takes little time, and pays off.

Even with the best maintenance of truck tyres and their related equipment, the
service that the tyre delivers is largely in the hands of the driver. Careless driving
habits can result in tyre damage and shorten the life of a tire.

Tyre Inspection
Regular inspection of tyres is the first step in increasing mileage. An inspection will
help to spot troubles such as underinflation, overinflation, and misalignment early.
Minor damage that can normally be detected and repaired during an inspection could
save a tyre that would otherwise blow out.

Figure 55 - Underinflated tyre

Proper tyre inflation will increase tyre mileage. Underinflation causes abnormal wear
at the sides of the tread because the outer edges of the tyre carry the load, while the
centre tends to flex up, away from the road (Figure 55). This also causes the tyre to
run hotter. Any tyre that is determined to be underinflated should be inflated to the
specified pressure.

Driving on an underinflated or a nearly flat tire, even for a short distance, can cause
severe cord damage. This, in turn, could cause the plies of fabric in the casing to
separate, the tread to separate from the fabric, or both. Underinflation reduces tyre
life and is also the number one cause of blowouts.

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Figure 56 - Overinflated tyre

Overinflation causes abnormal wear in the centre of the tread, because it has to carry
more than its share of the load. Overinflation also shortens the life of the tyre
(Figure 56).

Check for correct pressure when tyres are cool. When a tyre is in use and becomes
heated, the air in the tyre expands, and the air pressure is raised. Normal operating
pressure buildup is 20psi or less. Never bleed tyres to relieve buildup of pressure. If
excessive pressure buildup occurs, one or more factors such as load distribution,
underinflation, or speed could be responsible.

Overinflation reduces the capability of the tyre to absorb ordinary shock and causes
fabric or tread separation, or both, resulting in tyre failure. It will not compensate for
overloading. An overinflated tyre is more vulnerable to snags, cuts, and punctures.

Mechanical Irregularities
Tires in various positions on the truck will wear differently. Due to alignment factors,
the front tyres are more likely to experience abnormal wear than the rear ones.

Figure 57 - Excessive toe-in

When toe-in is excessive, tyre wear appears as feathered edges on the inside edge of
the tread design (Figure 57).

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Figure 58Excessive toe-out

A toe-out condition will show feathered edges on the outer edge of the tyre tread
design (Figure 58).

Camber is the inward or outward tilt at the top of the rim wheel.

Figure 59 - Tyre wear from excessive positive camber

Too much positive camber, (Figure 59) in which the wheel tilts outward will cause the
outside edge of the tyre to wear prematurely.

Figure 60 - Tyre wear from excessive negative camber

Too much negative camber, (Figure 60) in which the wheel tilts inward will cause the
inside edge of the tyre to wear first.

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Figure 61 - Caster angle

As shown in Figure 61, positive caster is the backward tilt of the axle, or inclination of
the kingpin. Too little positive caster will cause the wheel to wander or weave,
resulting in spotty wear. Excessive caster may cause shimmy wear. Unequal caster
from side to side causes the wheel to pull to one side, resulting in uneven wear.

Other mechanical problems that can cause excessive wear include a sprung or
sagging axle, brakes that are out of adjustment, or out-of-round brake drums. A
sprung or sagging axle will cause the inside dual tyre to carry a greater load. Improper
brake adjustments will lead to spotty tyre wear, and out-of-round drums will usually
wear tyres in a single spot. Rapid or uneven tyre wear may also be caused by a
sprung or twisted frame, worn wheel bearings, loose spring clips, or loose torque rods.

Proper Load Distribution

Figure 62 - Load distribution

Improper loading can cause the tyres on one side of the truck or trailer to carry a
greater load than those on the other side (Figure 62). This may affect starting from
standstill causing the driving wheels to slip on the light side or the tyres to wear faster.
Although the gross load may not be excessive, one wheel, one axle, or one side of the
truck may be overloaded due to improper distribution of the load. Equalize the load on
each axle. On semitrailers, distribute the load so that each axle and the fifth wheel are
carrying their shares of the load.

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Speed Rating

Figure 63 - High-speed distortion

All tyres are speed rated. Exceeding rated speed creates heat. Excessive heat
produced by running a vehicle at higher speeds will shorten tyre life. At higher
speeds, the tyre can become distorted (Figure 63). Higher speeds can cause a small
cut to enlarge, causing a blowout. High-speed distortion exerts a strain on the tyre
fabric which may cause tyre failure.

Figure 64 - Speed restricted tyre

The manufacturers of speed restricted tyres (Figure 64) on a vehicle caution the
driver not to exceed the speed limits and guidelines in their manuals.

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Figure 65 - Speed restricted tyre decal

To alert the operator, a decal (Figure 65) located in the cab within the operator's field
of vision advises that the vehicle is equipped with speed restricted tires.

Tyre Rotation and Replacement

Figure 66 - Suggested rotation patterns for (A) two-axle truck, (B) tractor and semitrailer, (C)
three-axle truck, and (D) tractor with tandem axle drive and semitrailer with tandem axle

Tyre rotation procedures are a matter of shop and PM practices. A regularly

scheduled rotation plan can help reduce overall tyre costs. The relocation of tyres
from the front to rear wheel positions depends on the type of truck being operated and
the size and type of tyres (Figure 66).

Safety regulations require a vehicle to have at least 1/8in (3mm) of tread depth on the
front tyres. These tyres can be rotated to driving or trailer axles and used until 1/16in
(1.5mm) of tread remains. Any tyre with less than 1/16in (1.5mm) of tread (as
measured in a major groove and not over wear bars) must be removed from service.
Tyres with the word regroovable molded on the sidewall may be regrooved. These
tires, along with recapped and retreaded tires, should not be used on front wheels.
However, these tyres can be used in other wheel positions until 1/16in (1.5mm) of
tread remains. At this point, they should be replaced.

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Any tyre with an unrepaired fabric break, or one that has been repaired with a blowout
patch or boot, should be replaced, as should any tyre with exposed or damaged body
cords, or a bump, bulge, or knot caused by cord separation.

See Table 1 for the load range designations to replace ply ratings that tyre
manufacturers have adopted.

Load
Ply Rating
Range

F 12

G 14

H 16

J 18

L 20

Table 1 - Load range equivalents for ply ratings

CAUTION:
The load and cold tyre inflation pressure imposed upon a particular wheel or rim
manufacturer's recommendation, even though the tyre may be approved for a higher load
or inflation.

TYRE, RIM AND WHEEL SERVICE

On trucks equipped with disc wheels, tyre service involves removing the disc wheel
and tyre assembly from the wheel hub. On vehicles with cast spoke wheels, the rim
and tyre assembly is removed from the spoke wheel by dismounting the rim clamps.
The spoke wheel/hub is not disturbed.

The variety of wheel systems and wheel/rim combinations makes a detailed

illustration of tire-to-rim mounting and dismounting beyond the scope of a textbook.
Detailed tire-to-wheel/rim changing procedures are available from all major tyre and
wheel manufacturers in service manuals, wall charts, and video programs.

A current rim manual containing instructions for types of rims being serviced must be
available in the service area, and current safety and parts machining charts must be
posted in the work area. The employer must also ensure that only tools
recommended in the rim manual are used to service single and multipiece rim wheels.

TYRE AND RIM SAFETY

WARNING:
Air pressure in an inflated truck tyre mounted on a rim/wheel creates explosive energy.
This pressure can cause the tyre/rim components to burst apart with great force, which
can cause personal injury or death.

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All personnel working with tyres should be familiar with and follow some basic tyre and
rim safety rules prior to demounting and mounting tires. These rules are outlined as
DOs and DON'Ts in Table 2.

DO DON’T

Instruct all tyre and rim-handling personnel

Overinflate tyres.
how to mount tyres safely.

Remove valve cpre to completely deflate tyre

Overload rims.
before disassembling tyre from rim.

Use proper tools both to mount and demount Remove tyre from rim before completely
tyres. deflating.

Use approved rust-retarding compounds to Attempt to correct seating of side or lock rings
keep rims clean and free from rust and by hammering while tyre is inflated. ALways
corrosion. remove air pressure first.

Use corroded, damaged or distorted rims,

Use correct size rim for specified tyre.
rings or rim parts.

Avoid rim damage when changing tyres. Fail to identify different types of wheel clamps.

Examine inside of tyre before mounting and Use petroleum oil or grease on tyre beads or
dry thoroughly if any moisture found. rims because they can ruin the tyres.

Use proper tubes amd flaps with radial tyres. Use mismatched side or lock rings.

Install side or lock ring split directly opposite Inflate tyre unless it is placed in a safety cage
(180°) from the valve stem slot. or a portable lock ring guard.

Use correct tyre lubricant, but sparingly, to

Inflate tyre before all side and lock rings are in
minimise the possibility of fluid entering the
place.
tyre, especially in radial tyre applications.

Table 2 - Tyre and rim safety

Figure 67 - Stay out of the trajectory (danger zone) area

WARNING:
Stay out of the trajectory (danger) zone as indicated by the shaded area in figure 23.26.
Under some circumstances the trajectory may deviate from its standard path. Never
attempt to seat rings while a tyre is totally or partially inflated.

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Removal from a Vehicle

Before removing any tyre and wheel assembly or tyre and rim assembly from the
vehicle, set the spring brakes and chock the wheel assemblies not being removed.
Jack up the vehicle using a heavy-duty jack.

Whenever a vehicle is jacked up, use proper heavy-duty axle stands under the
chassis to prevent personal injury or vehicle damage in the event of jack malfunction
or vehicle tipping. Block front wheels when removing rear wheel and tyre assemblies.
Block rear wheels when removing front wheel and tyre assemblies.

Raise the axle where the wheel and tyre assembly is being removed and support it on
adequate capacity jack stands. Cage the parking brake chamber manually when
working on rear brakes. Apply the parking brake when working on front brakes.

When removing the wheel nuts from spoke wheels, loosen all nuts 114 to 112in and
then rap on the clamps with a hammer to free them from the wheel. It is important to
free the clamps from the wheel before removing the wheel nuts. Failure to free the
clamps may cause them to spring from the wheel under extreme pressure, which
could cause serious personal injury.

NOTE:
Disc wheel nuts for right side wheels generally have right-hand threads, and wheel nuts
for left side wheels usually have left-hand threads.

It is very important, when demounting aluminium wheels, to make sure that the end of
the wheel wrench or socket is smooth. Burrs on the end of the wrench or socket will
tear grooves in the disc around cap nuts which, in turn, may eventually cause the disc
to crack.

CAUTION:
When handling a tyre assembly, remember to lift properly, using your legs as well as your
body. Use caution when servicing the assemblies, wheels and other components to
prevent injury to your hands, feet or body. Do not allow wheels rings or rims, or other
components to fall or drop to the floor.

Deflation and Disassembly

Always examine the tire/rim assembly for proper component seating prior to removing
it from the vehicle. Also be sure to deflate the tyre completely before removing it from
the vehicle for any type of service. Deflate both tyres of a dual assembly.

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Figure 68 - Removing the valve core

When deflating a tire, first reduce tyre pressure by pushing the tyre valve core
plunger; then remove the entire valve core (Figure 68). Be sure to keep your eyes
away from the valve.

CAUTION:
Always use protective glasses or face sheilds when working on wheels and tyres.

Never position your body in front of the rim during deflation. Stand as far as possible
away from the valve stem. Avoid positioning yourself so that your face or body is
immediately over the work being done on any tyre which has pressure.

Do not use a steel hammer to disassemble or assemble rim components. Hammering

rings or rims with steel hammers may cause small bits of steel to break off from the
hammer, the ring, or the rim; these bits could cause bodily harm. Use a lead-, brass-,
or rubber-covered steel-headed hammer, or a plastic mallet. The proper procedure for
dismounting tube and tubeless tyres is illustrated in Figure 69 and Figure 70.

Figure 69 - Removing a tyre from a flat base rim: (A) Positioning tyre removing tool, (B)
Disengaging lock ring from the gutter, (C) Removing lock ring, (D) Lifting rim from the tyre
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Figure 70 - Removing a tyre from a disc wheel: (A) Separating tyre bead from wheel,
(B) Lubricating the tyre bead, (C) Prying the bead over the wheel, (D) Removing the second
bead

Do not add air to a tyre and rim assembly that has been run in a seriously
underinflated or flat condition. The rim and/or tyre can explode. Instead, deflate the
tyre completely, remove it from the vehicle, disassemble all tyre and rim components,
and inspect them for wear and damage.

Inspection
Rims and rings must be matched by size and type. These components cannot be
interchanged except as provided for in the Multipiece Rim/Wheel Matching Chart.
Select the proper tyre size and construction to match the manufacturer's rim or wheel
rating and size. The diameter of the tyre must match the diameter of the rim. Never
use any rim or wheel component you cannot positively identify.

Thoroughly inspect all metal surfaces while the tyres are being checked, including
areas between duals and the inboard side of wheels. Examine for the following:
„ Excessive rust or corrosion buildup
„ Cracks in metal
„ Bent flanges
„ Deep tool marks on rings or in gutter areas
„ Damaged or missing rim drive plates
„ Matched rim parts.

Mark defective parts for destruction to ensure that they will no longer be used. Keep
in mind that a leak in a tubeless tyre assembly might be caused by a cracked rim. Do
not put a tube in a tubeless assembly to correct this problem. Cracked rims must be
destroyed to avoid accidental use. Do not attempt to weld or otherwise repair
cracked, bent, or out-of-shape components.

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Mount Tyre to Rim

Figure 71 - Clean all wheel and rim components before assembly

Remove all rust, corrosion, dirt, and other foreign material from all metal surfaces
(Figure 71). This is especially important in the rim gutter and bead seat areas. Check
the mating surfaces of side/lock rings in multipiece assemblies.

Figure 72 - Painting the rim

Paint the rim with fast drying primer to help prevent rust from forming (Figure 72).
Always allow paint to dry before assembling components.

Apply lubricant to bead seat area, tyre bead, tyre flap, and rim mating surfaces just
prior to mounting the tire. Use only those lubricants recommended by the rim and tyre
manufacturer and never use petroleum, silicon, or water-based lubricants. These can
damage the rubber, cause rust buildup, or produce tire-to-rim slipping.

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Inflation

Figure 74 - Using a portable lock ring guard

Figure 73 - Inflating a tyre in a safety cage

Always inflate tyres in a safety cage (Figure 73) or in a portable restraining device
(Figure 74). Check for proper seating of components before removal from the cage or
restraint. Failure to follow this procedure when inflating a truck tyre could result in
serious injury.

Figure 75 - Using a clip-on chuck with a remote in-line valve and gauge when inflating

Use a clip-on air chuck with a remote in-line valve and gauge (Figure 75). This
enables you to stand clear of the tyre as it inflates. When a tyre is being partially
inflated (without restraining) to roundout the tube or seat the side/lock ring, pressure
must not exceed 3psi. Never attempt to correct the seating by hammering, striking, or
forcing parts into place while the tyre is inflated. Deflate using the remote in-line
valve, remove the valve core to make sure that the tyre is fully deflated and then
remount the tire. When handling and mounting inflated tires, stay out of the trajectory
(danger zone) of flying parts whenever possible.

SPOKE WHEEL INSTALLATION

When mounting the rim/wheel on the truck, use the proper size and type of nut, stud,
and clamp (spoke wheels only). Spoke wheels use rim studs. Rim studs are threaded
on both ends with a nonthreaded section in the middle of the stud. The studs are
coated with an anaerobic locking compound.

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Rim clamp nuts should be kept tight and checked on a regular basis. Checking
alignment of the rim/wheel installation is important because the rims can be drawn
out of alignment when improperly tightened. The following are general installation
instructions for cast spoke wheels:

1. Slide the inner rear or front tyre and rim assembly over the cast spoke wheel and
push it back into position against the tapered mounting surface. Be sure the
valve stem faces out, is centred between the two spokes, and clears the disc
brake callipers (if applicable).

2. Slide the spacer ring over the wheel. Check the spacer ring for concentricity by
rotating the spacer ring around the cast spoke wheel.

3. Slide the outside rear tyre and rim assembly on the wheel, making sure that the
valve stem faces inboard and is located in the same relative position as the inner
valve stem.

4. Assemble ail rim clamps and nuts. Turn the nuts on their studs until each nut is
flush with the end of each stud.

Figure 76 - Wheel nut tightening sequence: (A) Six lug, (B) Five lug, (C) Twelve lug, (D) Ten lug

5. Turn the top nut 1 until it is snug (Figure 76).

6. Rotate the wheel and rim until nut 2 is at the top position and snug the nut.

7. Rotate the wheel and rim until nut 3 is at the top position and snug the nut.

8. Rotate the wheel and rim until nuts 4, 5, and 6 are respectively at the top and
snug these nuts. Because the entire weight of the tyre and rim assembly is on
the top spoke, this criss-cross sequence will ensure an even application of force
at all points on the rim, keeping the rim in proper alignment.

9. Repeat the sequence of tightening the nuts to the manufacturer's recommended

torque.

10. After operating the vehicle approximately 50 miles, check the stud nuts for
tightness in the same sequence. Once each week inspect and retorque wheel
stud nuts.

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Spoke Wheel Runout

Figure 77 - Checking tyre runoput using a wood block and chalk

Anytime a Wheel hub or tyre has been reinstalled, the wheel and tyre runout must be
checked after the wheel stud nuts have been torqued to specifications. To check
runout, position a wooden block approximately 1/2in away from the tyre as shown in
Figure 77. Slowly rotate the wheel and watch the variation in space between the tyre
and block. If runout exceeds 1/8in, adjustment is in order.

Position a piece of chalk on the wood block as shown and rotate the wheel so the
chalk marks the tire's high spots. The high and low (unmarked) areas show which
wheel studs must be loosened and which ones must be tightened.

Loosen the rim clamping nuts that are 180° opposite of the chalk marks slightly and
tighten the nuts on the chalk-marked side. Do not overtorque the nuts. Recheck
runout and repeat until runout is within 118in of spec. If runout cannot be corrected in
this way, inspect for part damage or dirt between mating parts.

DISC WHEEL INSTALLATION

Disc wheels are attached to wheel hubs with either threaded studs and nuts or with
headed wheel studs.

Figure 78 - Headed wheel studs for disc wheels

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A headed wheel stud has either serrations on the stud body or a flat area on the
stud's head to prevent the stud from turning in the wheel hub (Figure 78). In some
disc wheel systems, the end of the stud that faces away from the vehicle is stamped
with an "L" or "R" indicating that left or right hand threads are used. Studs with an "L"
are installed on the driver's side of the vehicle, and right-hand threads are installed on
the passenger side. This ensures that the truck's wheel rotation does not loosen the
nuts. Other systems use right-hand threads only. Whichever is the case, be sure all
hardware is in good condition. Properly install spacer bands on dual spoke rim
assemblies.

Disc Wheels with Conical Nuts

The following are general installation instructions for this type of system:

1. Slide the inner/rear or front tyre and wheel in position over the studs and push
back as far as possible. Use care to avoid damage to threads on the studs and
inspect the valve stem to calliper for clearance.

2. Install the outer wheel nut on front wheels and the inner wheel nut on rear dual
wheels. Run the nuts on studs until the nuts start to contact the wheel. Rotate the
wheel a half turn to allow parts to seat naturally.

Figure 79 - Tightening and torquing sequence for disc wheels

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3. Draw up the stud nuts alternately following the sequence (criss-cross pattern)
illustrated in Figure 79. Do not fully tighten the nuts at this time. This procedure
will allow a uniform seating of nuts and ensure the even face-to-face contact of
wheel and hub.

4. Continue tightening the nuts to torque specifications using the same alternating
method.

5. Install the outer rear wheel and repeat the preceding method. Be sure that both
inner and outer tyre valve stems are accessible.

6. After operating the vehicle approximately 50 miles, check the stud nuts for
tightness. Some break-in seating may be encountered, and the nuts will loosen.
Retighten all nuts to specified torque.
To check and tighten the inner wheel to proper torque, first loosen the outer wheel
nuts several turns and tighten the inner nuts, then retighten the outer nuts.

To prevent losing the seating of the outer wheel when checking the inner wheel
torque, loosen alternate outer nuts, tighten the inner nuts, and then retighten the
outer nuts. Then loosen the remaining outer nuts, tighten inner nuts, and then
retighten the outer nuts. Once each week inspect and retorque wheel stud nuts.

Disc Wheels with Flange Nuts

Figure 80 - Cross section of disc wheel with flange

Figure 80 illustrates a cross-section view of a disc wheel flange nut installation.

1. Slide the inner rear or front tyre and wheel in position over the studs and push
back as far as possible. Use care so that the threads on studs are not damaged.

2. Position the outer rear tyre and wheel in place over the studs and push back as
far as possible. Again use care so that the threads on the studs are not
damaged.

3. Run the nuts on the studs until the nuts contact the wheel(s). Rotate the wheel
assembly a half turn to permit parts to seat.

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4. Draw up the nuts alternately following the (criss-cross) sequence illustrated in

Figure 79. Do not fully tighten nuts at this time. This will allow uniform seating of
the nuts and ensure even face-to-face contact of wheel and hub.

5. Continue tightening the nuts to torque specifications using the same alternating
sequence.

Tube-Type Radial Tires

Use only rims approved for radial tyre usage by the rim manufacturer. Thoroughly
clean all rim components, removing all rust and other foreign material. Make certain
that rim parts match and are not sprung or broken. Cheek the inside of the tyre before
mounting and dry thoroughly if any water is found.

Figure 81 - Mounting of a tube-typre radial tyre

Sparingly lubricate the tyre beads and the tube/flat and rim surface with an approved
lubricant to minimize the possibility of fluid entering the tyre (Figure 23-40). Use tubes
and flaps that are compatible. Radial tubes will have a permanent red band on the
valve stem, below the cap threads, or will have the word "Radial" or the letter "R"
molded or stamped either on the valve stem or on a sleeve or ferrule permanently
affixed to the valve stem. Radial flaps are also identified by the letter "R" in their
designation.

Position the tyre assembly in a safety cage and inflate to the recommended operating
pressure, deflate completely, and then reinflate to the correct pressure. This will allow
the tube, flap, and tyre to properly seat.

Visually check the slot and side ring gap (on a two-piece rim) to make sure that the
bead is seated. A further check should be made by laying the tyre flat and measuring
the space between the rim flange and one of the lower sidewall rim line rings. Take
measurements around the circumference of the rim flange. If the spacing is uneven,
deflate the tyre completely and then disassemble, remount, and reinflate.

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Tubeless-Type Radial Tires

Figure 82 - The procedure for mounting a tubeless tyre on a disc wheel is as follows: (A) Start
the tyre on the wheel, (B) Lubricate the tyre bead, (C) Work the tyre onto the wheel, (D) Start
the second bead onto the wheel, (E) Work the second bead onto the wheel using two tyre tools,
(F) Inflate the tyre in a safety cage

Be sure to use only rims approved for radial tyre usage by the manufacturer.
Thoroughly clean the rim, removing all rust and other foreign material. Also,
thoroughly lubricate tyre beads and rim bead seats with an approved rubber lubricant
(Figure 82).

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Position the tyre assembly in a safety cage and inflate to the recommended operating
pressure. Due to radial truck tyre construction, it may be necessary to use an inflation
aid to help seat the beads of tubeless radial tires. The following two types of inflation
aids are commonly available:

Metal Ring Inflation Aid

Figure 83 -Using a metal ring inflation aid

As shown in Figure 83, this device uses compressed air to seat the bead.

Rubber Ring Inflation Aid.

Figure 84 -Installing a rubber ring inflation aid

The ring (Figure 84) provides a seal between the tyre bead and the rim bead seat,
allowing the tyre bead to move out and seat.

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Figure 85 - Mounting of a tubeless-tyupe radial tyre

Check the bead seating by laying the tyre flat and measuring the space between the
rim flange and one of the three lower sidewall rim line rings (Figure 85). Take the
measurements around the circumference of the rim flange. If the spacing is uneven,
deflate the tyre completely and then demount the tire, remount, and reinflate.

DUAL TYRE MATCHING

Matching of dual tyres is important for several reasons. tyre life is greatly increased
when tyres are properly matched in tread pattern diameter and circumference.
Improperly matched tyres can cause costly mechanical problems due to differential
carrier failure resulting from constant differential action. Improper traction is also
present on mismatched tyres and can cause failure of both tyres in a very, very short
operating time.

The term mating tyres basically refers to matching tyres to the same size. Matching
the tread patterns must also be considered in mating. Ideally both duals should be of
the same tread design.

Before changing wheels and tires, consider the effect that the change may have on
the Gross Vehicle Weight Rating (GVWR) of the vehicle. At the time of vehicle
certification, the GVWR is calculated by adding the vehicle's Gross Axle Weight
Ratings (GAWR): The GVWR and each of the GAWRs are shown on a certification
label (U.S.-purchased tractors) or "Statement of Compliance" label (Canadian
purchased tractors) attached to the left rear door post.

Tyre and rim labels certify the tyres and rims installed on the vehicle for the given
GAWRs. Each GAWR is determined by considering each component of the chassis,
including frame suspension, axle, wheels, and tires. The lowest component's capacity
is the value used for the rating. Therefore, the tyres and rims installed on the vehicle
at the time of vehicle manufacture may have a higher load capacity than that certified
by the tyre and rim label. Tyres and rims of the minimum capacity can be installed
without changing the load limitations. If tyres and rims are installed that have a lower
load capacity than that shown on the tyre and rim label, then the tyres and rims
determine the load limitations (the GAWRs and GVWR will be lower).

When pairing tyres in a dual assembly, the tyre diameters must not differ by more
than 1/4in or the tyre circumference by more than 3/4in. The total tyre circumference
of one driving rear axle must match, as nearly as possible, the total tyre
circumference of the other driving rear axle.

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CAUTION:
The larger the diameter of the tyre, the more likely it will be to overdeflect and overheat.
The smaller diameter tyre, lacking proper road contact, wears faster and unevenly. Tread
or ply separation, tyre body breaks, and blowouts can occur from mismatched duals.

There must be sufficient space between dual tyres for air to flow and cool the tyres
and to prevent them from rubbing against one another. Rims and wheels of the same
size, but of different makes and types, can have different offsets, which would affect
dual spacing. If there is sidewall contact between tyres or between the inside tyre and
the chassis, refer to the tyre manufacturer's catalogue to determine the minimum dual
spacing. Refer to the rim or wheel manufacturer's catalogue to determine the correct
offset.

Installation of a new tyre next to a used or worn tyre is considered mismatching. It is

also critical to use tyres of the same construction (bias or radial) on the drive axle.

Ideally, duals are mated so that they are identical in diameter (height), but a diameter
variation not exceeding 1/4in is generally considered acceptable. If there is any
diameter variation between dual tires, place the larger tyre on the outside. If two tyres
are of equal size, but one is slightly more worn than the other, place the less worn
tyre on the outside. Duals must also be checked for adequate spacing. Make certain
they are not "kissing" (contacting each other) especially at the six o'clock position.
Always make certain the tyres are fully inflated to the specified pressure; otherwise
inaccurate measurements will result. Following are several methods of measuring
dual sizes:

Square Method

Figure 86 - Using a square to check dual tyre matching

Using a square is the standard method of checking dual diameter matching on the
vehicle (Figure 86). The square leg must be placed parallel to the floor to avoid the
tyre "bulge." Measure the distance (if any) between the tyre tread and the square arm
with a ruler. It should not exceed 1/4in.

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Straightedge

Figure 87 - A straightedge positioned across the tyres will detect difference in tyre size

A straightedge can be placed across the four tyres of an axle to compare tyre
diameter. Measurements are taken from the straightedge to the tyre tread where gaps
are present (Figure 87). This measurement is doubled to obtain the diameter
difference. A taut string can be used in place of the straightedge.

Tyre Meter

Figure 88 - Measuring the size of an unmounted tyre using a tyre meter

A tyre meter checks a single tyre for size when it is not mounted to the vehicle
(Figure 88).

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Tape Measure

Figure 89 - Measuring the circumference with a flexible tape measure

A flexible tape measure can be used to check the circumference of an unmounted

tyre (Figure 89). Make certain the tape is in the thread centre. A difference of 3/4in in
circumference is normally acceptable in mated tires.

DUAL SPACING

Figure 90 - Dual spacing with wheel assemblies

Dual spacing for vehicles using disc wheels is determined by the sum of the offset of
both wheels used (Figure 90).

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Figure 91 - Dual spacing with rim assemblies

Dual spacing for vehicles with rims is determined both by the offset of the
demountable rims used and by the width of the spacer band (Figure 91).

Three types of spacer bands are available-corrugated, channel, and corrugated -

channel. Inspect spacer bands for concentricity to ensure that the bands have not
been distorted or bent. If the spacer band must be replaced due to distortion,
misalignment, or corrosion, be sure the replacement band is of equal size. An
improperly sized band may alter the overall vehicle width. Vehicle width may be
limited by state or federal laws.

WHEEL AND TYRE BALANCING

Figure 92 - Weights attached to the rim flange and brake drum are used to balance the wheel
assembly

Wheel balance is the equal distribution of weight in a wheel with the tyre mounted
(Figure 92). It is an important factor that affects tyre wear and vehicle control.

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Front end shimmy and cupping of the tyre in random patterns can be caused by wheel
assemblies that are out of balance or out-of-round. Even wheel assemblies that are
but a few ounces out of balance can make riding uncomfortable and can contribute to
accelerated mechanical wear. The centrifugal thrust caused by a wheel assembly that
is out of balance will not be reduced by loading the truck. A loaded condition will place
additional stress on the wheel, tire, and suspension components, reducing their life
expectancy. Although the correct front wheel alignment is necessary for easy steering
and maximum tyre life, the cause of unstable steering can frequently be traced to
improper balance of front wheels. When this condition exists, the wheel and tyre
assembly should be properly balanced. A vulcanized or retreaded tire, or a tyre that
has a boot in it, may cause an unbalanced condition that cannot be corrected by
balancing. In such cases the tyre should be replaced before attempting to balance the
assembly.

Static Balancing
Radial truck tyres are more sensitive to balance and alignment problems than bias ply
tires. A tire/wheel assembly that is out of balance or not rolling true can cause uneven
tread wear or vibration. In such cases, check for
„ Proper inflation pressure
„ Proper bead seating
Improper bead seating can cause vibration, especially on front axles.
„ Balance
If the tyre is out of balance, it can be balanced on the wheel. However, some tyre
manufacturers recommend vehicle balancing.
„ Proper alignment setting
Different service conditions may require different settings. Always check with the
manufacturer for specific settings if special alignment setting is required.

Alignment
The following are recommendations for how to obtain proper alignment on a heavy-
duty vehicle.

Correct Lateral or Radial Runout

Runout must be corrected to within 1/8in (3mm) before attempting the balancing
operation. In some cases it may be necessary to remount the tyre onto the rim/wheel
assembly.

Loose Wheel Bearing and Kingpins

Either, or both, must be corrected to ensure the balancing operation will succeed.

Wheel Weights
A maximum of 18 ounces of wheel weights may be used to balance any one tire. If
more weight is required, it is suggested that the tyre be removed from the rim/wheel
assembly, rotated 180° and remounted. This will, in many cases, bring the assembly
within the acceptable limits.

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Wheel Weight Distribution

Add equal amounts of weights on each side of the rim/wheel when static balancing an
assembly. This will avoid throwing the assembly out of balance dynamically; so, if a
16-ounce weight is required, install 8 ounces on each side of the rim/wheel assembly,
directly opposite each other.

Preparation of Rim/Wheel
Make sure all old balance weights, mud, dirt, and foreign material are removed from
the rotating assembly before attempting the balance operation.

Tyre Inflation
Be sure tyre pressure is correct.

Rim/Wheel Inspection
Inspect side ring/lock ring openings on the rim assembly. The gap should not be less
than 3/32in or greater than 5/16in. Anything other than this could indicate an
improperly seated lock rind assembly.

Correct Wheel Weights

Use the proper type of balance weight for the type of rim/wheel involved. There is no
point in balancing if the weight will not stay in place because the incorrect weight was
used.

Generally speaking, complaints on tyre and wheel imbalance usually focus on the
front steering axle. Maximum front tyre life is experienced when these tyres are
balanced, when inflation pressure is maintained according to the load, and when front
axle alignment is set according to the conditions. Although, in some instances,
excessive unbalanced conditions in rear drive wheels can cause ride complaints, the
majority of driver complaints will come from unbalanced front tires.

Tires and wheels are affected by two types of unbalance: static and dynamic. Static
unbalance will cause the wheel to bounce up and down when rotating. Dynamic
unbalance will cause the wheel to wobble or shimmy. A tire/wheel assembly that has
been properly static balanced will usually result in a dynamically balanced assembly
(although not 100 percent of the time).

There are four methods of balancing tire/wheel assemblies:

1. Spin balancing

2. Off-the-vehicle dynamic balancing

3. Off-the-vehicle static balancing

4. Use of balancing fluid or material introduced inside the mounted tyre assembly.

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WHEEL HUBS, BEARINGS AND SEALS

Figure 93 - Cross section view of spoke and disc wheel assemblies (single wheel
configurations)

A wheel hub assembly (Figure 93) consists of the following major components (also
Figure 94).
„ Tapered Wheel Bearings
A typical tapered wheel bearing assembly consists of a cone, tapered rollers,
roller cage, and a separate cup that is press-fit in the hub. All components carry
the load with the exception of the cage, which spaces the rollers around the
cone. Each hub has a set of inner and outer tapered wheel bearing assemblies.
The bearing is locked in place on the axle spindle by an adjusting nut and lock
(jam) nut. In other cases, split forged nuts or castellated nuts and cotter pins are
used to secure the hub on the axle. Both inner and outer wheel bearing cups and
the wheel studs are press-fit in the hub. Spoke wheels combine the wheel and
hub into a single unit. On disc wheels, the hub is a separate component in the
assembly. On drive axles, the hub is also the interconnecting point for the drive
axle shaft and wheels.
„ Seals
Wheel bearings are lubricated using either grease or oil. The lubricant is held in
the hub using special oil or grease seals. There are slight differences in bearing
and seal service between grease- and oil-lubricated systems and front and drive
axles.

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Figure 94 - Typical front axle components (oil lubricated)

„ Brake Drums
On a spoke wheel, the brake drum is mounted on the inboard side of the wheel/
hub and is held in place with nuts (Figure 94). Servicing inboard brake drums on
spoke wheels involves removing the single or dual wheel/hub and drum as a
single assembly. This involves removing the hub nut and disturbing hub
components, so bearing and seal service will be required. On disc wheels, the
brake drum is usually mounted on the outboard side of the disc hub (Figure 94).
The drum fits over the wheel studs and is secured between the wheel and hub.
This means the wheel and drum can be dismounted without disturbing the hub
nut. Outboard drums can be serviced without servicing the bearings and seals.

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