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LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

TRENDS IN POLICIES AND PRACTICES
FOR MULTILINGUALISM IN EUROPE

LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

EDITORS: Guus Extra and Kutlay Yağmur

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Guus Extra and Kutlay Yağmur

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Language rich europe
TRENDS IN POLICIES AND PRACTICES
FOR MULTILINGUALISM in europe

Editors: Guus Extra and Kutlay Yağmur

With the support of:

This project has been funded with support from the European Commission.
This publication reflects the views only of the authors, and the Commission
cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the
information contained therein.
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 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

conTenTS

ACKNoWLEdGEMENts........................................................................................................................... 2 PArt 3: NAtioNAL ANd rEGioNAL ProfiLEs

Introduction Guus Extra, Martin Hope & Kutlay Yağmur ............................75
iNtroduCtioN
1. Austria Tanja Nagel, Anke Schad, Barbara Semmler and
Martin Hope.................................................................................................................................................................... 6
Michael Wimmer ..................................................................................................................................... 83

KEy fiNdiNGs ANd disCussioN 2. Bosnia and Herzegovina Jasmin Džindo and Selma Žerić.........91

Guus Extra and Kutlay Yağmur ............................................................................................................8 3. Bulgaria Gueorgui Jetchev.......................................................................................................97

4. Denmark Sabine Kirchmeier-Andersen............................................................. 104
PArt 1: toWArds EuroPEAN iNdiCAtors of LANGuAGE 5. Estonia Kersti Sõstar ...................................................................................................................... 111
PoLiCiEs ANd PrACtiCEs
6. France Louis-Jean Calvet ........................................................................................................119
Guus Extra and Kutlay Yağmur ........................................................................................................ 13
7. Germany Ingrid Gogolin, Joana Duarte, Patrick Grommes........126
1.1 European actors in promoting
8. Greece Sara Hannam and Evagelia Papathanasiou ........................ 131
multilingualism and plurilingualism ................................................................................ 14
9. Hungary Csilla Bartha..................................................................................................................138
1.2 The trilingual formula and plurilingualism........................................................... 19
10. Italy Monica Barni ..............................................................................................................................146
1.3 Language varieties explored in the project................................................... 20
11. Lithuania Irena Smetonienė and Julija Moskvina ..................................154
1.4 Language domains addressed in the survey............................................... 22
12. Netherlands Saskia Benedictus-van den Berg ........................................162
1.5 Data collection and the three-cities approach ......................................... 23
12.1 Netherlands at large......................................................................................................162
1.6 Research methodology ................................................................................................................ 25
12.2 Friesland..........................................................................................................................................169
PArt 2: Cross-NAtioNAL ANALysis of thE LANGuAGE 13. Poland Liliana Szczuka-Dorna ..........................................................................................173
riCh EuroPE rEsuLts 14. Portugal J. Lachlan Mackenzie ...................................................................................... 180
Kutlay Yağmur, Guus Extra and Marlies Swinkels.................................................. 28 15. Romania Alexandru Cernat, Anca Nedelcu,
2.1 Languages in official documents and databases .................................. 29 Stefan Colibaba, Călin Rus, Ruxandra Popovici ......................................187
2.2 Languages in pre-primary education ..................................................................... 34 16. Spain .....................................................................................................................................................................194
2.3 Languages in primary education................................................................................... 38 16.1 Madrid, Valencia, Sevilla Marta Genís ..................................................194
2.4 Languages in secondary education ......................................................................... 46 16.2 Catalonia F. Xavier Vila i Moreno..................................................................201
2.5 Cross-sectional perspectives on (pre-)primary 16.3 Basque Country Iván Igartua ........................................................................ 208
and secondary education ........................................................................................................ 54 17. Switzerland Raphael Berthele, Bernhard Lindt-Bangerter,
2.6 Languages in further and higher education................................................. 56 Susanne Obermayer ...................................................................................................................... 215
2.7 Languages in audiovisual media and press ................................................... 60 18. Ukraine Lyubov Naydonova ............................................................................................... 225
2.8 Languages in public services and spaces ...................................................... 63 19. United Kingdom .................................................................................................................................. 232
2.9 Languages in business.................................................................................................................. 66 19.1 England Teresa Tinsley and Philip Harding-Esch ................ 232
2.10 Cross-sectional perspectives on multilingual 19.2 Wales Hywel Jones ......................................................................................................... 240
profiles beyond education ....................................................................................................70 19.3 Scotland Teresa Tinsley and Philip Harding-Esch ...............247
References in Parts I and 2.................................................................................................................71 19.4 Northern Ireland Teresa Tinsley and
Glossary........................................................................................................................................................................... 73 Philip Harding-Esch.................................................................................................. 254

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LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

acKnoWLeDgeMenTS

the British Council wishes to thank the following persons Partner consortium:
and institutions for their contributions to the publication.
This first edition of Language Rich Europe – Trends in policies
and practices for multilingualism in Europe has been produced
Language Rich Europe co-ordination team: thanks to the extensive, long-term collaboration of our consortium
Karin Berkhout, Secretary of Babylon, Tilburg University of trusted partners, to whom we are extremely grateful for their
Professor Guus Extra, Chair of Language and Minorities, energy and commitment:
Tilburg University
Austria: EDUCULT – Institute for Cultural Policy and Management
Martin Hope, Language Rich Europe Project Director
Belgium: Migration Policy Group, EUNIC in Brussels, Danish
(until August 2012), British Council
Cultural Institute and Universiteit Gent/Ghent University
Simon Ingram-Hill, Language Rich Europe Project Director (Steunpunt Diversiteit en Leren/Director Centre for Diversity and
(from September 2012), British Council Learning)
Christiane Keilig, Communications Co-ordinator, British Council Bosnia and Herzegovina: University of Sarajevo –
Eilidh MacDonald, Project Co-ordinator, British Council Faculty of Philosophy

Nadine Ott, Former Senior Project Manager, British Council Bulgaria: Sofia University – Faculty of Classical
and Modern Philologies
Aneta Quraishy, Senior Project Manager, British Council
Denmark: Danish Language Council
David Sorrentino, Communications Manager, British Council
Estonia: National Examinations and Qualifications Centre
Marlies Swinkels, Department of Culture Studies, Tilburg University
France: Observatoire Européen du plurilinguisme
Dr Kutlay Yağmur, Associate Professor of Multilingualism,
Tilburg University Germany: University of Hamburg, LiMA – Linguistic Diversity
Management in Urban Areas and Goethe-Institut
Language Rich Europe Steering Group members: Greece: South East European Research Centre

Dr Juan Pedro de Basterrechea, Director of Fundraising Hungary: Research Institute for Linguistics –
and Sales, Instituto Cervantes Research Centre for Multilingualism

Professor Guus Extra, Chair of Language and Minorities, Italy: Università per Stranieri di Siena, lend –
Tilburg University lingua e nuova didattica

Professor Mário Filipe, Vice-President, Instituto Camões Lithuania: Lithuanian Social Research Centre – Institute
of Labour and Social Research, State Commission on the
Martin Hope, Director Benelux and EU Office British Council
Lithuanian Language
(until August 2012)
Netherlands: Tilburg University – Babylon, Centre for Studies
Thomas Huddleston, Policy Analyst, Migration Policy Group
of the Multicultural Society, Mercator Kenniscentrum – Fryske
Simon Ingram-Hill, Director Hungary, British Council (from Akademy
September 2012)
Poland: Foundation Institute for Quality in Education
Tony Jones, Senior Adviser (English), British Council
Portugal: ILTEC – Institute of Theoretical and Computational
Dr Elidir King, Director, the Languages Company Linguistics, Instituto Camões
Ulla-Alexandra Mattl, Co-ordinator of EUNIC in Brussels Romania: Centre Education 2000+, EuroEd Foundation
Xavier North, Delegate-General for the French language and Spain: Instituto Cervantes, Universidad Nebrija, Department
languages of France, Ministry of Culture and Communication of Culture of the Basque Government, University of Barcelona
Aneta Quraishy, Senior Project Manager, Language Rich Europe Switzerland: University of Fribourg – Institute of Multilingualism
Joseph Sheils, Former Head of the Department of Language Ukraine: Institute of Social and Political Psychology
Education and Policy, Council of Europe
united Kingdom: The Languages Company, Welsh Language
Wolf von Siebert, Project Management, Language and Integration, Board (conducted initial research), CILT – National Centre for
Goethe Institute Languages (conducted initial research)
Liliana Szczuka-Dorna, Head of Department of Modern Languages,
Poznan University of Technology

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 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Associate Partners: finally, we extend our full and heartfelt appreciation to

the networks of experts, peer reviewers, country profile
Council of Europe, Strasbourg
contributors and translators, who shared their detailed
European Centre for Modern Languages, Graz
knowledge to produce the data on which this report
is based:
We also thank our British Council colleagues in the
Austria
following countries for their valuable collaboration
and assistance: Dr Waldemar Martyniuk, Council of Europe, ECML
Anke Schad, EDUCULT
Austria: Martin Gilbert
Dr Michael Wimmer, EDUCULT
Belgium: Julia Kofler, Kirsi Suutarinen
Peer Reviewer:
Bosnia and Herzegovina: Samir Avdibegovic, Alisa Mulalic
Professor Dieter Halwachs, University of Graz
Bulgaria: Tzvetanka Panova
Denmark: Brid Conneely, Dorte Friis Belgium
Estonia: Ursula Roosmaa Rebecca Marx, Danish Cultural Institute, Brussels

France: Marianne Garcia, Sally Goodman, Sandrine Mahieu Bosnia and herzegovina
Germany: Michael Croasdale Professor Jasmin Dzindo, University of Sarajevo, Faculty of
Greece: Alison Weedall Philosophy
Hungary: Agota Biro, Viktoria Vas Professor Ivo Komsic, University of Sarajevo, Faculty of
Philosophy
Italy: Stephen Benians, Patricia Corasaniti, Susan Costantini,
Isabella Pallone Selma Žerić, English: Expert Associate for Legal Affairs and
Programme Administration
Lithuania: Vilma Bačkiūtė
Peer Reviewer:
Netherlands: Canan Marasligil, Aleksandra Parcinska,
Ranko Risojević, National and University Library of the Republic
Manon de Ruijter
of Srpska
Poland: Alicja Grymek
Portugal: Fátima Dias Bulgaria
Dr Gueorgui Jetchev, Sofia University
Romania: Ruxandra Popovici
Associate Professor Galina Sokolova, Sofia University
Spain: Raquel Fernández-Montes
Peer Reviewer:
Spain (Catalonia): Isabella Petith
Associate Professor Angel Pachev, Department of General and
Switzerland: Caroline Morrissey, Regula Renggli Applied Linguistics, Bulgarian Academy of Science
Ukraine: Elena Gorsheniova, Irina Sukhinina
denmark
UK: Tony Jones
Sabine Kirchmeier-Andersen, Danish Language Council
UK (Wales): Simon Ford
Peer Reviewer:
Professor Anne Holmen, Department of English, Germanic and
Romance Studies, University of Copenhagen

Estonia
Kersti Sõstar, National Examinations and Qualifications Centre
Peer Reviewer:
Tuuli Oder, Tallinn University Language Centre

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LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

france hungary
Members of the French Steering Group: Dr Csilla Bartha, Hungarian Academy of Sciences –
Professor Louis-Jean Calvet, University of Provence Research Centre for Multilingualism
Professor Christos Clairis, European Observatory for Helga Hattyar, Hungarian Academy of Sciences –
Plurilingualism Research Centre for Multilingualism
Valérie Drake, Ministry of Foreign Affairs
Dr Noémi Nagy, Hungarian Academy of Sciences –
Claire Extramiana, Ministry of Culture and Communication Research Centre for Multilingualism
Professor José Carlos Herreras, European Observatory for Peer Reviewer:
Plurilingualism Professor Péter Medgyes, University of Budapest
Michel Lefranc, Ministry of Education
François Monnanteuil, Ministry of Education italy
Professor Monica Barni, Università per Stranieri di Siena
Xavier North, Ministry of Culture and Communication
Silvia Minardi, lend – lingua e nuova didattica
Christian Tremblay, European Observatory for Plurilingualism
Peer Reviewer:
Professor Claude Truchot, University of Strasbourg
Professor Tullio De Mauro, University of Rome
Data collectors:
Claude Bourgeois Lithuania
Dr Kenza Cherkaoui Professor Boguslavas Gruževskis, Lithuanian Social Research
Yvonne Touchard Centre

Peer reviewer: Dr Julija Moskvina, Lithuanian Social Research Centre

Professor Georges-Daniel Veronique, University of Provence Dr Irena Smetonienė, State Commission on the Lithuanian Language
Peer Reviewer:
Germany Professor Meilutė Ramonienė, Vilnius University
Dr Joana Duarte, University of Hamburg, LiMA
Professor Ingrid Gogolin, University of Hamburg, LiMA Netherlands

Dr Patrick Grommes, University of Hamburg, LiMA Dr Saskia Benedictus-van den Berg, Fryske Akademy

Emel Özcep, University of Hamburg, LiMA Dr Cor van der Meer, Fryske Akademy

Barbara Baumann, Goethe Institut Peer Reviewer:

Professor Durk Gorter, University of the Basque Country,
Uwe Mohr, Goethe Institut Donosta/San Sebastian
Rolf C. Peter, Goethe Institut Translators:
Heike Uhlig, Goethe Institut Taalburo Popkema Groningen (Anne Tjerk Popkema)
Wolf von Siebert, Goethe Institut Translator (Arabic): Dr Abderrahman el Aissati, Tilburg University
Peer Reviewer: Translator (Turkish): Dr Kutlay Yağmur, Tilburg University
Professor Marianne Krüger-Potratz, Westfälische Wilhelms-
Universität Münster, Institut für Erziehungswissenschaft Poland
Dr Pawel Poszytek, formally of Institute for Quality in Education
Greece
Dr Liliana Szczuka-Dorna, Institute for Quality in Education
Dr Sara Hannam, formerly of South East European
Research Centre Peer Reviewer:
Professor Władysław Miodunka, University of Kraków
Dr Evagelia Papathanasiou, formerly of South East European
Research Centre
Dr Zoi Tatsioka, South East European Research Centre
Nikos Zaharis, South East European Research Centre
Peer Reviewer:
Professor Angeliki Kiliari, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki

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 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Portugal Catalonia:
Nuno Carvalho, ILTEC – Institute of Theoretical and Professor Xavier Vila, University of Barcelona
Computational Linguistics Peer Reviewer:
Lis Gonçalves, ILTEC – Institute of Theoretical and Professor Miquel Àngel Pradilla Cardona, Universitat Rovira I
Computational Linguistics Virgili

Professor Lachlan Mackenzie, ILTEC – Institute of Theoretical Translator:

and Computational Linguistics Mª del Mar Vilano

Professor Maria Helena Mateus, ILTEC – Institute of Theoretical switzerland

and Computational Linguistics
Professor Raphael Bertele, University of Fribourg,
Fabíola Santos, ILTEC – Institute of Theoretical
Institute of Multilingualism
and Computational Linguistics
Professor Bernhard Lindt, University of Fribourg,
Cristina Faustino, Instituto Camões
Institute of Multilingualism
Professor Mário Filipe, Instituto Camões
Susanne Obermayer, University of Fribourg,
Peer Reviewer: Institute of Multilingualism
Professor Ricardo Salomão, Universidade Aberta
Peer Reviewer:
(Open University, Portugal)
Professor Georges Lüdi, University of Basel
romania
ukraine
Alexandru Cernat, Centre Education 2000+ –
external collaborator Dr Lyubov Naydonova, Institute of Social and Political Psychology

Monica Dvorski, Centre Education 2000+ Peer reviewer:

Dr Yaroslav M. Pylynsky, the Kennan Institute, Kyiv Project
Dr Anca Nedelcu, Centre Education 2000+
Professor Anca Colibaba, EuroEd Foundation united Kingdom
Phillip Harding-Esch, Languages Company
Professor Stefan Colibaba, EuroEd Foundation
Dr Elidir King, Languages Company
Monica Vlad, EuroEd Foundation
Teresa Tinsley, Alcantara Communications
Peer Reviewer:
Dr Călin Rus, Intercultural Institute of Timisoara Nick Byrne, Language Centre at the London School
of Economics and Political Science
spain
Hywel Jones, Welsh Language Commissioner
Madrid, Sevilla, Valencia:
Professor Marta Genís, Universidad Nebrija Meirion Prys Jones, Welsh Language Board

Peer Reviewer: Peer Reviewer:

Professor José J. Gómez Asencio, University of Salamanca Professor Mike Kelly, University of Southampton

Translators: Wales: Professor Colin Williams, Cardiff University

María Ortiz y Carmen Octavio, Universidad Nebrija
Previously also:
Basque Country: Kathryn Board, CILT – National Centre for Languages
Iván Igartua, Department of Culture of the Basque Government
Youping Han, CILT – National Centre for Languages
Xabier Zabaltza, Universidad del País Vasco
Nick Joujou, CILT – National Centre for Languages
Peer Reviewer:
Professor Alberto López Basaguren, University of the Basque
Country
Translators:
Idoia Gillenea, Hitzurun

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LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

inTroDucTion

Martin Hope, Project Director, Language Rich Europe (until August 2012)
As the UK’s international cultural relations organisation, rich environment outside school is as important in building
the British Council is committed to building long-term appreciation and knowledge of other languages and cultures
relationships and trust between people in the UK and other as formal instruction itself. Good language policies can make
countries. Language Rich Europe (LRE), a project we are cities more welcoming for visitors and citizens alike, good
delivering with European Union National Institutes for Culture language practice in business can give companies a competitive
(EUNIC) and a network of committed European partners, is right advantage, a variety of languages on television and radio will
at the heart of our cultural relations mission. Through LRE we create greater tolerance and openness in any society.
aim to promote greater co-operation between policy makers
and practitioners in Europe in developing good policies and The overall objectives of Language Rich Europe, which
practices for multilingualism. Such polices will ensure that is co-funded by the European Commission, are:
languages and cultural exchange continue to be promoted
■ to facilitate the exchange of good practice in promoting
and encouraged at school, university and in broader society.
intercultural dialogue and social inclusion through language
We believe that this is essential if Europeans of all ages are
teaching and learning
to develop a broader international outlook, and if Europe as
a whole is to position itself successfully to do business with ■ to promote European co-operation in developing language
the world’s emerging economic powers in the 21st century. policies and practices across several education sectors
and broader society
Since it was founded in 1934, the British Council has supported ■ to raise awareness of the European Union and Council of
learners of English around the world to communicate more Europe recommendations for promoting language learning
effectively with people from other countries and to enhance their and linguistic diversity across Europe.
employment prospects through face-to-face courses, and more
recently on the web. We also work in partnership with ministries The first research stage, captured in this book, offers a
and regional education authorities to support teachers of English platform for the creation of networks and partnerships
in their professional development. What is less widely known is the among language policy makers and practitioners in Europe.
strong support we give to enhancing the learning of foreign Our ambition is to create a network of 1,200 people drawn
languages in the UK, through our Foreign Language Assistants from the pre-school community, the formal education sector,
programme, through the development of foreign language universities and colleges, the business world, public services
textbooks for UK schools, and through facilitating school in cities, the media, and immigrant associations. We believe
partnerships with teachers and students in other countries. In 2012 that only if all these groups work together will we achieve
we are hosting over 2,500 language assistants in the UK from truly language rich societies in which we understand the
French, German and Spanish-speaking countries and from Italy, importance of languages for the cohesion and well-being of
China, Japan, Oman and Russia. These assistants support our own our communities and societies, and also for our prosperity.
foreign language teachers in primary and secondary schools and
help to enrich the cultural content of our UK classrooms. The work we have done so far would not have been possible
without our consortium of partners and researchers, whom
LRE is part of our commitment as an organisation to supporting I would like to thank for their commitment and patience.
intercultural dialogue and diversity in Europe, a diversity which The team of Guus Extra, Kutlay Yağmur and Marlies Swinkels,
manifests itself in the huge variety and richness of languages supported by Karin Berkhout, at the Babylon Centre for Studies
which we observe around us, wherever we live. We are marking of the Multicultural Society at Tilburg University, deserves special
the completion of the first phase of the project with this publication, praise for completing the huge task of designing the study, pulling
in which we present the findings of baseline research to investigate together all the data, and presenting the findings in this publication.
current language policies and practices in our partner countries,
and to see how ‘language rich’ they are. In the research we have I hope that you will find these initial research findings stimulating,
been ambitious in exploring a variety of language types: foreign and that they contribute to the debate about the usefulness
languages, regional or minority languages, immigrant languages of languages in your country. We certainly do have a language
and national languages. For the latter, we are looking in particular rich Europe, and the challenge we face is how to make the
at the ways that our institutions are supporting the learning of the most of it for the benefit of all.
national language for newcomers – so important for both education
and employment.

Our research has focused of course on the education sector,

which is where languages are commonly taught and learnt, but
we have also been keen to go beyond education and explore
language policies and practices in the media, public services
and spaces, and business. We believe that a language

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 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

The Council of Europe (CoE)

The Language Rich Europe project has chosen to draw on the
results of the Council of Europe’s long tradition and extensive
work in the area of language policy in its forty-seven member
states. Accordingly, the Council accepted an invitation by the
project leaders, the British Council, in partnership with EUNIC,
to be associated with the initial development and piloting phase,
in particular with regard to the use of its policy instruments.

The Council of Europe provides a pan-European forum for

sharing expertise and experience based on common values and
respect for the diversity of contexts. In that spirit it supports the
overall objectives of this project: the exchange of good practice
in promoting intercultural dialogue and social inclusion, the
promotion of European cooperation in developing language
policies and practices and raising awareness of European values
and guiding principles. It is the Council of Europe’s aim to draw
on the results of the LRE project in examining how the impact
of its policy instruments and actions might best be reinforced
in the promotion of linguistic diversity and plurilingual and
intercultural education.

The Council of Europe wishes to express its thanks to the authors

and project leaders for their work and appreciates the considerable
challenge the project faced in attempting to map an extremely
complex construct and its implementation in over twenty different
contexts. It is expected that the consultation on this draft will
provide essential feedback for the next stage of refinement.

While the Council of Europe has offered guidance on its policy

and related actions, it cannot accept responsibility for the
contents of the present report or related documents, in print or
electronic form, which are the sole responsibility of the authors.

Readers are referred to the Council of Europe website

for full and up-to-date information on its conventions,
recommendations, instruments, and intergovernmental
co-operation activities.

dG ii – dirECtorAtE GENErAL of dEMoCrACy

DIRECTORATE OF DEMOCRATIC CITIZENSHIP AND
PARTICIPATION – EDUCATION DEPARTMENT

Language Policy unit

[Link]/lang
Platform of resources and references for plurilingual
and intercultural education

European Centre for Modern Languages

[Link]

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LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Key FinDingS anD DiScuSSion

Guus Extra and Kutlay Yağmur

In spite of the challenges involved in the comparison of Languages in pre-primary education

policies and practices for multi/plurilingualism in different
■ Many EU and CoE documents underline the importance of
national or regional contexts, comparative data presented
early language learning. At pre-primary level, 14 of the 24
in the Language Rich Europe (LRE) study provides a rich source
countries/regions surveyed provide additional support in
of cross-national insights. Leaving aside the degree of
the national language for all children funded by the state.
recognition of multi/plurilingualism, there are multi/plurilingual
The Netherlands and Ukraine devote the most time to this.
policies and practices in all 24 countries/regions surveyed, with
many European Union (EU) and Council of Europe (CoE) ■ Foreign language provision at this level is offered by seven
recommendations being followed. On the basis of both the countries/regions: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Basque Country,
comparative cross-national findings presented here, and the Bulgaria, Catalonia, Estonia, Spain and Ukraine, although
contextual detail provided by our researchers in the national/ it may be partly or fully funded by parents/guardians.
regional profiles in Part 3 of this study, we hope that policy English, French and German are the most common
makers, practitioners, and specialists working in the field will be languages offered.
able to identify good practice, which can subsequently serve as ■ R/M languages are offered by 17 countries/regions, and
a basis for development and knowledge exchange. Below, we provision is mainly funded by the state/region. In some
summarise the key findings for each of countries there are minimum group size requirements to
the language domains surveyed. form a group. The widest variety of R/M languages is offered
in Austria, Hungary, Italy, Romania and Ukraine.
Languages in official documents and databases ■ Provision in immigrant languages in pre-primary education
is not yet very common. However, in spite of the difficulties
■ Legislation on national and regional/minority (R/M)
involved in identifying appropriate teachers and learning
languages is provided in almost all countries/regions, on
materials, three countries (Denmark, Spain and Switzerland)
foreign languages in 14 countries/regions, and on immigrant
do offer support to very young children for the maintenance
languages in only six countries/regions.
and development of their languages and cultures of origin.
■ Official language policy documents on the promotion of In Denmark, national, regional or local funds cover all
national and foreign languages are available in almost all costs for these programmes, while in Spain and Switzerland
countries/regions, on R/M languages in 18 countries/regions source-country related funds partly cover the costs through
and on immigrant languages in only four countries/regions. bilateral agreements.
■ The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages ■ The only country offering early language learning across
(ECRML) has been ratified by parliament in 11 out of the 18 all language types is Spain.
countries surveyed, and signed by government in France
and Italy. In Bulgaria, Estonia, Greece, Lithuania and Portugal,
Languages in primary education
it has neither been ratified nor signed.
■ According to both the EU and CoE, all young European
■ The largest numbers of officially offered R/M languages
children should learn two languages in addition to the
in education emerge in South-Eastern and Central European
national language(s) of the country in which they reside.
countries. In Western Europe, Italy and France are the
In primary education, apart from Italy and Ukraine, all
clearest exceptions to this general rule, as they offer a
countries/regions offer extra support for newcomers
wide variety of languages. The concepts of ‘regional’ or
in learning the national language.
‘minority’ languages are not specified in the ECRML but
immigrant languages are explicitly excluded from it. In ■ Apart from Wales, all countries/regions report foreign
Western European countries, immigrant languages often language provision in primary education. Denmark and
have a more prominent appearance than R/M languages Greece make two foreign languages compulsory, while
but enjoy less recognition, protection and/or promotion. 18 countries/regions have one compulsory foreign
language. In England, Northern Ireland and Scotland,
■ Most countries/regions are familiar with official language foreign languages are optional.
data collection mechanisms and most of them address
■ Foreign languages are taught from the first year of primary
three types of languages: national languages, R/M languages
in 12 of the countries surveyed, from the mid-phase in
and immigrant languages. Five out of 24 countries/regions
seven, and from the final phase only in the Netherlands,
have no language data mechanisms at all: Austria, Bosnia
Scotland and Switzerland.
and Herzegovina, Denmark, Greece and the Netherlands.
Portugal only collects data on the national language. ■ English, French and German emerge as the most commonly
taught foreign languages. In many cases, one of these
■ There is also variation in the major language question(s)
languages is the compulsory subject to be studied by all
asked in official nation-regionwide language data collection
pupils. Italian, Russian and Spanish are other languages
mechanisms. Over half of the countries/regions surveyed ask offered either as compulsory or optional foreign languages.
a home language question, while others ask about the main
language and/or the mother tongue. ■ Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) is
widespread for foreign languages only in Spain, while this
approach is being used in 13 other countries/regions,
although not systematically.

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 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

■ Seven countries/regions report using the Common ■ A number of countries/regions are taking active measures
European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) to increase the supply of language teachers. Basque
explicitly in foreign language learning, although more Country, Denmark, Estonia and Switzerland are recruiting
may base their national/regional standards on its principles national language teachers. Bulgaria, Denmark, England,
and approaches. A1/A2 is the CEFR target for this age group Friesland, Hungary, Lithuania and Ukraine are recruiting extra
of foreign language learning. foreign language teachers. Basque Country, Bosnia and
■ Apart from Denmark and Estonia, R/M languages are offered Herzegovina, Denmark, Northern Ireland, Scotland, Spain and
in 22 countries/regions. R/M language classes and lessons Ukraine are recruiting R/M language teachers. None of the
in other subjects taught through R/M languages are open countries/regions surveyed are actively recruiting immigrant
to all pupils irrespective of language background in 20 language teachers.
countries/regions, although Bulgaria and Greece only target
Languages in secondary education
native speakers of these languages. The offer is rich in a
number of countries/regions, with Austria, Bulgaria, Hungary, ■ Additional support in the national language is provided for
Italy, Lithuania, Romania and Ukraine offering four or more newcomers either before or during mainstream education
R/M languages either as subjects or, in the majority of cases, in 21 countries/regions, with Denmark, Italy and Ukraine
as a medium of instruction. Twelve countries/regions report reporting no provision.
widespread CLIL, with another six reporting it in some areas. ■ As expected, all countries/regions surveyed offer foreign
■ Only five countries/regions report offering immigrant languages in both lower and upper secondary education.
languages at primary level. These are Austria, Denmark, Significant differences emerge, however, in the number of
France, Spain and Switzerland (in the canton of Zurich). compulsory languages offered, the range of languages, the
In France and Switzerland, immigrant language classes monitoring of language skills, the use of CLIL, and the extent
are open to all pupils, while in Austria, Denmark and to which the CEFR is used to evaluate the level achieved.
Spain they are reserved for native speakers of immigrant ■ The only countries/regions to make two languages
languages. Spain and Switzerland offer lessons partly compulsory at both lower and upper secondary level
in school hours, whereas in the other countries they are Austria, Estonia, France, Poland, Portugal, Romania
are offered as extra-curricular activities. Achievement and Switzerland.
in immigrant languages is not linked to any national, regional
■ As expected, attainment targets in line with the CEFR for
or school-based standards, although the development
foreign languages are much better established in secondary
of language skills is monitored in all countries. Lessons in
schools than in primary schools in the participating
immigrant languages are fully funded by the state in Austria
countries/regions, with 13 of them explicitly stating a level
and Denmark, whereas in France, Spain and Switzerland
to be achieved. B2 seems to be the commonly agreed level
they are mainly supported by the country of origin.
for proficiency in the first foreign language, and B1 for
■ In primary education qualified language teachers are the second.
employed to teach languages as follows in the countries/
■ Nineteen countries/regions offer R/M languages within
regions surveyed: 16 out of 24 in the national language,
secondary education. The countries/regions not offering
17 out of 22 in R/M languages, 14 out of 23 in foreign
R/M language education are Denmark, England, Estonia,
languages, and two out of five in immigrant languages.
Greece and Poland.
In Austria, England, France, Italy, Netherlands, Northern
Ireland, Scotland and Switzerland, foreign languages are ■ Eighteen countries/regions monitor the language skills
taught by generally qualified classroom teachers. Pre- acquired either through national/regional or school-based
service and in-service training is widespread in most tests, with only Italy reporting no monitoring. Austria and
countries/regions except for immigrant languages. Wales set no targets for the standard to be achieved, but all
other countries/regions do. All countries/regions offer the
■ A clear area for development in foreign language teaching
languages free of charge to all pupils.
is teacher mobility: nine countries/regions out of 24 report
having no support at all in this area, and only Catalonia and ■ Few countries/regions are making immigrant language
Switzerland report structured teacher mobility programmes. provision available systematically (three in pre-primary and
More should be done to stimulate language teachers to five in primary), and in secondary eight countries/regions
spend more time in the country of the language they out of the 24 responded positively. These are Austria,
are teaching to acquire higher level linguistic and Denmark, England, Estonia, France, the Netherlands,
cultural competencies. Scotland and Switzerland.
■ Full state funding is available for immigrant languages in
Austria, Denmark, England, the Netherlands and Scotland. In
France and Switzerland funding is provided by the countries
of origin of immigrant pupils and in Estonia parents meet
the costs. The only countries/regions offering immigrant
languages in both primary and secondary education are
Austria, Denmark, France and Switzerland.

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LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

■ The most commonly offered foreign languages are English, ■ Twenty-five VET institutions offer R/M languages, with 13 fully
German and French, although other European languages covering the costs. The countries/regions offering R/M
such as Spanish and Italian are also offered. Some immigrant language courses in all three of the VET institutions surveyed
languages such as Arabic, Croatian, Polish, Russian and are Basque Country, Catalonia, Hungary, Northern Ireland,
Turkish are offered as optional foreign languages, and Arabic and Wales. Immigrant languages are only offered in four of
and Turkish have a firm status as examination subjects in the institutions surveyed - one each in Austria, England, Italy
secondary schools in France and the Netherlands. Russian and Wales.
is offered widely in Eastern European countries either as ■ As expected, English, French, German and Spanish are
an R/M language or as a foreign language. prominent among foreign languages, with Russian offered
■ As in primary education, CLIL is widespread in the teaching as an R/M language in some countries/regions and a
of R/M languages, but much less so in foreign languages, foreign language in others. Arabic is also offered in a
with only France reporting widespread practice, and 14 number of VET institutions. The main offer for R/M
other countries/regions reporting localised examples. languages is from countries/regions where there is more
■ Foreign language teachers are well qualified, and only than one official language.
in Estonia and Northern Ireland do general classroom ■ New/primary data was gathered on 65 general/public
teachers teach foreign languages. universities across countries/regions. As is to be expected,
■ There is a little more structured support for mobility at all of the targeted European universities in our sample cities
secondary level than at primary, with Austria as well as provide instruction in the national language because in most
Catalonia reporting that teachers spend a semester abroad cases it is the main language of their student population and
as part of their pre-service or in-service development. it is the official state language. However, in the majority of
Another 17 countries/regions encourage and support universities surveyed other languages can also be used.
mobility of teachers financially, leaving Estonia, France, ■ The international mobility of students and staff, and
Italy, Portugal and Romania as countries where teachers the desire to attract a global and diverse student body,
are less likely to spend time in a target language country. appear to be making English the second language of many
■ In line with EU and CoE recommendations, foreign language European universities. Many textbooks are also being written
teachers in most countries are required to have attained in English.
a certain proficiency level in the foreign language and this ■ A very high number of universities offer language
is measured against CEFR levels in eight countries/regions. courses to non-language students, as recommended
C1 appears to be the most common level required, although by the European institutions. The offer is wide, with 31
B2 is considered appropriate in Basque Country. universities (almost half) giving students the choice of more
■ There is a shortage of language teachers in some than four languages. Only eight universities from our sample
countries/regions, and special measures are being taken do not offer non-language students the opportunity to learn
to recruit professionals with appropriate qualifications and to other languages. The actual take-up of these courses was
encourage people to qualify as language teachers. The most beyond the scope of the research.
active countries/regions in teacher recruitment are Scotland, ■ Almost all universities make special efforts to attract
Basque Country, England, Romania and Switzerland, who are international students. Half also report conscious efforts
all recruiting for teachers in at least three of the four to attract students with an immigrant background at home.
language categories. ■ Student mobility is supported financially by European
universities but only ten of the universities surveyed make
Languages in further and higher education mobility programmes compulsory for language students.
■ New/primary data was collected directly from the largest
69 Vocational and Education Training (VET) centres in our
67 participating cities: the national language is quite well
supported, with 30 out of the 69 VET institutions surveyed
offering a wide variety of support programmes in the
national language, ranging from basic communication to
advanced skills. Twenty-four institutions offer a limited
variety of programmes, while 15 of the institutions surveyed
offer no support.
■ Sixty-two of the 69 VET institutions surveyed offer foreign
languages, with 15 reporting that more than four languages
are taught, 22 offering three to four languages, and 25 one
to two languages. Forty-one institutions offer a wide variety
of programmes, from basic language skills to advanced,
while 18 offer basic language skills only. Twenty-six
institutions align their programmes with the CEFR.

10
 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Languages in audiovisual media and press ■ Around one-third of the cities surveyed have a widely practised
institutionalised strategy for promoting multilingualism, and half
■ To explore the diversity of languages in the media, we asked of the cities surveyed report that the offer of multilingual
our researchers to record the languages offered during one services is widely practised. Only ten cities out of the
week on national radio and television according to the best- 63 cities surveyed do not provide multilingual services.
selling newspapers in the cities surveyed. Most participating Twenty-three cities make it policy to include language skills
countries/regions offer some radio and television broadcasting in the job descriptions of their staff, and 18 provide
in languages other than the national language. Catalonia widespread language training for staff. The five cities with
provides television broadcasting in a rich variety of foreign, the most developed policies according to the data are in
R/M, and immigrant languages. Hungary and Italy provide ranked order Vienna, Barcelona, London, Milan and Kraków.
radio broadcasting in more than ten languages.
■ The most multilingual provision is in tourism, immigration
■ In terms of dubbing and subtitling, LRE findings are and integration, legal services (oral communication) and
comparable to earlier studies, with around half of the transport services (written communication). Health services
countries/regions commonly using dubbing practices, while are also commonly offered in a number of languages.
the other half commonly provide subtitles. The countries/ The lowest levels of multilingual services are in the cultural
regions where both television and cinema are dubbed are sector (theatre) and political debates/decision making.
Austria, Catalonia, Hungary, Italy, Northern Ireland, Poland and Education services also do not rank as high as one might
Spain. The countries/regions where subtitles are used on both expect, given the large number of students (and their
television and cinema are Bosnia and Herzegovina, Denmark, parents) attending schools across Europe who are not
England, Estonia, Friesland, Greece, the Netherlands, Portugal, fluent in the official language of the country where they
Romania, Scotland, Switzerland and Wales. Other countries/ are educated.
regions have a hybrid approach where programmes are
subtitled in one medium and dubbed in the other. ■ Seventeen cities offer most of the above services in
more than four languages, while 23 offer them in three or
■ Regarding the availability of newspapers at the largest kiosks four languages. The cities which report offering the most
and train stations in our surveyed cities in each country/ oral communication services in the most languages are in
region, all researchers went into the kiosks and train stations ranked order London, Aberdeen, Glasgow, Madrid, Valencia,
and listed the available different newspapers in different Zurich, Milan, Belfast, Barcelona and Lugano.
languages, following the methodology of linguistic
landscaping, to provide a snapshot at a given place and time. ■ A lower number of cities responded as positively for written
Overall, newspapers in English were the most common, communication services, with only six reporting that most
followed by German, and, at a distance, by French, Russian services are offered in more than four languages and 27 in
and Italian. Arabic and Turkish newspapers also figured three or four languages. This might suggest that cities place
prominently. less emphasis on providing documents in multiple languages
than in providing on-the-spot oral interpreting and mediation.
■ Recognition of sign languages, and the availability of
sign languages for important media events was also ■ English is by far the most widely offered language other than
investigated. Sign languages are officially recognised/ the national language for oral and written services in all
promoted in all countries/regions with the exception of cities surveyed, followed in ranked order by German,
Basque Country, Denmark, Greece, Italy and Poland. People Russian, French and Spanish. Chinese and Arabic also
who are deaf can always make use of sign languages in emerge as high priority and are offered by a number of
official interactions with authorities in half of the countries/ cities. Welsh, Catalan and Basque are used widely in public
regions surveyed. Facilities for sign languages on television services in the regions in which they are spoken. The
at important media events are always available in Estonia outcomes for the most frequently reported languages in
and regularly available in another nine countries/regions. public services are very similar to those obtained for
However, in Italy, Poland and Romania researchers report languages of newspapers.
that these facilities are not available. ■ We can infer that there are basically three types of target
groups for oral and written communication services in public
services and spaces: a) international travellers, business
Languages in public services and spaces
people and tourists b) immigrant groups, and c) speakers
■ Language policies and strategies at city level were explored, and readers of R/M languages.
as well as the number of languages in which public services
■ In most city websites, English is the main language next to
are offered. In addition, city representatives reported
the national language. German and French are also quite
the actual languages available in both written and oral
common across our sample of cities. Some second largest
communication in education, emergency, health, social,
cities have more multilingual websites than the capital city
legal, transport, immigration, and tourism services,
in the same national context. For instance, while Rome offers
as well as theatre programmes.
information only in Italian and English, industrial Milan offers
■ Sixty-three cities in total were surveyed, the basic criteria for information in eight different languages next to Italian. The
selection being that in each country a capital city, the second same phenomenon is observed in Poland for Kraków versus
largest city, and a city/town with a regional language presence Warsaw. In the regional cities surveyed, English is again the
were chosen. According to our researchers’ reports, all the most common language used on city websites next to the
cities combined provide services in 140 languages other than national languages.
the national language.

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LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Languages in business Discussion

■ LRE developed a survey to explore the language The comparative findings presented above highlight a multitude
strategies of companies, to find out whether they prioritise of interesting trends in policies and practices for multi/
and support language training for their employees, and also plurilingualism in the European context. While some countries/
to establish the range of languages used to communicate regions have highly developed policies and practices in specific
with customers and in promotional materials. The criteria domains, others need to develop further if they wish to align
investigated are divided into three main categories: general themselves more closely with European recommendations and
company language strategies, internal language strategies, create more language-rich societies. Of all the language domains
and external language strategies. researched, it is in primary and secondary education where
■ Data was collected from a selected set of companies most efforts are being made to promote multi/plurilingualism.
based in cities across all countries/regions and 484 However, in early language learning, and in the sectors of further
companies were surveyed in total. Four business sectors and higher education, the media, public services and spaces
were targeted (banks, hotels, building construction and business, the LRE research findings suggest that the
companies and supermarkets). Overall, although the officially declared commitment of European countries/regions to
number of hotels participating was relatively high compared support multi/plurilingualism still needs to be turned into action
to other sectors, there was a good balance of sectors. plans and practices at the local and institutional level.

■ In the area of general language strategies, a quarter of Of all the non-national language varieties researched, immigrant
the companies surveyed have an explicit languages strategy languages are the least recognised, protected and/or promoted,
in place and over half take languages into account when in spite of all affirmative action at the European level. More
recruiting. A quarter regularly encourage mobility of staff attention to languages other than national ones would allow
for language learning and development of intercultural European cities and enterprises to become more inclusive
awareness. However, 70% do not keep a record in the context of increasing mobility and migration in Europe.
of staff language skills, and very few take advantage of
EU programmes for language learning. We believe that the findings presented here go beyond the
current state of our knowledge with regard to language policies
■ Widespread provision of language training is reported
and practices in Europe from four different perspectives:
for business English in 27% of the companies surveyed, with
(i) the high number of participating European countries and
14% offering support in the national language for non-native
regions, (ii) the broad spectrum of chosen language varieties
speakers, and 12% for other languages. A relatively small
in the constellation of languages in Europe, (iii) the range of
percentage have reward or promotion schemes for language
chosen language domains within and beyond education (iv)
learning, with 11% reporting that it is widespread for
the publication and dissemination of the outcomes of this study
business English and only 5% for the national language and
in 20 languages. The scope and magnitude of the LRE survey,
other languages. The number of companies forging
resulting in a huge database on a range of language policies
partnerships with the education sector to develop the
and practices within and beyond education sectors, can be
language skills of their staff also appears modest, with a
expressed in a formula of 260 questions in total raised for 24
quarter doing so either regularly or occasionally for English,
countries/regions and 67 cities which amount to 6,240 scored
17% for the national language for non-native speakers, and
and analysed values (minus partial data for Friesland only).
14% for other languages.
■ In the sectors surveyed just under half of the companies use As will be mentioned in the introduction to Part 1 of this
business English widely in addition to the national language publication, the purpose of the draft indicators developed
in external communications, and as many as 30% use other through the LRE project is to act as a tool to support countries
languages in addition to English and the national language and regions in evaluating themselves against EU and CoE
on their websites. documents on multilingualism and plurilingualism. Through this
■ In ranked order, German, Russian, French, Spanish and Italian process, we aim to raise awareness at both the public and the
emerge as the most commonly used languages other than political macro-level among European, national and regional
English by the companies surveyed, reflecting the strong language policy makers, and motivate key stakeholders across a
internal market in Europe. Chinese, Japanese, Arabic and variety of sectors, languages and countries/regions to take
Turkish are also valued and supported by some of the action. Suggestions for further indicators are welcome, as is an
companies surveyed, although perhaps higher prioritisation active response to our findings.
of these might be expected.

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 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

parT 1

Towards European Indicators

of Language Policies and Practices
Guus Extra and Kutlay Yağmur

Introduction
This publication is part of the Language Rich Europe (LRE) The purpose of the draft indicators developed through the
project, co-financed by the European Commission (EC) under its project is to act as a tool to support countries and regions
Lifelong Learning Programme (LLP), and initiated by the British in evaluating themselves against EU and CoE documents on
Council, the UK’s international organisation for educational multilingualism and plurilingualism. Through this process, we
opportunities and cultural relations. The project is managed by aim to raise awareness at both the public and the political
the British Council, and supervised by a Steering Group made macro-level among European, national and regional language
up of representatives of European Union National Institutes policy makers, and motivate key stakeholders across a variety
for Culture (EUNIC) and our partner organisations. of sectors, languages and countries/regions to take action.
Suggestions for further indicators are welcome, as is an active
Babylon, Centre for Studies of the Multicultural Society at response to our findings. We hope that the outcomes presented
Tilburg University, has led on the research element of the here will trigger relevant follow-up case studies and in-depth
project, developing draft indicators based on European research into micro-level policies and practices on
Union (EU) and Council of Europe (CoE) resolutions, conventions multilingualism and plurilingualism.
and recommendations to examine language policies and
practices in 25 countries and regions, constructing and There are obvious limitations to what can be achieved in a
administering the research questionnaire among our partner survey study like this. These limitations will be addressed in
network, processing and analysing the data, and writing up the Section 1.6 in terms of validity issues. However, we believe
cross-national outcomes of data collection. Our research that the results we present go beyond the current state of our
partners in each country/region have complemented the data knowledge with regard to language policies and practices
collected with their own analysis of the findings, supported by in Europe from four different perspectives:
examples of good practice and promising initiatives.
■ the high number of participating countries and regions – 25
The overall objectives of the LRE project are: ■ the spectrum of chosen language varieties in the
constellation of languages in Europe – we look at foreign,
■ to facilitate the exchange of good practice in promoting
regional or minority, immigrant and national languages,
intercultural dialogue and social inclusion through language
the latter with a special focus on support for newcomers
teaching and learning
■ the range of chosen language domains within and beyond
■ to promote European co-operation in developing language
education to include business, public services and spaces
policies and practices across several education sectors
in cities, and the media
and broader society
■ the publication and dissemination of the outcomes of this
■ to raise awareness of the EU and CoE recommendations
study in 20 languages.
for promoting language learning and linguistic diversity
across Europe.
Sections 1.1 and 1.2 offer background information on European
actors in promoting multilingualism and plurilingualism, and
on the so-called trilingual formula. Sections 1.3 and 1.4 focus
on the language varieties and language domains explored
in the project. Section 1.5 goes into data collection and our
three-cities approach. The research methodology employed
in this project is addressed in the final Section 1.6.

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LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

1.1 European actors in promoting

multilingualism and plurilingualism
Linguistic diversity is a key property of Europe’s identity, and In 2003, the EC committed itself to undertake 45 new actions
both the EU Institutions based in Brussels and the Council of to encourage national, regional and local authorities to work towards
Europe based in Strasbourg have been active in promoting a ‘major step change in promoting language learning and linguistic
language learning and multilingualism/plurilingualism. The major diversity’. The EC’s first ever Communication on Multilingualism,
language policy agencies in these two institutions are the Unit A New Framework Strategy for Multilingualism, was adopted in
for Multilingualism Policy within the Directorate-General of November 2005, and complemented its action plan Promoting
Education and Culture in the European Commission and the Language Learning and Linguistic Diversity. The EC Communication
Language Policy Unit of the Directorate of Education in the (2005) set out three basic strands to the EU’s multilingualism policy:
Council of Europe. The work done by these agencies underpins
the important resolutions, charters and conventions produced 1. ensuring that citizens have access to EU legislation, procedures
by the respective bodies. Baetens Beardsmore (2008) gives an and information in their own language
insightful overview of both EU and CoE language promotion 2. underlining the major role that languages and multilingualism
activities in the past. play in the European economy, and finding ways to develop
this further
A search for multilingualism publications on [Link]
yields key EU documents in a range of languages organised 3. encouraging all citizens to learn and speak more languages,
under five headings: EU policy documents, information brochures, in order to improve mutual understanding and communication.
reports, studies, and surveys. On the CoE site, [Link]/lang,
publications are offered in the domains of policy development, The importance of multilingualism to the EC was underlined by the
instruments and standards, languages of school education, appointment of a special European Commissioner, Leonard Orban,
migrants, conference reports and selected studies. to manage the portfolio for the very first time at the beginning of
2007, although in the 2009 Barroso reshuffle it became part of the
The CoE makes a distinction between plurilingualism as a remit of the Commissioner for Education, Culture, Multilingualism and
speaker’s competence (ability to use more than one language) Youth. Under Commissioner Orban, the EC produced their 2008
and multilingualism as the presence of various languages in Communication, Multilingualism: an Asset for Europe and a Shared
a given geographical area. The EU uses multilingualism for Commitment, which established language policy as a transversal
both (sometimes specifying ‘multilingualism of the individual’). topic which contributed to all other EU policies. The Communication
Throughout the report both concepts multilingualism and set out what needed to be done to turn linguistic diversity into an
plurilingualism are quoted. asset for solidarity and prosperity. The two central objectives for
multilingualism policy were:
The European Union (EU)
■ to raise awareness of the value and opportunities
Within the EU, language policy is the responsibility of individual
of the EU’s linguistic diversity and encourage the
Member States. EU institutions play a supporting role in this field,
removal of barriers to intercultural dialogue
based on the ‘principle of subsidiarity’. Their role is to promote
co-operation between the Member States and to promote the ■ to give all citizens real opportunities to learn to communicate
European dimension in national language policies. Within the in two languages in addition to their mother tongue.
three constituent bodies of the EU, that is the Council of the
European Union, the European Commission (EC), and the Member States were invited to offer a wider range of languages
European Parliament, multilingualism has been a key area of more effectively within the education system from an early age up
focus for a number of years. to adult education and to value and further develop language skills
acquired outside the formal education system. Moreover, the EC
EU language policies aim to protect linguistic diversity and stated its determination to make strategic use of relevant EU
promote knowledge of languages, for reasons of cultural identity programmes and initiatives to bring multilingualism ‘closer
and social integration, but also because multilingual citizens are to the citizen’.
better placed to take advantage of the educational, professional
and economic opportunities created by an integrated Europe. The Commission Staff Working Document (2008), accompanying
Multilingualism policy is guided by the objective set by the the above-mentioned EC Communication, presents a good overview
Council of the EU in Barcelona in 2002 to improve the mastery of existing EU activities supporting multilingualism. The EC
of basic skills, in particular by teaching at least two additional Communication (2008) was welcomed and endorsed by resolutions
languages from a very early age. This in turn had built on the from both the Council of the EU (2008) and the European Parliament
seminal 1995 White Paper on Teaching and Learning, which (2009), with the emphasis on lifelong learning, competitiveness,
advocated that everyone should learn two European languages. mobility and employability. In 2011 the EC reported back on
‘European’ was removed in later documents. In addition, progress since 2008 and provided a full inventory of EU actions
Barcelona called for the establishment of a language in the field. It also looked forward to the Strategic Framework for
competence indicator. European Cooperation in Education and Training (ET 2020) in which
language learning is identified as a priority, with communication
in foreign languages one of eight key competences to improve
the quality and efficiency of education and training. Also included
as core skills are communication in the mother tongue, mediation
and intercultural understanding.

14
 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

The report underlines that language skills are crucial for One of the specific LLP objectives is to promote language
the Agenda for new skills and jobs initiative, as they enhance learning and linguistic diversity. Proposals for language projects,
employability. They are also a prerequisite for mobility and networks and other language-oriented activities (for instance
hence for the successful implementation of the new flagship linked to mobility of students, teachers and workers) can be
initiative Youth on the Move. More broadly, language skills have submitted for European co-funding under the different parts
the potential to encourage and facilitate the exercise of the of the programme. All languages – official, national, regional,
right of EU citizens to free movement and residence in the minority, and migrant languages – are eligible under this
territory of the Member States and to stimulate the cross-border programme. The Language Rich Europe programme is
exercise by citizens of a broad range of rights conferred to co-funded under the KA2 (Networks) Programme.
them under EU law.
The Council of Europe (CoE)
Key statistics on language learning and teaching in the EU are
collected in the context of Eurydice and Eurobarometer surveys. Founded on 5 May 1949, the CoE is an intergovernmental
Of major importance for the primary and secondary education organisation with 47 Member States, including the 27 European
domains of our LRE questionnaire are the reports Key data on Union States.
teaching languages at school in Europe (Eurydice 2008, updated
The CoE’s mission is to promote human rights, parliamentary
version of 2005 report) and Integrating Immigrant Children into
democracy and the rule of law. These core values underpin its
Schools in Europe (Eurydice 2009), as well as two Eurobarometer
actions in all areas, including language policy which draws on
reports on language skills of European citizens and their attitudes
three distinct but complementary dimensions of the
towards languages (Eurobarometers 2001 and 2006). The above-
organisation’s work: conventions, recommendations, and
mentioned report to the EC by Strubell et al. (2007) also contains
technical instruments.
key data on student enrolments in language classes in primary,
lower and upper secondary education in EU countries; moreover, The European Cultural Convention encourages states to support
the report offers an analysis of cross-national results and trends, the study of each others’ languages, history and civilisation. The
and concludes with a range of recommendations. European Social Charter ensures the right of migrant workers
and their families to learn the language(s) of the receiving state
Specific numbers of language learners and school learning exams,
and supports the teaching of the migrant worker’s mother
as well as types of language competences may be addressed in a
tongue to the children of the migrant worker.
follow-up version of the LRE questionnaire. We will explore the
opportunities for synergies between data collection for the current Two CoE conventions are directly concerned with European
LRE project and for the European Language Monitor (ELM) and the standards to promote and safeguard linguistic diversity and
European Survey on Language Competences (ESLC), respectively language rights – the European Charter for Regional or Minority
(see the websites of the two projects for work in progress). The Languages and the Framework Convention for the Protection of
focus of the ELM project is on official state languages; it has a National Minorities. The Charter is a cultural instrument designed
special section on instruction in and use of official state languages to protect and promote regional or minority languages as a
versus English at university level. The initial focus of the ESLC threatened aspect of Europe’s cultural heritage. It provides for
project is on students’ competence in English, French, German, specific measures to support the use of this category of
Italian and Spanish as their first and second foreign language in languages in education and the media, and to permit their use in
their final year of lower secondary education or their second year judicial and administrative settings, economic and social life and
of upper secondary education, depending on the given cultural activities. The Framework Convention specifies the
educational context. The first ESLC report has recently been made conditions necessary for persons belonging to national minorities
available by the EC (2012) and contains data of almost 54,000 to maintain and develop their culture, and to preserve the
students enrolled in 14 participating countries. Curriculum- essential elements of their identity, namely their religion, language,
independent tests were designed, standardised and applied for traditions and cultural heritage.
reading, listening and writing skills in each of the five languages
referred to and linked to the Common European Framework of States which have ratified these conventions are monitored with
Reference for Languages (CEFR) levels. The ESLC results show an regard to their fulfilment of the commitments they have
overall low level of competences in both first and second foreign undertaken.
languages tested. In addition, the outcomes vary greatly across
countries, chosen languages, and measured language skills. CoE recommendations are authoritative statements to national
authorities on guiding principles and related implementation
The main EC funding programme for 2007–13 to support measures, but are not legally binding. The following are among the
multilingualism is the Lifelong Learning Programme (LLP), most relevant for the purposes of this project:
which brings the various European education and training
initiatives under a single umbrella with a budget of nearly ■ Recommendation No. R (98) 6 of the Committee of Ministers
€7 billion for the seven year period. The LLP, the successor on Modern Languages (1998) emphasising intercultural
of Socrates, which ran from 1994–2006, consists of four sub- communication and plurilingualism as key policy goals and
programmes, each one addressing a specific education sector: proposing concrete measures for each educational sector
Comenius (schools), Erasmus (higher education), Leonardo da and for initial and in-service teacher education. The
Vinci (vocational education and training) and Grundtvig (adult appendix to this recommendation specifies comprehensively,
education). A cross-cutting programme complements these four for each educational sector, ways in which plurilingualism
sub-programmes, including a so-called Key Activity (KA) on may be established as an overarching aim in a coherent
languages. Finally, the Jean Monnet programme stimulates concept of language education in all the Member States of
teaching, reflection and debate on the European integration the CoE
process at higher education institutions worldwide.

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LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

■ Recommendation 1383 (1998) of the Parliamentary Assembly dynamic plurilingual lifelong learning perspective. Developed
of the Council of Europe on Linguistic Diversification stating through a process of scientific research and wide consultation,
that ‘Europe’s linguistic diversity is a precious cultural asset the CEFR provides a practical tool for setting clear goals to be
that must be preserved and protected’ and that ‘there attained at successive stages of learning and for evaluating
should therefore be more variety in modern language outcomes in an internationally comparable manner. It provides a
teaching in the CoE Member States; this should result in the basis for the mutual recognition of language qualifications, thus
acquisition not only of English but also of other European facilitating educational and occupational mobility. It is increasingly
and world languages by all European citizens, in parallel with used in the reform of national curricula and by international
the mastery of their own national and, where appropriate, consortia for relating of language certificates, in Europe and
regional language’ beyond, and is available in over 35 language versions.
■ Recommendation 1539 (2001) of the Parliamentary Assembly
The European Language Portfolio (2001) is a personal document
of the Council of Europe on the European Year of Languages
in which those who are learning or have learned any language –
calling upon the Member States to ‘maintain and develop
whether at school or outside school – can record and reflect on
further the CoE’s language policy initiatives for promoting
their language learning and cultural experiences. It is the
plurilingualism, cultural diversity and understanding among
property of the learner. In the Portfolio, all competence is
peoples and nations’ and to ‘encourage all Europeans to
valued, regardless of the level or whether it is gained inside or
acquire a certain ability to communicate in several languages,
outside formal education. It is linked to the CEFR.
for example by promoting diversified novel approaches
adapted to individual needs …’ The Guide for the Development of Language Education Policies
■ Recommendation Rec (2005)3 of the Committee of Ministers in Europe (Beacco and Byram 2007) is an analytical instrument
on teaching neighbouring languages in border regions urging which can serve as a reference document for the formulation or
the governments of Member States ‘to apply the principles of re-organisation of language teaching policies to promote
plurilingual education, in particular by establishing conditions plurilingualism and diversification in a planned manner so that
that enable teaching institutions in border regions at all levels decisions are coherently linked. The Guide conceives of
to safeguard or, if need be, introduce the teaching and use plurilingualism as a single competence, encompassing –
of the languages of their neighbouring countries, together potentially – several languages with usually varying levels of
with the teaching of these countries’ cultures, which are proficiency, ‘a communicative competence to which all
closely bound up with language teaching’ knowledge and experience of language contributes and in which
languages interrelate and interact’.
■ Recommendation 1740 (2006) of the Parliamentary
Assembly on the place of the mother tongue in school The above-mentioned policy instruments were developed by the
education encouraging young Europeans to learn their Language Policy Division (now Language Policy Unit) which has
mother tongue (or main language) when this is not an recently launched a Platform of Resources and References for
official language of their country, while pointing out that Plurilingual and Intercultural Education ([Link]/lang). This
they have the duty to learn an official language of the site expands the scope of consideration beyond the domain of
country of which they are citizens modern foreign languages and including classical languages,
■ Recommendation No. R (2008) 7 of the Committee of languages of migrants and, significantly, languages of schooling.
Ministers on the use of the CEFR and the promotion of This refers to languages such as German in Germany and
plurilingualism outlining general principles and measures to Swedish in Sweden – taught as school subjects and used as the
be implemented by authorities responsible for language medium of instruction for other school subjects (taking into
education at national, regional and local level as well as account the key role of language in knowledge building in all
specific measures aimed at policy making, curriculum and subjects). The Platform offers an open and dynamic resource,
textbook development, teacher training, and assessment. with system of definitions, points of reference, descriptions and
descriptors, studies and good practices which Member States
What might be described as ‘technical’ instruments in the field of are invited to consult and use in support of their policy to
language education are generally reference tools, always non- promote equal access to quality education according to needs,
normative, which policy deciders and practitioners may consult resources and educational culture.
and adapt as appropriate to their specific educational context
and needs. These instruments include the widely used Common Accompanying the Platform is the Guide for the development
European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR), the and implementation of curricula for plurilingual and intercultural
European Language Portfolio (ELP), policy guides, and a variety education which is currently being piloted in different sectors of
of other practical tools developed through the programmes of formal education. The Guide is intended to facilitate improved
the Language Policy Unit in Strasbourg and the European Centre implementation of the values and principles of plurilingual and
for Modern Languages in Graz. intercultural education in the teaching of all languages – foreign,
regional or minority, classical, and languages of schooling. It
The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages provides a general picture of the issues and principles involved
(2001) was designed to promote plurilingual education and to in designing and/or improving curricula, and of pedagogical and
be adapted to the specific contexts of use. The CEFR offers a didactic approaches which open the way to fuller realisation of
common basis for developing and comparing second/foreign the general aim of plurilingual and intercultural education.
language curricula, textbooks, courses and examinations in a

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 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

In the work of the CoE, plurilingual and intercultural competence The LPU also provides expert assistance to Member States
is the ability to use a plural repertoire of linguistic and cultural in carrying out reviews of language education policy, and has
resources to meet communication needs or interact with people been involved with policy development for the education of
from other backgrounds and contexts, and enrich that repertoire minorities. Its recent work deals particularly with the languages of
while doing so. Plurilingual and intercultural education takes into schooling (including the needs of disadvantaged students) in the
account the repertoire of languages, and the cultures associated wider context of plurilingual and intercultural education, and with
with those languages, which individual learners have acquired, language policies related to the integration of adult migrants.
whether formally recognised in the school curriculum or not –
languages of schooling (as subject and medium of instruction), The programmes of the LPU are complemented by those of the
regional/minority languages, modern foreign and classical European Centre for Modern Languages (ECML) – an Enlarged
languages, and immigrant languages. The CoE encourages a Partial Agreement of the Council of Europe set up in 1994 in
holistic approach that develops increased synergy between Graz (Austria). Thirty-one states subscribe to the Partial
languages, greater co-ordination between teachers and Agreement currently.1
exploitation of learners’ transversal competences.
The ECML’s mission is to promote innovative approaches and
The CoE’s work on language education is co-ordinated by disseminate good practice in language learning and teaching.
the Language Policy Unit (LPU) in Strasbourg and the The Centre runs four-year programmes of projects organised in
European Centre for Modern Languages (ECML) in Graz. co-operation with European experts in the field of language
education. Resulting from project work are ‘hands-on’ training
The LPU carries out intergovernmental co-operation kits, guidelines and interactive websites, such as the European
programmes within the programme of the Steering Committee Portfolio for Student Teachers of Languages (EPOSTL) translated
for Educational Policy and Practice (CDPPE). into 13 languages and taken up in many teacher education
programmes in Europe ([Link] and the Framework
The LPU has been a pioneer of international co-operation in of Reference for Pluralistic Approaches to Languages and
language education since 1957, acting as a catalyst for Cultures (CARAP) showing how to support the development of
innovation, and providing a unique pan-European forum in which learners’ plurilingual and intercultural competences in a school
to address the policy priorities of all Member States. The results classroom ([Link] Several tools developed at the
of the LPU’s programmes have led to a number of ECML relate to the practical use of the CEFR and the European
recommendations and resolutions of the Committee of Ministers Language Portfolio (ELP), and address the needs of language
and of the Parliamentary Assembly of the CoE, which provide professionals acting in multilingual settings. All ECML
political support for its policy instruments and initiatives. publications are available free of charge via the Centre’s website
Following on from this, the LPU organised the European Year ([Link]).
of Languages 2001 with the European Commission; the aims
of which continue to be promoted in the annual European Day In designing the LRE questionnaire for our survey, we drew on
of Languages ([Link]/edl). key EU and CoE resolutions, conventions, recommendations and
communications that have contributed to the development of
policies and practices for multi/plurilingualism. Table 1 gives an
overview of the documents consulted. A summary of the key
points and the questionnaire itself can be found on the LRE
website. Note the difference between the Council of the EU
(heads of state and government) and the Council of Europe.

1
Albania, Andorra, Armenia, Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Iceland, Ireland, Latvia,
Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Montenegro, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Romania, Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, ‘the former
Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia’.

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LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

table 1: Overview of EU and CoE documents used to develop the LRE questionnaire

European union documents Council of Europe documents

Council resolutions/Conclusions Conventions

− Decision of the European Parliament and of the Council − European Cultural Convention (1954)
on the European Year of Languages 2001 (2000) − European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages
− Presidency Conclusions of the Barcelona European Council (2002) (ECRML) (1992)
− Conclusions on multilingualism (May 2008) − Framework Convention for the Protection of National
− Resolution on a European strategy for multilingualism Minorities (1995)
(November 2008) − European Social Charter (rev 1996)
− Conclusions on a strategic framework for European cooperation
in education and training ET 2020 (2009)
− Conclusions on language competencies to enhance mobility (2011)

European Parliament resolutions recommendations of the Committee of Ministers

− Resolution to promote linguistic diversity and language − Recommendation N° R (2005)3 concerning teaching neighbouring
learning (2001) languages in border regions
− Resolution on European regional and lesser-used languages (2003) − Recommendation N° R (82)18 concerning modern languages (1982)
− Resolution on multilingualism: an asset for Europe and a shared − Recommendation N° R (98)6 concerning modern languages (1998)
commitment (2009) − Recommendation CM/Rec (2008)7 on the use of the CEFR and the
promotion of plurilingualism

Communications by the European Commission recommendations of the Parliamentary Assembly

− Communication 2005: A new framework strategy for multilingualism − Recommendation 1383 (1998) on linguistic diversification
− Communication 2008: Multilingualism: An asset for Europe − Recommendation 1539 (2001) on the European Year
and a shared commitment of Languages 2001
− Green Paper 2008: Migration and Mobility: − Recommendation 1598 (2003) on the protection of sign
Challenges and opportunities for EU education systems languages in the Member States of the Council of Europe
− Recommendation 1740 (2006) on the place of mother tongue
in school education

External reports External reports

− Final Report of the High Level Group on Multilingualism (2007) − From linguistic diversity to plurilingual education: Guide for
− Languages mean business: companies work better with languages, the development of language education policies in Europe:
Business Forum for Multilingualism (2008) Beacco and Byram (2007)
− Guide for the development and implementation of curricula for
plurilingual and intercultural education, Beacco et al. (2010)

tools for teaching and Learning

− Common European Framework of Reference for Languages
(CEFR) (2001)1
− European Language Portfolio (ELP) (2001)
− A framework of reference for pluralistic approaches to languages
and cultures (FREPA) (2012): [Link]
− European Portfolio for Student Teachers of Languages (2007):
[Link]

1
Designed to promote plurilingual education and to be adapted to the contexts of use, the CEFR of the Council of Europe offers a common basis for developing
and comparing second/foreign language curricula, textbooks, courses and examinations in a dynamic plurilingual lifelong learning perspective.

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 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

1.2 The trilingual formula

and plurilingualism
Promoting multilingualism in terms of trilingualism has not While not explicitly specifying the number of languages
only been advocated by the EU. UNESCO adopted the term to be learned, the CoE has played a pioneering role in
‘multilingual education’ in 1999 (General Conference Resolution promoting language learning and the development
12) in reference to the use of at least three languages in of plurilingualism in individuals from an early age, and has
education, that is the mother tongue, a regional or national consistently underlined the need to value all languages.
language, and an international language. As early as the It has also added an interesting perspective in putting
1950s, the Indian government had put forward the outline of forward the idea of variable and partial competencies.
a multilingual educational policy, which included instruction in
the mother language, in the regional (or State) language, in Hindi Building on the Resolution of 1969 on an intensified modern
as the language of general communication and in one of the language teaching programme for Europe, and Recommendation
classical languages – Sanskrit, Pali, Arabic or Persian. Revised in 814 (1977), the CoE’s 1982 Recommendation, R/M (82) 18, called
1961, the proposal was named the three language formula (TLF), for Members States to ensure that as far as possible, all sections
which included instruction in the regional language, in Hindi in of their populations had access to effective means of acquiring a
non-Hindi-speaking areas or in another Indian language in Hindi- knowledge of the languages of other Member States (or of other
speaking areas, and in English or another European language. communities within their own country) and to encourage the
teaching of at least one European language other than the
The EC (1995), in a so-called Whitebook, opted for trilingualism national language, or the vehicular language of the area
as a policy goal for all European citizens. Apart from the mother concerned, to pupils from the age of ten or the point at which
tongue, each citizen should learn at least two ‘community they enter secondary education. The Recommendation also
languages’. This policy goal was followed up by the Council called for states to make facilities available for learning ‘as wide a
of the EU Resolution (2002) in Brussels. At this stage the range of languages as possible’. The CoE also took into
concept of ‘mother tongue’ was being used to refer to the consideration in this recommendation the needs of migrant
official languages of Member States and overlooked the fact that workers, calling for adequate facilities for them:
for many inhabitants of Europe ‘mother tongue’ and ‘official state
language’ do not coincide (Extra and Gorter 2008: 44). to acquire sufficient knowledge of the language of the host
At the same time, the concept of ‘community languages’ was community for them to play an active part in the working,
used to refer to the official languages of two other EU Member political and social life of that community, and in particular
States. In later EC documents, reference was made to one to enable the children of migrants to acquire a proper
foreign language with high international prestige (English was education and to prepare them for the transition from
deliberately not referred to) and one so-called ‘neighbouring full-time education to work to develop their mother tongues
language’. This latter concept referred to neighbouring both as educational and cultural instruments and in order to
countries, rather than to the language of one’s real-life maintain and improve their links with their culture of origin.
next-door neighbours. More recently the EC’s thinking
has developed in this area and paragraph 4.1 of the In the key follow-up recommendation of the Committee of Ministers,
2008 Communication is entitled ‘Valuing all languages’: CM/R (98) 6, the CoE called for Europeans to achieve a degree
of communicative ability in a number of languages and asked
In the current context of increased mobility and migration, Member States to achieve this by diversifying the languages
mastering the national language(s) is fundamental to on offer and setting objectives appropriate to each language,
integrating successfully and playing an active role in including modular courses and those which aim to develop
society. Non-native speakers should therefore include the partial competences.
host-country language in their ‘one-plus-two’ combination.
A more recent CoE recommendation is CM/Rec (2008) 7E
There are also untapped linguistic resources in our to Member States on the use of the CoE’s Common European
society: different mother tongues and other languages Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) and the
spoken at home and in local and neighbouring promotion of plurilingualism.
environments should be valued more highly. For instance,
A detailed overview and analysis of EU policies on multilingualism
children with different mother tongues – whether from the
is provided by Cullen et al. (2008), who say that there is still
EU or a third country – present schools with the challenge
significant reluctance or resistance with respect to additional
of teaching the language of instruction as a second
language learning – apart from learning English. This view is
language, but they can also motivate their classmates to
supported by the 2009 Eurostat data which shows a marked
learn different languages and open up to other cultures.
increase in the learning of English, but not other languages.
Only one in five Europeans, say Cullen et al., can be described
With a view to allowing closer links between communities,
as an active additional language learner and language skills are
the Commission’s advisory group on multilingualism and
unevenly distributed geographically and culturally. Most of
intercultural dialogue (Group of Intellectuals for
the activities aimed at promoting multilingualism take place in
Intercultural Dialogue) (2008) developed the concept of a
the formal education sector, more particularly in the domain
‘personal adoptive language’, which should usefully
of secondary education. Cullen et al. (2008: iii–iv) arrive at the
benefit from further reflection.
following main conclusions with respect to the political and
policy context of promoting multilingualism in the EU:

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LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

■ Multilingualism and linguistic diversity are sometimes The results of the survey show that while the vast majority
conflicting policy agendas. Language learning policy has of EU citizens think that one additional language is manageable,
tended to be influenced by ‘harder’ priorities like economic only 50% think that two is a realistic goal. There is strong feeling
competitiveness and labour market mobility, and linguistic that languages should be treated equally, but an equally strong
diversity policies by ‘softer’ issues like inclusion and human feeling that we should all be able to speak a common language.
rights. Multilingualism policy has been more highly prioritised Opinions are divided about whether the EU institutions should
than linguistic diversity policy in terms of concrete actions. adopt one language for communication with citizens.
■ The action of the European Parliament reflects a
The recently published follow-up Special Eurobarometer 386,
consistent and persistent effort to maintain minority
carried out on behalf of the EC (2012), shows almost similar
language protection and linguistic diversity support.
outcomes on each of the five statements referred to in Table 2 in
Since the late 1970s, the European Parliament has issued
terms of proportions (%) of those who (totally) agree – (totally)
a series of communications and resolutions that call for the
disagree – do not know: (1) 84-13-3, (2) 81-25-4, (3) 69-27-4, (4)
Commission to take action in order to promote the use of
53-42-5, and (5) 72-25-3. The strongest change over time occurs
minority languages and to review all Community legislation
for more agreement with statements (2) and (5). In particular the
or practices which discriminate against minority languages.
increased agreement with statement (5) refers to a stronger
However, a major problem is that none of these initiatives
support of the EC’s trilingual formula. Apart from the key attitudinal
are binding for the Member States.
data referred to, Special Eurobarometer 386 offers a whole range
of recent survey data on multilingualism in the EU today, on the
Attitudes of EU citizens to use of languages, and on attitudes to languages.
multilingualism/plurilingualism
The LRE project offers interesting information about the extent
One of the periodical European Barometers of the EC, the to which the Barcelona principles are being followed in
Special Barometer 243 (2006), offers a cross-section of public education systems in the countries/regions surveyed, and also
opinion on issues related to multilingualism. Support for some provides findings about the way that all languages – national,
of the principles underpinning the Commission’s multilingualism foreign, immigrant, and regional or minority – are being valued
policy is analysed, along with respondents’ perceptions of both inside school and out.
the situation in their respective countries or regions and their
support for multilingual policies at the national level. The
respondents were presented with five statements that illustrate
some of the key principles behind the policies targeted at
1.3 Language varieties explored
promoting multilingualism in Europe. All statements receive the in the project
support of the majority of Europeans but to a varying degree,
In the LRE project our ambition is to reflect the richness of
as Table 2 makes clear.
languages present in European society and the extent to which
table 2: Attitudes towards multilingualism in Europe
all of these languages are included in policies and practices
(Source: Special Eurobarometer Report 243: 53, for multilingualism and plurilingualism. Our challenge was to
European Commission 2006) distinguish the language types and categorise them appropriately.

statements tend to tend to do not In its 2008 Communication, the EC refers to the many ‘national,
agree disagree know regional, minority and migrant’ languages spoken in Europe
‘adding a facet to our common background’ and also ‘foreign
1. Everyone in the EU should 84% 12% 4%
be able to speak one
languages’, used to refer principally to both European and
additional language non-European languages with a worldwide coverage.

2. All languages spoken within the 72% 21% 7% The value of learning the national language well in order to
EU should be treated equally function successfully in society and benefit fully from education
is widely recognised. The learning of foreign languages has
3. Everyone in the EU 70% 25% 5%
should be able to speak
also been common in Europe. The language types which have
a common language been less emphasised are regional/minority and immigrant
languages, but their value across European Member States
4. The European institutions 55% 40% 5% has been acknowledged and supported by both the CoE and
should adopt one single the EU, which have emphasised that both types of languages
language to communicate
need to be supported as they are important means of intra-
with European citizens
group communication and are part of the personal, cultural
5. Everyone in the EU should 50% 44% 6% and social identity of many EU citizens.
be able to speak two
additional languages

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 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

In CM/R (98) 6, the CoE (1998) had already asked for Member In the context of the LRE project, we will therefore explore
States to ensure that the provisions of the European Charter for and use the above language types with the following definitions
Regional or Minority Languages and the Framework Convention (see also the Glossary in the appendix to Parts I and 2):
for the Protection of National Minorities be taken into account as
indicating desirable parameters for policy on regional or
■ National languages: Official languages of a nation-state.
minority languages or cultures. It had also called for parity
of esteem between all languages and for countries to ‘continue ■ Foreign languages: Languages that are not learnt
to promote bilingualism in immigrant areas or neighbourhoods or used at home but learnt and taught at school
and support immigrants in learning the language of the area in or used as languages of wider communication in
which they reside.’ non-educational sectors.
■ Regional or minority languages: Languages that are
The High Level Group on Multilingualism Final Report (2007) also traditionally used within a given territory of a state by
mentions that it is necessary to use the potential of immigrants nationals of that state who form a group numerically
as a source of language knowledge and as a good opportunity smaller than the rest of the state’s population.
for companies to profit from these immigrants’ cultural and
linguistic abilities in order to gain access to markets in the ■ Immigrant languages: Languages spoken by
immigrants’ countries of origin: immigrants and their descendants in the country
of residence, originating from an infinite range of
All too often, migrants are only seen as a problem – (former) source countries.
migrant children under performing at school or adult
migrants with only a minimal command of the language
For similar perspectives, we refer to McPake and Tinsley (2007).
of the host country. What is often overlooked is the fact
In this context, we want to express our awareness of the deliberate
that migrants constitute a valuable resource. By giving
inclusion of immigrant languages as part of the European
value to migrant languages in our midst, we may well
repertoire of languages, while at the same time in this first round
enhance migrants’ motivation to learn the language of
of data collection on multilingual policies and practices for as yet
the host country, and – indeed – other languages, and
little reference is made to sign languages. Within Western societies
enable them to become competent mediators between
where there is significant migration, or within language minorities
different cultures.
inside a single-nation-state, there are deaf people who are in effect
minorities within minorities. Given the oralist hegemony, most of
Very often, young second- and third-generation migrants
these deaf people have been cut off not only from mainstream
possess well-developed aural/oral skills in their heritage
culture, but also from their own ‘native’ cultures,
or community languages, but cannot read and write them.
a form of double oppression (Schermer 2011). There is an
Many of them are highly motivated to become literate in
important difference between deaf communities and other
these languages. Schools, higher and adult education
language minorities. It is only to a limited extent that sign
institutions should make it their business to provide
languages are passed on from one generation to the next. The
special learning opportunities for these target groups.
main reason for this is that more than 95% of deaf people have
This would be sound investment, as these people could
hearing parents for whom a sign language is not a native language.
help to establish economic contacts in their countries
Most people who are deaf have learned their sign language from
of origin, and could be brought to play an active role in
deaf peers, from deaf adults outside of the family and/or from
intercultural dialogue and integration programmes for
parents who have acquired a sign language as a second language.
newly arrived immigrants.
The European Parliament unanimously approved a resolution
Against this background, the constellation of languages (see
on sign languages on June 17, 1988. The resolution asked all
Extra and Gorter 2008: 3-60) to be addressed in our LRE
Member States for recognition of their national sign languages
questionnaire will include national, foreign, regional/minority and
as official languages of people who are deaf. So far this
immigrant languages. We are fully aware of the different
resolution has had limited effect. In 2003, sign languages were
connotations across European countries in referring to the
recognised by the Council of Europe as minority languages in
people (and their languages) with a more or less long-standing
the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In our
history of residence that stems from abroad (see Extra and
first round of data collection, we include reference to sign
Gorter 2008: 10 for the nomenclature of the field).
language(s) in the Languages in official documents and
databases and Languages in audiovisual media and press
domains of the LRE questionnaire.

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LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

The distinction presented above between ‘regional/minority’

and ‘immigrant’ languages is widely used and understood
1.4 Language domains addressed
across continental Europe, whereas the attractive bottom-up- in the survey
supported reference to ‘community’ languages, common in
the UK, is used to refer to national, regional and/or immigrant Eight language domains are covered by the LRE survey.
languages. Moreover the concept of ‘community’ languages As the first domain, we include a meta-domain which looks
often refers to the national languages of European Union at the availability of official national/regional documents and
countries in EU documents and in this sense is almost ‘occupied databases on language diversity. Given the key role of language
territory’, at least in the EU jargon (see Extra & Gorter, 2008: learning in education, four domains focus on the main stages
7-11 for the nomenclature of the field). A final argument in favour of publicly funded education from pre-school to university. In
of using the term ‘immigrant’ languages is its widespread use addition, three language domains outside and beyond education
on the website of Ethnologue, Languages of the World, a most are addressed, in order to capture levels of multilingual services
valuable and widely used standard source of cross-national in society and business. All in all, the eight domains of the
information on this topic. questionnaire are covered by a total of 260 questions, distributed
across these domains as outlined in Table 3. The questions on
In the context of the present project, we will consider regional/ language domains 2–8 are based on the European documents
minority languages as ‘officially recognised’ if such recognition referred to in Section 1.1.
derives from the nation-state under consideration. In addition
to this, such recognition may also derive from the Council of table 3: Distribution of questions across language domains
Europe’s European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.
The Charter came into operation in March 1998. It functions as a N Language domains N questions
European benchmark for the comparison of legal measures and 1. Languages in official documents 15
facilities of Member States in this policy domain (Nic Craith 2003), and databases
and is aimed at the protection and the promotion of ‘the historical
regional or minority languages of Europe.’ The concepts of 2. Languages in pre-primary education 34
‘regional’ and ‘minority’ languages are not specified in the Charter 3. Languages in primary education 58
(‘States decide on the definition’) and immigrant languages are
explicitly excluded from it. States are free in their choice of 4. Languages in secondary education 60
which regional/minority languages to include. Also, the degree
5. Languages in further and higher education 30
of protection is not prescribed; thus, a state can choose loose
or tight policies. The result is a wide variety of provisions across 6. Languages in audiovisual media and press 14
EU Member States (Grin 2003).
7. Languages in public services and public 31
spaces
We are aware that there are a number of complicating factors that
make clear-cut distinctions between the proposed language types 8. Languages in business 18
virtually impossible. First of all, within and across EU Member
States, many regional/minority and immigrant languages have total of questions 260
larger numbers of speakers than many official state languages.
Moreover, both regional/minority and immigrant languages in one
EU country may be official state languages in another country, for Domain 1 explores the availability of nationwide or regionwide
example German in Denmark or Russian in Ukraine. It should also official documents and databases on language diversity in each
be kept in mind that many, if not most, immigrant languages in of the participating countries/regions. The availability of such
European nation-states originate from countries outside Europe. documents and databases may contribute significantly to the
It is the context of migration and minorisation in particular that awareness of multilingualism in a given country/region and can
makes our proposed distinction between regional/minority and inform language education policy. The division of this domain
immigrant languages ambiguous. However, we cannot think of a into official documents and databases is closely related to the
more transparent alternative. In our opinion, if nothing else, the common distinction in studies on language planning between
proposed distinction will at least lead to awareness-raising and status planning and corpus planning. In our study, the section
may ultimately lead to an inclusive approach in the European on documents refers to efforts undertaken to regulate the use
conceptualisation of minority languages. and function of different languages in a given society, and the
section on databases refers to efforts undertaken to map the
distribution and vitality of the spectrum of languages in a
given society.

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 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Domains 2–4 of the survey focus on education for non-adult The selection of cities was identical for countries 1–14 in
learners provided by the state. Definitions of each of these Table 4. Here the focus was on the two cities with the largest
domains are provided in the Glossary to Parts 1 and 2 of this population size plus one city where the regional/minority
publication, including the common distinction between lower language with the highest status, vitality and/or number of
and upper secondary education which may refer to age-related speakers in the country is spoken. Countries 15–18 presented
differences and/or differences related to type of schooling. a challenge as they do not fit the above model.
In each of these domains, the organisation of language teaching
is addressed in addition to the qualifications and training of teachers, Country 15, Bosnia and Herzegovina, has three national
for each of the four language varieties. The key distinction languages: Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian. The cities chosen for
between organisation versus teachers is widely used in the primary data collection were Sarajevo, where Bosnian is mainly
European context (see, for example, Eurydice 2008). The used, Banja-Luka, where Serbian is mainly used, and Mostar,
responses in these sections are based on publicly available data where Bosnian and Croatian are mainly used.
as well as from official sources.
Country 16, Switzerland, comprises 26 cantons and has four
Given the significant diversification in post-secondary education official languages: German, French, Italian and Romansch. LRE
at the national and cross-national level, domain 5 focuses on research in all domains took place in three sample cantons:
basic (vocational) versus high (university) education. As a result, one German-speaking (Zurich), one French-speaking (Geneva),
this domain yields highly binary and complementary data on and one Italian-speaking (Ticino). The data for domains 2–4 has
post-secondary education. Domains 6–8 cover three crucial been aggregated for the tables presented in this publication,
domains outside and beyond education. but for domains 5–8 are presented at city level.

Responses in domains 5–8 are based on collected and reported Country 17, Spain, comprises 17 autonomous communities
data in the urban contexts of three cities per country or region and two autonomous cities. LRE research has been conducted
(see Section 1.5 for details). Domain 5 explores language provision for domains 2–4 in three autonomous communities – Madrid,
in a small sample of further (vocational) and higher (university) Sevilla, Valencia – and two ‘historic nationalities’ – Basque
education institutions. Domain 6 focuses on languages in the Country and Catalonia. Three profiles have been created: a
audiovisual media and the press. Domain 7 concentrates on combined profile for Madrid, Sevilla and Valencia and
languages in public services and public spaces in terms of two separate profiles for Basque Country and Catalonia.
institutionalised language strategies, oral communication Basque Country has two official languages: Basque and Spanish.
facilities and written communication facilities. The focus of Catalonia has three official languages: Catalan,
domain 8, languages in business, is on company language Spanish and Aragonese.
strategies, internal communication strategies and external
Country 18, the UK, comprises four countries that have
communication strategies. In each country/region a sample
separate governments and education systems. For the
of 24 companies was aimed at.
education domains (2–4) data has been collected on policies
and common practice in each country/region. For domains
5–8, the cities in Wales and Scotland were chosen on the basis
1.5 Data collection and the of population size. In England, after London, the city of Sheffield
three-cities approach was chosen for practical reasons. It has not yet been possible
to research a further city, but it is hoped that this data will be
As stated above, responses in language domains 1–4 of the available soon. In Northern Ireland it has so far only been
LRE survey are based on official/secondary data and reflect possible to include Belfast in the survey.
policies and common practices at the national or regional level.
Domains 5–8, on the other hand, are based on the outcomes of The selection of the three cities and the proposed regional/
primary data collection and data analysis. The collection of this minority (R/M) languages to focus on were decided upon in
primary data took place in three cities in each country or region advance in co-operation with all participating national or
prompted by the following considerations: regional teams on the basis of municipal statistics for the first
two cities and regional/minority language/group statistics for
■ multilingualism is most prevalent in urban settings as the third city. Table 4 gives an overview of the cities surveyed
long-term residents and newcomers tend to congregate per country (minus Germany: see page 28).
there in search of work
■ cities reinforce national dynamics in responding
to language diversity
■ large further and higher education institutions
are present in cities (domain 5)
■ the international press, cinemas and television stations
are concentrated in cities (domain 6)
■ as a result, city administrators and urban planners need
to create local policies on multilingualism (domain 7)
■ the headquarters of many businesses are located in
cities (domain 8).

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LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

table 4: Three-cities approach for all participating countries/regions

N type A Countries Largest city second/third Additional city dominant regional/

largest city minority language in
additional city

1. Austria Vienna Graz Klagenfurt Slovene

2. Bulgaria Sofia Plovdiv Shumen Turkish

3. Denmark Copenhagen Aarhus Aabenraa German

4. Estonia Tallinn Tartu Narva Russian

5. France Paris Marseille Corte Corsican

6. Greece Athens Thessaloniki Xanthi Turkish

7. Hungary Budapest Debrecen Pécs German

8. Italy Rome Milan Trieste Slovene

9. Lithuania Vilnius Kaunas Klaipeda Russian

10. Netherlands Amsterdam Rotterdam Leeuwarden* Frisian

11. Poland Warsaw Kraków Gdańsk Kashubian

12. Portugal Lisbon Oporto Miranda do Douro* Mirandese

13. Romania Bucharest Iaşi Cluj Hungarian

14. Ukraine Kyiv Kharkiv Lviv Russian

type B Countries Largest city City in region 2 City in region 3 official language(s)

15. Bosnia and Herzegovina Sarajevo Banja-Luka Mostar Bosnian/Croatian/

Serbian

16. Switzerland Zurich Geneva Lugano German/French/Italian

17. Spain:
Madrid, Valencia, Sevilla Madrid Valencia Sevilla Spanish
Catalonia Barcelona Tarragona L’Hospitalet Catalan
Basque Country Bilbao San Sebastian Vitoria-Gasteiz Basque

18. UK:
England London Sheffield – English
Wales Cardiff Swansea Newport Welsh/English
Scotland Glasgow Edinburgh Aberdeen Gaelic/Scots/English
Northern Ireland Belfast – – Irish/Ulster Scots/English

*Absence of university leading to absence of university-based data

National or regional profiles are based on primary data ■ For language domain 7, the focus is on language provision
collection for the 23+22+22=67 cities referred to in Table 4. in public services and public spaces at city level, more
As can be derived from Table 4, most dominant regional/ particularly on institutionalised language strategies, oral
minority languages in the chosen additional cities have the communication facilities and written information facilities
status of national language in adjacent countries. The focus at city (council) level in the cities surveyed.
of primary data collection for language domains 5–8 in each of ■ For language domain 8, the focus is on four different
the 24 participating countries/regions is summarised as follows: business sectors – supermarkets, construction businesses,
hotels and banks. Researchers were asked to collect
■ For language domain 5, the focus is on language
samples distributed as evenly as possible across
provision in different types of adult education provided
multinational/international (M/I), national (N), and regional
by the state. Two complementary sectors are addressed:
or local (R/L) businesses. In practice, this ambition turned
language provision in vocational education for (young)
out to be difficult to realise across all countries/regions.
adults aged 16 plus, and language provision in academic/
university education.
In Table 5, a summarising overview of language domains and
■ For language domain 6, the focus is on language provision targets for primary data collection per city (3x) is provided.
in audiovisual media, including public radio and television
broadcasting, the largest cinemas, and in the press at the
largest train stations and city kiosks in the cities surveyed.

24
 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

table 5: Domains and targets for primary data collection per city

N Language domain targets per city (3x)

5. Languages in further − Largest institution for vocational education and training (VET) with language provision
and higher education − Largest public and general university

6. Languages in the media − Language provision in radio and television programmes, at the cinema,
as described in the best-selling newspaper in the largest city
− Language provision in press at the largest train station and city kiosk
− Use of subtitles or dubbing for films in languages other than the national language
− Provision of sign language

7. Languages in public services − Institutionalised language strategies, oral communication facilities

and spaces and written information facilities at the central city level

8. Languages in business − Small-/medium-sized and large multi-/international, national and regional/local

supermarkets, building construction businesses, hotels and banks

1.6 Research methodology

Different types of research Questionnaire construction
Various research methodologies can be chosen to investigate In terms of questionnaire construction, the following
language policies and practices in a given society. In line prerequisites for constructing questions were followed:
with their research interests, researchers can take a micro-
sociolinguistic or a macro-sociolinguistic perspective to ■ each question should yield rateable data
document relevant policies and practices (Fishman and ■ rateable data should be weighted, leading to
Garcia 2010). If the research is limited to case studies with few differentiation of reported policies and practices
informants, researchers mostly opt for ethnographic observation
and discourse-analytic approaches. Linguistic ethnography ■ yes/no-questions where one of the answers would
(Heller 2007) is one common methodology to investigate how predictably lead to 100% scores should be avoided
and in which language people interact with each other. Linguistic ■ the questions should be robust enough for repeated
ethnographers try to understand how people make use of their measurement over time.
available linguistic resources in interacting with other individuals.
Most commonly, each question had three response options
However, ethnographic methods cannot always be optimal and researchers had to select the option which was the
in the investigation of language policies and practices at the closest to reality in terms of common policy or practice in their
societal level. The main focus of the LRE project is on societal country/region. Each choice was given a score. The highest
multilingualism and in particular on institutional policies score for each question corresponds to the policy or practice
and practices promoting (or limiting) multilingualism. The which is most closely aligned with EU/CoE recommendations.
methodology adopted for the LRE project was therefore to The cross-national results for each country/region are presented
gather survey data on common language policies and practices in Part 2 of this publication. An overview of all national and
in a variety of language domains in given national or regional regional profiles is given in Part 3.
contexts across Europe.

The questionnaire for the survey was compiled by studying the Validity
main EU and CoE documents on language policies and practices From a validity perspective our concerns at the overall
described above and pulling out the key recommendations. questionnaire level were the following:
However, given the fact that language policies and practices
across Europe are a very complex phenomenon, it is not internal validity
possible to identify all the relevant variables, operationalise ■ Is the LRE questionnaire sufficiently comprehensive in its
them and turn them into measurable constructs. conceptual construct and scope and therefore fit for its aims?
■ Is the LRE questionnaire sufficiently explicit and transparent
in its formulation?
■ Is the LRE questionnaire sufficiently practical as a
tool for data collection in terms of intelligibility and
administrative workload?

External validity
■ Is the LRE questionnaire sufficiently valid in its linkage
to European benchmarks that guide its scoring?

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LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Cross-national comparability Process

■ Is the LRE questionnaire sufficiently fair in representing
The following procedure summarises the steps we took to
the four key language varieties that are taken into account:
design and pilot the LRE questionnaire, and to collect and
national, foreign, regional/minority and immigrant languages?
process the data:
■ Is the LRE questionnaire based on equal questions across
countries/regions? ■ 2010 – Initial questions and scoring proposals for all
■ Is the LRE questionnaire based on equal scoring procedures multiple answer options were developed in co-operation
across countries/regions? between Tilburg University, the British Council and the
Migration Policy Group in Brussels. The business domain was
We believe that the questionnaire, while still undoubtedly developed by CILT in London, using the ELAN survey (2006)
to be refined and developed by the established network and as the starting point, and then further refined by the French
stakeholders, attempts to meet the criteria outlined above. It research team. Advice for the public services and spaces
already constitutes a good set of draft indicators and an overall domain was given by the Metropolitan Police languages
framework for supporting countries/regions in evaluating team and other London public service providers.
themselves against EU and CoE documents on language policies ■ The draft version of the LRE questionnaire was pre-tested
and practices, for awareness raising at both the public and the
in three pilot studies in Poland, Spain and the region of
political macro-level of European, national and regional language
Catalonia in early 2011. The pilot studies were aimed
policy makers, and for motivating key stakeholders across a
at testing the content and construct validity of the LRE
variety of sectors, languages and countries to take action.
questionnaire by taking into account variation in language
We also believe that our draft indicators will make it possible policies and practices both between and within countries.
for users to situate their own policies in relation to those in other ■ On the basis of the pilot outcomes, the LRE questionnaire,
countries or regions and consequently to share information in a Field Manual for researchers, and the scoring procedures
a transparent way and to identify good practice. It is hoped that were further adapted and then scrutinised by the LRE
the indicators can also contribute to context-specific new policy Steering Group and external experts. The final LRE
initiatives. It should be noted that the draft indicators are not
questionnaire was sent out in autumn 2011 to all national
meant as an instrument for carrying out in-depth analyses of
and regional teams for data collection.
multilingual policies or practices at the micro-level. The outcomes
of the research, however, may trigger highly relevant follow-up ■ Different versions of the questionnaire were created for
case studies that will yield complementary perspectives and Bosnia and Herzegovina, Spain, Switzerland and the UK
data, derived from the indicators’ macro-level perspectives. (see Table 4).
■ Researchers were sent a detailed Field Manual explaining the
Complementary approaches background to the project, and how data collection was to
Not all of the domains covered in LRE lend themselves to the be conducted. In addition, there was a two-day face-to-face
same research methodology, and so a complementary approach meeting to discuss the methodology, and email exchanges
was adopted for language domains 1–8 (see Table 3). The part and phone calls took place with each research team.
of the LRE questionnaire where official national or regional ■ Once the national and regional teams had provided all
policies and documents exist is based on official/secondary data answers to all questions, all the data obtained was peer-
(language domains 1–4). This data was collected by our research reviewed independently to ensure a double-checked
partners, and where possible was cross-checked with the and consistent interpretation.
national ministries concerned. Where this data is absent (further
and higher education, media, public services and spaces, ■ Subsequently, all peer-reviewed data was processed,
business) the results are based on self-collected/primary data analysed and reviewed by the LRE team at Tilburg University.
(language domains 5–8). ■ Through the process, it became clear that some questions
had been interpreted differently by different researchers,
The primary data is not meant to be representative of any while others had not been fully understood. The process of
country/region, nor large enough for making generalisations, clarifying these, standardising responses, and agreeing final
but is meant as a starting point for providing initial indicators of interpretations was completed in early 2012. It was decided
policies and practices on multilingualism and plurilingualism in that some questions would not be scored due to unfeasibility
domains which have been explored less in EC documents and of gathering the data. Data for questions on book collections
covered less in research. Given the combined methodology in languages other than the national language in public
adopted, it was decided neither to present overall scores per libraries and bookshops proved impossible to collect in
language domain, nor to provide one accumulative overall some countries. Questions on the languages required for
score or index per country/region. undergraduate and postgraduate studies proved ambiguous,
and have not been scored.
Although, as stated above, the self-collected/primary
database cannot be used for making generalisations, it ■ The results for each country/region were sent back to all
certainly constitutes a valuable cross-national database researchers and a further opportunity for feedback was
for further research. We believe that the combination of given. The results were presented initially at the whole
secondary data analysis for language domains 1–4 and domain level, but subsequently it has been decided to
primary data collection/analysis for language domains present them at the more detailed question level in order
5–8 are innovative and pioneering elements in the project. to capture countries/regions policies and practices in
more detail.

26
 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Outcomes
The results presented in this book are based on this first Inevitably it is not possible to include all possible variables
comprehensive cross-national survey on policies and practices in such a piece of research. Nonetheless, we feel that while
for multilingualism and plurilingualism in Europe and result from there may be some gaps, we have covered a lot of ground
double-checked peer-reviewed expert reports on a range of and captured many issues at the macro-level of language
260 questions in total. Not all questions have delivered policies and practices. It should be noted that within the
outcomes that could be processed and analysed in predicted chosen domains of education, the focus of the LRE survey
ways. This holds for example for some of our questions on is on language provision, not on language demands in terms
languages in the media. of actual student participation, nor on language proficiency in
terms of actual language achievement. The latter two ambitions
The national and regional profiles presented in Part 3 of this were beyond the scope of this first round of data collection.
study are the outcomes of the process described above, as
are the cross-national and cross-sectional perspectives There are two appendices to this publication. The first appendix
presented in Part 2. For each country/region, the description is offers the LRE questionnaire in Version A and is to be found on
based on a qualitative and quantitative profile in terms of text the LRE website. Version B is an adapted version of A that was
and tables which relate back directly to the questions asked in used in those countries in our LRE sample where there is more
the LRE questionnaire, accompanied by commentaries in which than one national language, such as Bosnia and Herzegovina
researchers in each country/region explain the results, put and Switzerland. The second appendix is a Glossary which offers
them into context, pick out the key findings and highlight definitions of the most important terms used in this publication.
interesting new initiatives and good practice. Our ambition Throughout all three parts, all references to languages are based
has been to provide a contextualised balance and interplay on a careful scrutinising of the website Ethnologue: Languages
between the two types of information. of the World, a most valuable and widely used standard source
of information on this topic.

27
LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

parT 2

Cross-national analysis of the

Language Rich Europe results
Kutlay Yağmur, Guus Extra and Marlies Swinkels

Introduction
In Part 2, cross-national perspectives are offered on the degree Germany is a federal and highly decentralised state, in particular
to which national/regional language policies and practices in the in the domains of education and socio-cultural welfare. It has
24 participating countries/regions align with European been unfeasible to collect Language Rich Europe (LRE) data for
benchmarks. Across eight language domains including one meta- Germany in a consistent way, given its strong diversity and
domain, cross-national tables are presented to show the results divergence between language policies and practices, both within
for education, public services and spaces, media and business. and between each of the three Bundesländer and each of the
Cross-sectional data from different domains is also presented so three cities focused upon. In the chosen language domains of the
that the reader can gain a better understanding of the spread LRE project, language policies and practices are the responsibility
and distribution of languages in the European context. of the regional or local level of municipalities or even schools.
Given these autonomies, it is virtually impossible to report on
In Section 2.1, reported information on languages in official ‘common’ policies and practices in the German context. For these
documents and databases across our participating countries/ reasons, the data for Germany has not been incorporated into our
regions is presented. In Section 2.2, the focus is on languages cross-national analysis in Part 2 of this study.
in pre-primary education in terms of national, foreign, regional/
minority (R/M) and immigrant language provision. Section 2.3
presents comparative perspectives on languages in primary
education under the headings of organisation and teachers,
again covering the four language types. The same is done for
secondary education in Section 2.4. Section 2.5 offers three
types of data on (pre-) primary and secondary education from
a cross-sectional perspective. Section 2.6 focuses on languages
in further and higher education. Section 2.7 presents the
reported outcomes of our research on languages in audiovisual
media and press, while Section 2.8 concentrates on languages
in public services and spaces. Section 2.9 presents comparative
perspectives on languages in business in all participating
countries/regions. Section 2.10 provides cross-sectional
perspectives on the distribution of languages in the domains
of press, public services and spaces, and business together.
The key findings and conclusions derived from all the above
sections are presented at the beginning of the book, as is
common practice in European Union (EU) research projects.

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2.1 Languages in official documents

and databases
In the first part of the LRE survey we examined whether official Table 1 provides the answers to two major questions on language
documents and databases on languages were present in the legislation and official language policy documents in all
countries/regions surveyed. We believe that the existence of 24 countries/regions surveyed, according to our researchers’
official documents supporting language diversity, and the reports. Legislation on national and regional/minority (R/M)
construction of databases mapping languages spoken, will languages is provided in almost all countries/regions, on foreign
strengthen awareness of multilingualism in any national or languages in 14 countries/regions, and on immigrant languages in
regional context and will also lead to better education policies. only five countries/regions. Official language policy documents on
On the basis of our LRE data, and also by consulting the Council national and foreign languages are available in almost all
of Europe’s (CoE) official record, the European Charter for countries/regions, on R/M languages in 19 countries/regions and
Regional or Minority Languages (ECRML), we were able to map on immigrant languages in only four countries/regions.
policies and reported practices in this area.

table 1: Language legislation and official language policy documents in 24 countries/regions surveyed

Country/region is there national or regional/federal legislation do official language policy documents exist aimed
which contains articles on language(s)? at promoting language learning and teaching in
your country or region?

National foreign regional/ immigrant National foreign regional/ immigrant

Minority Minority

Austria √ √ √ √

Basque Country √ √ √ √ √

Bosnia and Herzegovina √ √ √ √ √

Bulgaria √ √ √ √ √ √ √

Catalonia √ √ √ √ √ √

Denmark √ √ √ √ √

England √ √ √ √

Estonia √ √ √ √ √

France √ √ √ √ √ √ √

Friesland √ √ √ √ √ √

Greece √ √ √

Hungary √ √ √ √ √ √

Italy √ √ √ √

Lithuania √ √ √ √ √ √

Netherlands √ √ √ √ √ √

Northern Ireland √ √ √ √ √ √

Poland √ √

Portugal √ √ √ √

Romania √ √ √ √ √ √

Scotland √ √ √ √ √ √ √

Spain √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

Switzerland √ √ √ √ √ √

Ukraine √ √ √ √ √ √

Wales √ √ √ √ √

29
LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

As mentioned in Section 1.1, one of the key documents languages are used in education and in the media, to permit
supporting linguistic diversity in Europe is the CoE’s European and encourage their use in legal and administrative contexts,
Charter for Regional or Minority Languages (ECRML). The Charter in economic and social life, for cultural activities and in
is a convention designed on the one hand to protect and transfrontier exchanges.
promote R/M languages as a threatened aspect of Europe’s
cultural heritage, and on the other hand to enable speakers of a The Charter has been ratified by parliament in 11 out of the
R/M language to use it in private and public life. First and 18 countries surveyed, and signed by government in France and
foremost, the Charter sets out the main objectives and principles Italy. In Bulgaria, Estonia, Greece, Lithuania and Portugal, it has
that states undertake to apply to all R/M languages existing neither been ratified nor signed. One reason for non-ratification
within their national territory. Secondly, the Charter contains a is that in some countries ratification would be in conflict with
series of concrete measures designed to facilitate and the national constitution. Table 2 shows which languages are
encourage the use of specific R/M languages in public life. recognised, protected and/or promoted in each country in terms
Within its scope are the languages traditionally used within a of national country documents only or in terms of both national
state’s territory, but it does not cover those connected with documents and the ECRML. For more detail, we refer to the CoE
recent migratory movements or dialects of the official language. website on the Charter which is updated continuously.
It is intended to ensure, as far as is reasonably possible, that R/M

table 2: Official recognition, protection and/or promotion of R/M languages in 18 countries

iN CAPitALs: by OffICIAL COUNTRy DOCUMENTS ONLy
In italics: by official country documents as well as by the ECRML

Country r/M languages recognised, protected and/or promoted by official country

documents/ legislation or in the ECrML

Austria Croatian (in Burgenland), Czech (in Vienna), Hungarian (in Burgenland and Vienna), Romani (in Burgenland),
Slovak (in Vienna), Slovene (in Carinthia and Styria)

Bosnia and Albanian, Czech, German, Hungarian, Italian, Jewish languages (Yiddish language and Ladino language),
Herzegovina Macedonian, Montenegrin, Polish, ROMANI, Rusyn, Serbo-Croatian, Slovak, Slovene, Turkish, Ukrainian

Bulgaria ARMENIAN, HEBREW, ROMANI, TURKISH

Denmark German (ESKIMO-ALEUT AND FAROESE PROTECTED BY THE LAWS ON HOME RULE)

Estonia THE NEW LAW OF LANGUAGES (2011) CONSIDERS IT IMPORTANT TO PROTECT ALL ESTONIAN REGIONAL LANGUAGES

France BASQUE, BRETON, CATALAN, CORSICAN, GERMAN DIALECTS IN THE ALSACE AND MOSELLE REGIONS
(ALSACIEN AND MOSELLAN), WESTERN FLEMISH, FRANCO-PROVENÇAL, LANGUE D’OÏL (‘LANGUAGES OF THE
NORTH’: FRANCCOMTOIS, WALLON, CHAMPENOIS, PICARD, NORMAND, GALLO, POITEVIN-SAINTONGEAIS, LORRAIN,
BOURGUIGNON-MORVANDIAU), OCCITAN (‘LANGUAGES OF THE SOUTH’: GASCON, LANGUEDOCIEN, PROVENÇAL,
AUVERGNAT, LIMOUSIN, VIVARO-ALPIN), PARLERS LIGURIENS (FROM THE VALLEY OF ROYA IN THE ALPES-MARITIMES
AND BONIFACIO IN CORSICA).
IN ADDITION THE 41 LANGUAGES FROM OVERSEAS TERRITORIES INCLUDED IN THE OFFICIAL LIST OF THE LANGUES DE
FRANCE, AND THE NON-TERRITORIAL LANGUAGES SPOKEN BY IMMIGRANT POPULATIONS: DIALECTAL ARABIC,
OCCIDENTAL ARMENIAN, BERBER, JUDEO-SPANISH AND ROMANI.

Greece Promoted, but no languages specified

Hungary Armenian, Bulgarian, Greek, Polish, Rusyn, Ukrainian, Croatian, German, Romani, Boyash, Romanian, Serbian, Slovak, Slovene

Italy ALBANIAN, CATALAN, CROATIAN, FRANCO-PROVENÇAL, FRENCH, FRIULAN, GERMAN, GREEK, LADIN, OCCITAN,
SARDINIAN, SLOVENE

Lithuania BELARUSAN, HEBREW, POLISH, RUSSIAN

Netherlands Limburgish, Low Saxon, Romani, Yiddish: protected and recognised. Frisian: promoted

Poland Armenian, Belarusan, Czech, German, Hebrew, Karaim, Kashubian, Lemko, Lithuanian, Romani, Russian,
Slovak, Tatar, Ukrainian, Yiddish

Portugal MIRANDESE

Romania Albanian, Armenian, Bulgarian, Croatian, Czech, German, Greek, Hungarian, Italian, Macedonian, Polish, Romani,
Russian, Rusyn, Serbian, Slovak, Tatar, Turkish, Ukrainian, Yiddish

Spain Basque, Catalan, Galician, Valencian, Arabic, Aranese Occital, Asturian/Bable, Berber languages, Caló, Fable Aragonese,
Portuguese, Romani

Switzerland Italian at the federal level and in the cantons of Grisons and Ticino, Romansch, French in the canton of Berne,
German in Bosco-Gurin and Ederswiler and the cantons of Fribourg and Valias, Walser, Yenish, Yiddish

UK Cornish in England, Irish and Ulster-Scots in Northern Ireland, Gaelic and Scots in Scotland, Welsh in Wales

Ukraine Belarusan, Bulgarian, Crimean Tatar, Gagauz, German, Greek, Hungarian, Moldovan, Polish, Romanian, Russian, Slovak, Yiddish

30
 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Recognition and/or protection of languages by the ECRML

does not necessarily imply promotion of languages in education.
Table 3 shows the languages officially provided by each country
in national or regionwide education, either according to official
national documents or the ECRML.

table 3: R/M languages officially provided in nation- or regionwide education in 18 countries

iN CAPitALs: EDUCATIONAL PROvISION MENTIONED by OffICIAL COUNTRy DOCUMENTS ONLy
In italics: educational provision mentioned by official country documents as well as by ECRML

Country r/M languages officially taught in nation- or regionwide education N total

Austria Burgenland: Croatian, Hungarian, Romani; Slovene in Carinthia 4

Bosnia and Albanian, Czech, German, Hungarian, Italian, Jewish languages (Yiddish and Ladino), Macedonian, 17
Herzegovina Montenegrin, Polish, Romani, Romanian, Rusyn, Slovak, Slovene, Turkish, Ukrainian

Bulgaria ARMENIAN, HEBREW, ROMANI, TURKISH 4

Denmark German 1

Estonia VÕRU LANGUAGE 1

France BRETON, BASQUE, CATALAN, CORSICAN, CREOLE, FRENCH SIGN LANGUAGE, GALLO, OCCITAN, 10 + 5
REGIONAL LANGUAGES OF ALSACE, REGIONAL LANGUAGES OF THE MOSELLE DEPARTMENT.
TAHITIAN AND MELANESIAN LANGUAGES (AJIE, DREHU, MENGONE, PAICI) are offered in France Overseas.

Greece – –

Hungary Croatian, German, ROMANI, BOYASH, Romanian, Serbian, Slovak, Slovene 8

Italy ALBANIAN, CATALAN, CROATIAN, FRANCO-PROVENÇAL, FRENCH, FRIULAN, GERMAN, GREEK, LADIN, 12
OCCITAN, SARDINIAN, SLOVENE

Lithuania BELARUSAN, HEBREW, POLISH, RUSSIAN 4

Netherlands Frisian in Friesland only 1

Poland Armenian, Belarusan, German, Hebrew, Kashubian, Lemko, Lithuanian, Russian, Slovak, Ukrainian, 15
Czech, Karaim, Romani, Tatar, Yiddish

Portugal MIRANDESE in the region of Miranda do Douro 1

Romania Bulgarian, Croatian, Czech, German, Greek, Hungarian, Italian, Polish, Romani, Russian, Serbian, Slovak, 15
Tartar, Turkish, Ukrainian

Spain Aranese-Occital, Basque, Catalan, Galician, Valencian 4

Switzerland Italian, Romansch 2

UK Cornish, Irish, Gaelic, Welsh 4

Ukraine Belarusan, Bulgarian, Crimean Tatar, Gagauz, German, Greek, Hungarian, Moldovan, Polish, Romanian, 13
Russian, Slovak, Yiddish

31
LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

As can be seen from Table 3, there is significant variation in the Both in Europe and beyond, there is variation in the types
number of languages officially provided in education. In general, of databases for the definition and identification of population
the largest numbers of officially provided R/M languages in groups in multicultural societies. These databases may include
education emerge in South-Eastern and Central European language data derived from a variety of single or multiple
countries. In Western Europe, Italy and France are the clearest language questions. In the European context, Poulain (2008)
exceptions to this general rule. The concepts of ‘regional’ or makes a distinction between nationwide censuses, administrative
‘minority’ languages are not specified in the ECRML but immigrant registers, and statistical surveys. Censuses take place at fixed
languages are explicitly excluded from the Charter (Extra and intervals (commonly five or ten years) and result in nationwide
Gorter 2008: 31). In Western European countries, immigrant databases. Administrative registers are commonly built up at
languages often have a more prominent appearance than R/M both the municipal and the central level, and they are commonly
languages but are less recognised, protected and/or promoted. updated every year or even on a monthly basis (the latter, for
Greece is the only participating LRE country in which no specific example, in the Netherlands). Statistical surveys may be carried
R/M language is officially recognised or taught, although Turkish out at regular intervals among particular subsets of population
is actually provided for Turkish-speaking children at primary groups. All three types of data collection may take place in
schools in the region of Thrace. Not all languages officially various combinations. Table 4 gives an overview of policies
provided according to documents are actually offered in schools, and practices in our 24 participating countries/regions.
and information on the languages actually taught at the time of
data collection and according to our researchers’ reports is
presented in Sections 2.3–2.5.

table 4: Official nation-/regionwide data collection mechanisms on national languages, R/M languages and immigrant languages

Country/region official nation-/regionwide data collection mechanisms on national languages, r/M

languages and immigrant languages

Austria –

Basque Country Census data and survey data on national and R/M languages

Bosnia and Herzegovina –

Bulgaria Census data on national, R/M and immigrant languages

Catalonia Municipal register data, census data, and survey data on national and R/M languages

Denmark –

England Municipal register data, census data, and survey data on national, R/M and immigrant languages

Estonia Census data on national, R/M and immigrant languages

France Census data and survey data on national, R/M and immigrant languages

Friesland Survey data on national and R/M languages

Greece –

Hungary Census data on national and R/M languages

Italy Survey data on national and R/M languages

Lithuania Census data on national, R/M and immigrant languages

Netherlands –

Northern Ireland Census data on national, R/M and immigrant languages

Poland Census data on national, R/M and immigrant languages

Portugal Census data on the national language only

Romania Census data on national, R/M and immigrant languages

Scotland Census data on national, R/M and immigrant languages

Spain Census data and survey data on national, R/M and immigrant languages

Switzerland Municipal register data and survey data on national, R/M and immigrant languages

Ukraine Census data and survey data on national and R/M languages

Wales Census data and survey data on national, R/M and immigrant languages

32
 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

From Table 4 we can see that most countries/regions are Glossary on mother tongue or native language). Europe seems
familiar with language data collection mechanisms and most to agree with this, and over half of the countries/regions
of them address three types of languages: national languages, surveyed ask the home language question. The language
R/M languages and immigrant languages. Five out of 24 questions asked in Switzerland are most remarkable, in particular
countries/regions have no language data mechanisms at all: the first one on main language in terms of: Which language do
Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina (in spite of its many R/M you think in and know best? One final remark should be made:
languages in education as referred to in Table 2), Denmark, additional questions on language skills are asked in only 11 out
Greece and the Netherlands. Portugal only collects data on of all 24 countries/regions, that is in yes/no terms of Can you…?
the national language. and/or in scaled terms of How well can/do you….?

Table 5 shows the major language question(s) asked in large- In conclusion, the availability of official databases and data
scale or nationwide population research. There is variation collection mechanisms shows strong variation across European
in the major language question(s) asked. Extra (2010) goes into countries/regions. Taken from a European perspective, there is
the validity of nationwide or large-scale questions on mother room for further development and knowledge exchange in this
tongue, main language spoken and home language. Derived domain in order to raise further awareness of multilingualism,
from international experience, in particular in the non-European to provide evidence-based data for language planning and
English-dominant contexts of Australia, Canada and the USA, he education provision, and to carry out comparative
argues that the mother tongue question has the lowest empirical European research.
validity and the home language question has the highest (see

table 5: Language questions in official data collection mechanisms in 24 countries/regions

Country/region Major language question(s) asked Question(s) asked on language skills (X) speaking/
understanding/reading/writing
Austria Home language –
Basque Country Home language + Main language + Mother tongue Can you X?
How well can you X?
Bosnia and Herzegovina – –
Bulgaria Mother tongue –
Catalonia Home language + Main language + Mother tongue Can you X?
How well can you X?
Denmark – –
England Home language + Main language Can you X?
How well can you X?
Estonia Mother tongue How well can you X?
France Home language Can you X?
Friesland Home language Can you X?
How well can you X?
Greece – –
Hungary Home language + Mother tongue Can you X?
Italy Home language –
Lithuania Mother tongue –
Netherlands – –
Northern Ireland Main language Can you X?
How well can you X?
Poland Home language –
Portugal Mother tongue –
Romania Mother tongue –
Scotland Home language + Main language Can you X?
Spain Home language Can you X?
(Madrid, Valencia, Seville) How well can you X?
Switzerland Main language + Home language –
+ Language at school/work
Ukraine Mother tongue –
Wales Home language + Main language Can you X?
How well can you X?

33
LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

2.2 Languages in
pre-primary education
Many EU and CoE documents referred to in Section 1.1 The most recent publication on early language learning (ELL)
underline the importance of early language learning, and we is the 2011 EC policy handbook entitled Language Learning
have therefore included a section on languages in pre-primary at pre-primary level: making it efficient and sustainable.
education in our survey. The EU Council Resolution of 1997 The handbook was produced by a group of 28 national experts
advocates the early teaching of European Union languages, and outlines the strengths and weaknesses in ELL in each
and both the 2002 and 2008 EU Council Conclusions continue country as well as profiling examples of good practice.
to emphasise the promotion of multilingualism from the earliest
age. The European Commission (EC) Green Paper on Migration This section will provide an insight into early language
and Mobility (2009) emphasises the critical importance of learning in pre-primary institutions across the countries/regions
children from an immigration background learning the host participating in our survey. It should be pointed out that
language as early as possible while retaining the heritage pre-primary state education is not provided in all of them.
language and culture of the country of origin. In our analysis we aim to highlight the countries/regions that
are most closely aligned with EU recommendations in order
The CoE is also clear with regard to children from a migrant to raise awareness and provide opportunities for knowledge
background, and recommends that to facilitate their integration exchange. We will also pinpoint the challenges raised by
Member States should provide them with adequate national our research for pre-school language education.
language skills at pre-school level (Recommendation CM/
Rec(2008)4 on strengthening the integration of children of Additional support for national languages
migrants and of immigrant background). in pre-primary education
The Guide for the development and implementation of curricula We asked our researchers questions about the level of
for plurilingual and intercultural education (Beacco et al. 2010: additional support in the national language at pre-primary
45) provides a good summary of what is required: level, focusing on:

As spaces for discovery and socialisation, pre-primary ■ the target groups for such support
schools represent a basic stage in plurilingual and ■ the number of years for which it is offered
intercultural education, particularly for children from
underprivileged and migrant backgrounds, whose ■ the number of days per week offered
language practices at home may conflict with the varieties ■ group size requirements for forming a class
and norms selected and fostered by schools. To that ■ sources of funding.
extent, and since the issue here is the right to quality
language (and general) education, one of the first Fifteen of the 24 countries/regions surveyed provide additional
desiderata is that schooling of this kind for very young support at pre-primary level in the national language. These
children be guaranteed and provided in optimum are Austria, Basque Country, Bulgaria, Denmark, England,
conditions for all the groups concerned – both Friesland, Lithuania, the Netherlands, Northern Ireland, Romania,
permanently resident natives and recently arrived Scotland, Spain, Switzerland, Ukraine and Wales. The results
immigrant families. for these countries/regions are shown in Table 6.

From the perspective of R/M languages, the ECRML (1992)

refers to the importance of pre-school education in R/M
languages: ‘Member States should make pre-school education
available in the relevant R/M languages for at least the families
that request it.’ (Part III, Article 8 – Education, Paragraph 1).

table 6: Additional support for the national language in pre-primary education in 15 countries/regions

Criteria replies N replies N replies N

target groups all 14 immigrant 1 no support 0

children only

duration of support ≥2 years 10 1 year 5 <1 year 0

days per week <1 day 3 0.5–1 day 10 <0.5 day 2

Group size requirements none 13 5–10 2 >10 0

state funding available full 14 partial 1 none 0

34
 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Additional support in the national language in pre-primary Foreign language provision in

education is provided for all children in 14 of the 15 countries/
pre-primary education
regions, with Switzerland providing it for immigrant children
only. The three countries/regions which devote the most For foreign language provision in pre-primary schools
time to additional national language support per week are we asked our researchers about:
the Netherlands, Friesland and Ukraine. Ten of the countries/
■ which languages are taught
regions surveyed offer two or more years’ support, while five –
Bulgaria, Denmark, the Netherlands, Scotland and Switzerland – ■ the amount of time devoted to foreign language
offer one year. In 14 countries/regions this support is offered training per week
by the state, while in Switzerland parents/guardians pay part of ■ the number of years taught
the cost.
■ group size requirements
■ sources of funding.

It should be noted that the research did not explore foreign

language teaching in the private sector, where it may be offered
more widely. Overall, seven of the 24 countries report that
foreign language teaching is offered in state pre-school
institutions, and the results are set out in Table 7.

table 7: foreign language provision in pre-primary education in seven countries/regions (C/R)

Criteria replies N replies N replies N

target groups all 7 restricted 0 no support 0

duration ≥2 years 6 1 year 0 <1 year 1

days per week >1 day 1 0.5–1 day 6 <0.5 day 0

Group size requirements none 6 5–10 0 >10 1

state funding available full 2 partial 3 none 2

35
LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

The seven countries/regions offering foreign languages at

this level are Bosnia and Herzegovina, Basque Country, Bulgaria,
Catalonia, Estonia, Spain and Ukraine. Basque Country offers
more than one day of foreign languages per week, and the other
countries/regions offer between half a day and one day. The
languages offered by each country/region are shown in Table 8.
Bulgaria offers the widest choice, although the courses are
funded by parents/guardians. English, French and German are
the most common languages on offer.

table 8: foreign language provision in pre-primary education

in seven countries/regions

Country/region foreign languages offered

Bosnia and Herzegovina English, French, German

Basque Country English

Bulgaria English, French, German, Italian, Russian, Spanish

Catalonia English

Estonia English, German, French, Russian

Spain (Madrid, Valencia, Sevilla) English in the Communities of Madrid and Valencia
English, French and German in Sevilla

Ukraine English, French, German

The overall conclusion we can draw from this overview is that

further development and national/institutional support is needed
in some countries/regions to enable foreign languages to take
root at an earlier age. However, the EC 2011 report and policy
handbook on early language learning suggest that a lot more
activity is going on than we are able to reflect here, and should
be consulted for a more in-depth analysis.

R/M language provision in pre-primary education

For R/M languages we asked our researchers the same set of
questions as for foreign languages and the responses are set
out in Table 9, with 17 countries/regions reporting provision.

table 9: R/M language provision in pre-primary education in 17 countries/regions

Criteria replies N replies N replies N

target groups all 14 native speakers only 1 no support 2

duration ≥2 years 15 1 year 2 <1 year 0

days per week >1 day 12 0.5–1 day 3 <0.5 day 2

Group size requirements none 13 5–10 2 >10 2

state funding available full 15 partial 2 none 0

36
 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

As can be seen from the table, 15 of the 17 countries/regions

offer R/M languages for more than two years, and 13 have no
group size requirements. In Northern Ireland and Ukraine, a
minimum of ten children is required to form a class, and in
Denmark and Hungary a minimum of five is required. In 15 of the
countries/regions the courses are funded by the state, with
Catalonia and England reporting that parents/guardians pay part
of the costs. The countries where R/M languages are not offered
in pre-primary education are Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria,
Estonia, France, Greece, Poland and Switzerland.

Table 10 provides an overview of the languages reported to

be offered in the 17 countries/regions where they are taught
in state pre-school institutions.

Provision is widespread in a variety of R/M languages according

to our researchers’ reports, with Austria, Hungary, Italy and
Romania offering the widest range.

table 10: R/M language provision in pre-primary education in 17 countries/regions

Country/region r/M languages offered

Austria Croatian in Burgenland, Czech, Hungarian, Italian in Tyrol, Slovak, Slovene

Basque Country Basque

Catalonia Catalan everywhere, Aranese Occitan in Val d’Aran

Denmark German

England Cornish in Cornwall

Friesland Frisian

Hungary Bulgarian, Croatian, German, Greek, Romani/Boyash, Romanian, Rusyn, Serbian, Slovak, Slovene

Italy Albanian, Croatian, Franco-Provencal, French, Friulian, German, Greek, Ladin, Occitan, Sardinian, Slovene

Lithuania Belarusan, Hebrew, Polish, Russian

Netherlands Frisian in Friesland

Northern Ireland Irish

Portugal Mirandese

Romania Bulgarian, Croatian, Czech, German, Greek, Hungarian, Polish, Serbian, Slovak, Turkish, Ukrainian

Scotland Gaelic

Spain (Madrid, Valencia, Sevilla) Valencian in Valencia

Ukraine Crimean Tatar, German, Hungarian, Moldovan, Polish, Romanian, Russian

Wales Welsh

37
LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Immigrant language provision updating of language skills for all through formal, informal and
non-formal means. Once more the conclusions called for a
in pre-primary education
broader selection of languages taught and learner assessment
On the basis of our LRE data, it appears that provision in immigrant based on recognised tools. The value of teacher training and
languages in pre-primary education is not yet very common. teacher exchanges was underlined, and the need to support
However, in spite of the difficulties involved in identifying the teaching of subjects through other languages (CLIL) was
appropriate teachers and learning materials, three countries recommended for the first time. The EU Council Conclusions
do offer immigrant language support to very young children, (2011) again highlight the importance of quality language
namely Denmark, Spain and Switzerland. The canton Zurich teaching, performance evaluation, teacher training and mobility,
has a remarkable offer of no less than 17 languages. There is no CLIL, broadening the range of languages, reinforcement of the
provision in any of the other countries/regions. The languages teaching of the national language, as well as considering options
offered are set out in Table 11. for immigrant children to maintain and develop their languages
of origin.
table 11: Immigrant languages provision in pre-primary
education in three countries/regions The CoE also strongly supports linguistic diversity and
intercultural education in primary education and provides
Country/region Languages offered concrete policy and classroom tools. The ECRML emphasises
Denmark Albanian, Arabic, Bosnian, Icelandic, Somali, the need to provide teaching in and of the appropriate R/M
Tamil, Turkish, Urdu/Panjabi language when requested by parents and without prejudice
to the teaching of the national language. The CEFR provides
Spain (Madrid, (Moroccan) Arabic, Portuguese, Romanian a common basis for language syllabuses, curriculum guidelines,
Valencia, Sevilla)
examinations and textbooks across Europe, and enhances the
Switzerland Albanian, Arabic, Bosnian, Bulgarian, Chinese, transparency of courses, syllabuses and qualifications, thus
Canton Zurich Croatian, Finnish, French, Greek, Hungarian, promoting international co-operation in the field of modern
Italian, Korean, Portuguese, Russian, languages. Recommendation 98 (6) urged Member States
Slovene, Spanish (Latin American), Turkish to put in place education policies that promote widespread
Switzerland Albanian, Arabic, Italian, Portuguese, plurilingualism and to encourage the use of foreign languages
Canton Geneva Spanish (Latin American), Turkish in the teaching of non-linguistic subjects. Like the EU, the CoE
also encouraged the development of links and exchanges
with institutions and persons at all levels of education in other
In order to promote linguistic integration of immigrant children, countries. With regard to the place of the home language in
language support programmes are provided in their home the curriculum, the CoE Recommendation 1740 (2006)
language in pre-schools in Switzerland. In line with the Strategic underlines the desirability of encouraging young Europeans to
Plan for Citizenship and Integration 2007–2010 in Spain, a learn their mother tongue (or main language) when this is not an
number of immigrant languages are offered in pre-schools for official language of their country. At the same time, every young
the maintenance and development of languages and cultures European has a duty to learn the official language/s of the
of origin. In Denmark, national, regional or local funds cover country of which s/he is a citizen. The CoE Recommendation
all costs for these programmes, while in Spain and Switzerland goes on to say that bilingual education is the basis for success
source-country related funds cover the costs through and that bilingualism and plurilingualism are assets.
bilateral agreements.
Given the linguistic diversity of children in many European
schools, it is not always easy to arrange for language tuition for
2.3 Languages in primary education them in their home language. Nevertheless, as pointed out by
Extra and Yağmur (2004: 99–105), it has proved possible to do
EU Council Conclusions (2002) underlined the importance of this in certain contexts. The pioneering and widely-known
taking measures to offer pupils the opportunity to learn two or, policies and practices in the Victorian School of Languages (VSL)
where appropriate, more languages in addition to their mother in Melbourne, Australia constitute an excellent ‘good practice’
tongues from an early age, and to ensure that the supply of that can be adopted in the European context as well. A
languages is as diverse as possible. They also emphasised the breakthrough with respect to directionality and provision of
importance of ensuring that language programmes generate additional language learning is the main landmark of the VSL:
a positive attitude towards other cultures. additional language learning next to English as first or second
language is offered to (and requested by) all pupils in Victorian
The integration of non-native speakers was to be addressed primary and secondary schools, including those who speak
through measures to improve their knowledge of the national English as a first language, and provision is offered currently for
language(s) of instruction, while respecting the languages and more than 60 languages of personal adoption through
cultures of their country of origin. Teacher training and teacher government mainstream schools and so-called ‘after-hours
mobility were also highlighted, as was the degree of competence ethnic schools’, depending on demand.
in language knowledge based on the Common European
Framework of Reference (CEFR) for languages developed by the In the LRE survey we asked questions based on the above
CoE. The EU Council Conclusions (2008) reasserted the same recommendations and guidelines across national, R/M, foreign
messages, adding a lifelong learning perspective and the and immigrant languages.

38
 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Support for the national language

in primary education
Table 12 presents an overview of the organisation of national
language support in primary schools. Researchers
were asked about:

■ the extent to which there is a coherent

and explicit curriculum
■ the degree of language support for newcomers
■ diagnostic testing on entry for newcomers
■ monitoring of language skills.

table 12: National language support in primary education in 24 countries/regions

Criteria replies N replies N replies N

Curriculum coherent and explicit 19 general 5 no guidelines 0

Extra support for before mainstream 22 during mainstream 0 absent 2

newcomers

diagnostic testing on entry all 8 for immigrant children 7 absent 9

only

Monitoring of language skills national standardised 16 school-based 8 absent 0

According to our researchers’ reports, 19 countries/regions Foreign language learning in primary education
have a coherent and explicit national language curriculum in
primary schools, while in five countries/regions it is expressed For foreign languages, we asked our researchers about:
in general terms. Apart from Italy and Ukraine, all countries/ ■ target groups
regions offer extra support for newcomers in learning the
national language. Diagnostic testing is an area where there ■ the number of compulsory foreign languages
are different approaches, and this may require further attention ■ the extent to which there is a coherent and explicit curriculum
by policy makers. Eight countries/regions – Austria, Bulgaria, ■ the spread of CLIL
Denmark, England, Lithuania, Northern Ireland, Scotland and
■ when foreign language education starts
Wales – use diagnostic language testing for all children at the
start of primary education, seven test only immigrant children, ■ scheduling during or after the school day
and nine countries/regions report no diagnostic testing on ■ minimum group size requirements
entry. Regular monitoring of language skills is another area
■ monitoring of language skills
where policies differ, with 16 countries/regions using national
level tests, and eight working at school level. Overall, Bulgaria, ■ the level to be achieved and alignment with CEFR
Denmark, Lithuania and Scotland were the countries/regions ■ whether state funding is available.
which fully aligned with the above LRE criteria for national
language support, while Italy, Poland and Ukraine were Twenty-three out of the 24 countries/regions offer foreign
less aligned. languages in primary education, with Wales being the exception,
and the results of these 23 countries/regions are displayed
in Table 13.

39
LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

table 13: Organisation of foreign language education in primary schools in 23 countries/regions

Criteria replies N replies N replies N

target groups all 23 restricted 0 no support 0

Number of compulsory two 2 one 18 optional only 3

foreign languages

Curriculum coherent and explicit 20 general 3 no guidelines 0

Languages used as widespread 1 localised 13 absent 9

medium of instruction (CLiL)

start of language education from year 1 12 from mid-phase 7 end-phase only 4

scheduling in school hours 21 partly in school hours 1 outside school hours 1

Minimum group size none 21 5–10 pupils 1 >10 pupils 1

requirements

Monitoring of language skills national 10 school-based level 13 absent 0

standardised level

Level to be achieved linked to CEFR 7 national or school 13 not specified 3

norms

state funding available full 23 partial 0 none 0

Our research shows that foreign languages are commonly final year only in Friesland, the Netherlands, Scotland and
offered in all countries/regions surveyed, with the exception of Switzerland. Language skills are monitored using standardised
Wales. Two countries/regions, Greece and Denmark, make two instruments in ten of the countries/regions, and at the local level
foreign languages compulsory, while 18 have one compulsory in 13. Although many countries/regions undoubtedly draw on
language. In England, Northern Ireland and Scotland, foreign the CEFR for developing their curricula, only seven report explicitly
languages are optional. There is a coherent and explicit curriculum and systematically using the instrument to evaluate the language
in 20 countries/regions, while in Friesland, Italy and the Netherlands level to be achieved. These are Bulgaria, Estonia, France, Romania,
it is expressed in general terms. Spain is the only country to Scotland, Spain and Switzerland.
report widespread CLIL, while in 13 countries/regions this
approach is being used, although not systematically. Foreign Table 14 shows the foreign languages offered in primary, both
languages are taught from the first year of primary in compulsory and optional, as reported by our researchers.
12 countries/regions, from the mid-phase in seven, and in the

40
 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

table 14: foreign language provision in primary education in 23 countries/regions

Country/region foreign languages offered in primary education

Austria Croatian in Burgenland, Czech, English, French, Hungarian, Italian, Slovak, Slovene (one of these languages is
compulsory)

Basque Country English: compulsory

Bosnia and Herzegovina English or German: compulsory; French, Italian, Arabic: optional

Bulgaria English, French, German, Italian, Russian, Spanish: one of these languages is compulsory

Catalonia English: compulsory

Denmark English, and French or German: compulsory; Spanish, German or French: optional

England French, German, Spanish, very rarely also Chinese, Italian, Japanese, Urdu: optional

Estonia English, French, German, Russian: one language is compulsory, the rest optional

France English, German, much less other languages such as Arabic, Chinese, Italian, Portuguese, Russian,
Spanish: one of these languages is compulsory

Friesland English: compulsory; French, German, Spanish: optional

Greece English and French or German: compulsory

Hungary English, French, German, Italian, Russian: one of these languages is compulsory

Italy English: compulsory

Lithuania English, French, German: one of these languages is compulsory

Netherlands English: compulsory; French, German, Spanish: optional

Northern Ireland Spanish, French: optional

Poland English, German, French: one of these languages is compulsory

Portugal English, French: one of these languages is compulsory

Romania English, French, German, Italian, Russian, Spanish: one of these languages is compulsory

Scotland French, German, Spanish: optional

Spain (Madrid, Valencia, English, French, German: one of these languages is compulsory
Sevilla)

Switzerland in the Zurich Canton: English compulsory

in the Geneva Canton: German compulsory
in the Ticino Canton: French compulsory

Ukraine English, French, German, Spanish: one of these languages is compulsory

English, French and German emerge as the most commonly To facilitate successful language learning it is important to
taught foreign languages. In many cases, one of these languages develop an explicit curriculum and attainment targets. The CEFR
is the compulsory subject to be studied by all pupils. Italian, has become a standard tool for supporting this process. It is a
Russian and Spanish are other languages offered either as document which describes in a comprehensive manner through
compulsory or optional foreign languages. In some countries, illustrative descriptor scales a) the competencies necessary for
Arabic, Chinese and Japanese are also offered as optional communication, b) the related language knowledge and skills,
foreign languages. This reported variety of languages on offer and c) the situations and domains of communication. Of the
in primary schools is a positive sign for European multilingualism, countries/regions researched, seven report using the CEFR
although the picture presented here should be balanced explicitly in foreign language learning, although more may base
against the 2008 Eurydice data which highlight the increasing their national standards on its principles and approaches. The
dominance of English in primary language teaching. countries/regions and the attainment targets specified in each
[Link] are presented in Table 15. As expected, A1/A2 is the chosen
KDL2008_EN.pdf target level for this age group.

41
LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

table 15: CEfR attainment targets for foreign language education R/M language learning in primary education
in primary schools in seven countries/regions
Consistent with the methodology adopted for foreign language
Country/region Proficiency level to be achieved education, we asked our researchers about R/M languages
for foreign languages at the end on offer in their national/regional context, and specifically:
of primary education
■ the target groups
Bulgaria A1–A2
■ the extent to which there is a coherent and
Estonia A1–A2 explicit curriculum
France A1 ■ the spread of CLIL

Romania A1 ■ when R/M language education starts

■ scheduling during or after the school day
Scotland A1
■ minimum group size requirements
Spain (Madrid, A2; ‘not specified’ in Valencia
■ monitoring of language skills
Valencia, Sevilla)
■ whether there is an explicit requirement with regard to the
Switzerland In the Zurich Canton: A2.1 for oral and
R/M language proficiency level to be achieved by the end
written reception and oral production,
A1.2 for written production
of primary school
■ whether state funding is available.

R/M languages are offered in 22 of the 24 countries/regions

surveyed, with Denmark and Estonia not reporting provision. The
results are presented in Table 16 for these 22 countries/regions.

table 16: Organisation of R/M language education in primary schools in 22 countries/regions

Criteria replies N replies N replies N

target groups all 20 native speakers only 2 no support 0

Curriculum coherent and explicit 16 general 5 no guidelines 1

Languages used as medium widespread 12 localised 6 absent 4

of instruction (CLiL)

start of language education from year 1 19 from mid-phase 3 end-phase only 0

scheduling in school hours 17 partly in school hours 4 outside school hours 1

Minimum group size none 16 5–10 pupils 3 >10 pupils 3

requirements

Monitoring of language skills national standardised 8 school-based 11 absent 3

Level to be achieved national or regional 14 school norms 3 not specified 5

norms

state funding available full 21 partial 1 none 0

42
 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

R/M language classes and lessons in other subjects taught at least five children to form a class, while Austria, Bulgaria and
through R/M languages are open to all pupils irrespective of Northern Ireland require ten. In terms of monitoring of language
language background in 20 countries/regions, although Bulgaria skills, 19 countries/regions do this using either age-appropriate
and Greece only target native speakers of these languages. standardised instruments or school-based approaches, with
All countries except Austria have curriculum guidelines. CLIL only Italy and the Netherlands/ Friesland not reporting regular
is much more widespread in R/M language teaching than in monitoring. Achievement levels are linked to national/regional
foreign language teaching, with 12 countries/regions reporting standards in 14 countries/regions while three set standards at
that it is commonplace and another six that it is used locally. school level. Five countries/regions, namely Austria, Bosnia and
Nineteen of the 22 countries/regions in which R/M languages Herzegovina, Greece, Italy and Northern Ireland do not have
are taught begin early at the start of primary education, with explicit targets.
only France, Poland and Switzerland introducing it from the
mid-phase. Sixteen countries/regions have no group size Table 17 shows the R/M languages actually offered according
requirements. England (in Cornwall), Hungary and Poland require to our researchers.

table 17: R/M language provision in primary education in 22 countries/regions

Country/region r/M languages offered in primary education

Austria Croatian in Burgenland, Czech, Hungarian, Slovak, Slovene, Romani

Basque Country Basque

Bosnia and Herzegovina Other National Languages: Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian

Bulgaria Armenian, Hebrew, Romani, Turkish,

Catalonia Catalan everywhere, Aranese Occitan in Val d’Aran

England Cornish in Cornwall

France Basque, Breton, Catalan, Corsican, Occitan

Tahitian and Melanesian Languages (Ajie, Drehu, Nengone, Paici) are offered in France Overseas.

Friesland Frisian

Greece Turkish

Hungary Bulgarian, Croatian, German, Greek, Polish, Romani/Boyash, Romanian, Rusyn, Serbian, Slovak, Slovene

Italy Albanian, Catalan, Croatian, French, Franco-Provencal, Friulian, German, Greek, Ladin, Occitan, Sardinian, Slovene

Lithuania Belarusan, Hebrew, Polish, Russian

Netherlands Frisian only in Friesland

Northern Ireland Irish

Poland Kashubian

Portugal Mirandese

Romania Bulgarian, Croatian, German, Hungarian, Italian, Polish, Romani, Russian-Lipovan, Serbian, Slovak, Turkish, Ukrainian

Scotland Gaelic

Spain (Madrid, Valenica, Valencian in Valencia only

Sevilla)

Switzerland Other National Languages: French, German, Italian

Ukraine Belarusan, Bulgarian, Crimean Tatar, Gagauz, German, Greek, Hungarian, Moldovan, Polish, Romanian, Russian, Slovak, Yiddish,

Wales Welsh

The offer is rich in a number of countries/regions, with Austria,

Bulgaria, France, Hungary, Italy, Lithuania, Romania and Ukraine
offering four or more R/M languages either as subjects or in the
majority of cases as a medium of instruction.

43
LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Immigrant language learning in primary education

For immigrant languages, we asked our researchers a similar
set of questions to those asked for R/M and foreign languages.
Only five countries report a significant offering of immigrant
languages at primary level. These are Austria, Denmark, France,
Spain (in Madrid and Valencia) and Switzerland (in the canton
of Zurich) and the results from these five countries are set out
in Table 18.

table 18: Organisation of immigrant language learning in primary education in five countries/regions

Criteria replies N replies N replies N

target groups all 2 native speakers only 3 no support 0

Curriculum coherent and explicit 2 general 3 no guidelines 0

Languages used as medium widespread 1 localised 3 absent 1

of instruction

start of language education from year 1 2 from mid-phase 1 end-phase only 2

scheduling in school hours 0 partly in school hours 2 outside school hours 3

Minimum group none 2 5–10 pupils 1 >10 pupils 2

size requirements

Monitoring of national standardised 0 school-based 5 absent 0

language skills

Level to be achieved national or regional 0 school norms 0 not specified 5

norms

state funding available full 2 partial 3 none 0

In France and Switzerland, immigrant language classes table 19: Immigrant language provision in primary education
are open to all children, while in Austria, Denmark and Spain in five countries
(Madrid, Valencia, Sevilla) they are reserved for native speakers
Country/region immigrant languages offered in primary
of immigrant languages. There are no minimum group size
education
requirements in Switzerland and France. In Spain more than
five pupils are required to start a class, and in Austria and Austria Albanian, Bosnian/Croatian/Serbian, Polish,
Denmark a group of ten is required. In Austria and Denmark Russian, Turkish
there is a coherent and explicit curriculum, while in the other
Denmark Albanian, Arabic, Bosnian, Icelandic, Somali,
countries the curriculum is expressed in general terms. In Spain, Tamil, Turkish, Urdu/ Panjabi
it is common to use immigrant languages as a medium of
instruction, whereas in Austria, Denmark and France this is France Arabic, Croatian, Italian, Portuguese, Serbian,
less widespread. In Switzerland these languages are only taught Spanish, Turkish
as a subject. Spain and Switzerland offer lessons partly in school Spain (Madrid, (Moroccan) Arabic and Portuguese in Madrid
hours, whereas in the other countries they are offered as extra- Valencia, Sevilla) and Valencia
curricular activities. Achievement in immigrant languages is
not linked to any national, regional or school-based standards, Switzerland In Zurich: Albanian, Arabic, Bosnian/Croatian/
Serbian, Bulgarian, Chinese, Finnish, French,
although the development of language skills is monitored in all
Greek, Hungarian, Italian, Korean, Kurdish,
countries. Lessons in immigrant languages are fully funded by Portuguese, Turkish, Russian, Spanish,
the state in Austria and Denmark, whereas in France, Spain and Slovene, Swedish
Switzerland they are mainly supported by the country of origin.
Switzerland In Geneva: Albanian, Arabic, Italian, Portuguese,
The immigrant languages offered in each country are set out Spanish, Turkish
in Table 19.

44
 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Teacher development in primary education In our LRE survey, we asked about:

Both the EU and the CoE have consistently underlined the ■ teacher qualifications
importance of recruiting and developing qualified language
■ provision of pre-service and in-service teacher training
teachers to support the language development and intercultural
skills of learners. They emphasise the need for teachers to ■ mobility of foreign language teachers
develop their own language skills, intercultural competencies ■ measures to increase the supply of teachers where there
and awareness of multilingualism and plurilingualism. Teacher is a shortage
mobility schemes, through which teachers are encouraged to
spend time abroad in the country of the language they are In Table 20, the results for all four language types in primary
teaching, have been identified as a valuable way of supporting education are set out for all countries/regions. It is important
them to achieve these objectives. (EC 2008: 11). to bear in mind that not all language types are offered in
all countries/regions, and this accounts for the low score
particularly in immigrant languages, which are only offered
in five countries/regions.

table 20: Teacher qualifications and development in primary education in 24 countries/regions

dimension replies N countries replies N countries replies N countries

NL r/M fL iL NL r/M fL iL NL r/M fL iL

teacher qualified 16 17 14 2 generally 8 5 9 3 no specific 0 2 1 19

qualifications language qualified qualification
teachers teachers

Pre-service subject- 20 18 17 1 general 4 3 4 2 none 0 3 3 21

training specific

in-service subject- 16 14 20 1 general 7 7 3 4 none 1 3 1 14

training specific

Measures to structural 3 7 8 0 recruitment 1 2 2 0 no specific 20 15 14 24

increase supply measures campaigns measures
in press

teacher incorporated N/A N/A 2 N/A informal N/A N/A 13 N/A none N/A N/A 9 N/A
mobility into training financial
support

45
LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

According to the responses from our survey, qualified language

teachers are employed to teach languages in around two-thirds
2.4 Languages in
of the countries/regions surveyed: 16 out of 24 in the national secondary education
language, 17 out of 22 in R/M languages, 14 out of 23 in
foreign languages, and two out of five in immigrant languages. EU and CoE documents on multilingualism emphasise the
Of course, where there is content and language integrated need for students to build on the basic language learning
learning (CLIL), it is less important that the teachers are actually done at primary school as they make the transition to secondary
qualified language teachers (although language levels need to education, extending both the number of languages they learn
be high), and in many primary contexts, qualified language and their ability to communicate in them with a view to future
teachers for general teaching in the national language and R/M employment and further or higher education.
languages would be unusual. However, it would certainly be
According to the CoE’s Recommendation CM/R (98) 6, the language
expected that foreign language teachers would have a formal
learning objective in secondary should be to:
qualification. In Austria, England, France, Friesland, Italy, the
Netherlands, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Switzerland, foreign continue to raise the standard of communication which
languages are taught by generally qualified classroom teachers. pupils are expected to achieve so that they can use the
language studied to communicate effectively with other
Pre-service and in-service teacher development programmes,
speakers of that language in everyday transactions, build
either of a specific or general nature, are common in all
social and personal relations and learn to understand
countries, although Italy and Northern Ireland report no
and respect other people’s cultures and practices.
pre-service training for foreign language teachers, and Greece
reports no in-service training for teachers of the national Secondary schools should offer a more diverse range of
language. R/M language teachers of Cornish in England also languages overall, and give students the opportunity to
receive no formal training. In immigrant language teaching, learn more than one European or other language. Levels of
only Austria provides subject specific pre-service and in-service achievement should be monitored using standard European
training. Inevitably the survey was not able to ask in detail benchmarks, including the recognition of partial competencies
about the nature of teacher development programmes, where appropriate. It is recommended that content language
and this is suggested as an area of further research. integrated learning (CLIL) should be used more widely. Teacher
development and mobility, and the creation of international
Another area beyond the scope of the survey was that teachers
networks and co-operation across countries to set up joint
of R/M languages as well as immigrant languages might formally
projects are also considered important ingredients for success.
be defined as teachers of native languages if they teach in
Our research was structured to consider many, although not all,
minority or immigrant schools, or as teachers of foreign languages
of the above aspects.
if they teach non-native speakers of the language who attend a
minority or immigrant community school. Thus, they can choose Secondary education is of course more difficult to compare
to join either teacher development programmes for teachers of from country to country than primary: a range of specialist
native or foreign languages, depending on their teaching situation. schools becomes available for students to choose from,
lower and upper secondary are structured differently in
The clear area for development in foreign language teaching is
different countries (see Glossary) and the way that language
teacher mobility. Nine countries/regions out of 24 report having
programmes are planned also varies considerably. In spite
no support at all in this area, and only Catalonia and Switzerland
of these challenges, our researchers gathered data on the
report structured teacher mobility programmes. Thirteen others
organisation of language teaching and teacher development
encourage mobility and provide financial support. More could
across all language types in 24 countries/regions.
be done here to stimulate language teachers to spend more
time in the country of the language they are teaching and also
align with EU recommendations which highlight teacher mobility Support for the national language
and exchange as important means for teachers to acquire in secondary education – organisation
higher level linguistic and cultural competence. Support for the national language continues to be important
at secondary level for both newcomers and for all others who
An interesting finding is that a number of countries/regions
have difficulty understanding and communicating in the national
are taking active measures to increase the number of language
language. We asked our researchers the same set of questions
teachers, and this would be a fruitful area for knowledge
as in primary, about:
exchange. Does it mean that demand is increasing, or simply
that numbers of teachers are dwindling? In Basque Country, ■ the extent to which there is a coherent and
Denmark, Estonia and Switzerland special measures are being explicit curriculum
taken to recruit additional national language teachers. Bulgaria,
Denmark, England, Friesland, Hungary, Lithuania and Ukraine ■ the level of extra support for newcomers
are taking measures to promote and facilitate the supplementary ■ the existence of diagnostic testing on entry
hiring and training of qualified foreign language teachers. ■ monitoring of language skills.
The resurgence and promotion of many R/M languages is
likely to account for the fact that Spain (Basque Country), Bosnia
and Herzegovina, Denmark, Northern Ireland, Scotland, Spain
(Madrid, Valencia, Sevilla) and Ukraine are taking special measures
to recruit R/M language teachers. None of the countries/regions,
however, are reported yet to be actively recruiting immigrant
language teachers, and this must surely be an area for development.

46
 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

The results are set out in Table 21.

table 21: Organisation of support in the national language in secondary education in 24 countries/regions

Criteria replies N replies N replies N

Curriculum coherent and explicit 20 general 4 no guidelines 0

Extra support before mainstream 21 during mainstream 0 absent 3

for newcomers

diagnostic testing all 9 immigrants only 5 absent 10

on entry

Monitoring of language skills national standardised 15 school-based 8 absent 1

According to our researchers’ reports, 20 countries/regions Foreign languages in secondary education

have a coherent and explicit national language curriculum,
whereas in Friesland, Italy, Northern Ireland and the Netherlands Table 22 presents an overview of the organisation of foreign
it is expressed in general terms. Additional support in the language teaching in secondary education. We asked our
national language is provided for newcomers either before respondents about:
or during mainstream education in 21 countries/regions, with ■ target groups
Denmark, Italy and Ukraine reporting no provision. The exact
nature of the support given, and the difference that this makes ■ the number of languages taught and whether or not
to students’ academic success, is an area for further research. they are compulsory
As in primary education, a relatively small number of countries/ ■ the extent to which there is a coherent and
regions conduct a needs-based diagnosis of proficiency for all explicit curriculum
students in the national language on entering secondary ■ the spread of CLIL
education. These are Bosnia and Herzegovina, Catalonia,
■ scheduling during the school day
England, France, Poland, Portugal, Scotland, Ukraine and Wales.
Another five countries/regions – Bulgaria, Hungary, Lithuania, ■ minimum group size requirements
Spain and Basque Country – provide diagnostic testing for ■ monitoring of language skills
immigrant students only. The nature of the tests and how the
■ the level to be achieved and alignment with CEFR
information is used to inform syllabus design and provide
ongoing support is another area for further exploration. As at ■ the level of state funding available.
primary level, there is regular monitoring of national language
skills, with 15 countries/regions doing this at national level and
eight at local level. Denmark reports no monitoring of national
language skills in secondary education.

table 22: Organisation of foreign language teaching in secondary education in 24 countries/regions

Criteria replies N replies N replies N

target groups all 24 restricted 0 no support 0

Number of compulsory two 14 one 10 none 0

foreign languages
(lower secondary level)

Number of compulsory two 9 one 10 none 5

foreign languages
(upper secondary level)

Curriculum coherent and explicit 20 general 4 no guidelines 0

Languages used as medium widespread 1 localised 14 absent 9

of instruction (CLiL)

scheduling in school hours 23 partly in school hours 1 outside school hours 0

Minimum group size none 19 5–10 pupils 5 >10 pupils 0

requirements

Monitoring of language skills national standardised 11 school-based 13 absent 0

Level to be achieved linked to CEFR 13 national or school- 7 not specified 4

based norms

state funding available full 24 partial 0 none 0

47
LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

As expected, all countries/regions surveyed offer foreign Table 23 shows the extent to which countries/regions
languages at both lower and upper secondary. Significant offer compulsory languages at secondary level.
differences emerge, however, in the number of compulsory
languages offered, the range of languages, the monitoring While 14 countries/regions make the learning of two
of language skills, the use of CLIL, and the extent to which foreign languages compulsory in lower secondary education,
the CEFR is used to evaluate the level achieved. the number reduces to nine at upper secondary level, with
Denmark, Friesland, Italy, Lithuania, the Netherlands and Ukraine
Twenty countries/regions report a coherent and explicit lowering the requirement from two to one, and Greece from two
curriculum, with just the Netherlands, Northern Ireland, France to zero. Hungary increases requirements from one to two. The
and Italy saying that it is expressed in general terms. In primary only countries/regions to make two languages compulsory at
education only one country, Spain, reported widespread CLIL, both lower and upper secondary are Austria, Estonia, France,
and at secondary level it is France which claims this honour, Poland, Portugal, Romania and Switzerland. In England, Northern
with 14 countries/regions reporting localised initiatives and nine Ireland and Wales one foreign language is compulsory at
reporting no CLIL at all. A study of CLIL across all language lower secondary but at upper secondary these are the only
types can be found in Section 2.5. In general there are no group countries/regions of those surveyed, in addition to Greece,
size requirements for foreign language education, although where no foreign languages are compulsory. In Scotland,
Bulgaria, Denmark, Greece, Lithuania and Romania report that learning languages is an entitlement in both lower and
a minimum of five students is required to start some courses, upper secondary and therefore not technically compulsory;
particularly for optional courses in less widely used languages. although in practice most children learn a foreign language
Eleven countries/regions monitor language skills at the national at secondary school.
level, and 13 at school level.

table 23: Number of compulsory languages in lower and upper level secondary schools in 24 countries/regions

Number of compulsory two languages compulsory one language compulsory No language compulsory
languages

Lower secondary Austria, Denmark, Estonia, France, Basque Country, Bosnia and Scotland
Friesland, Greece, Italy, Lithuania, Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Catalonia,
Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, England, Hungary, Northern Ireland,
Romania, Switzerland, Ukraine Spain, Wales (Madrid, Valencia,
Sevilla)

Upper secondary Austria, Bulgaria, Estonia, France, Basque Country, Bosnia and England, Greece, Northern Ireland,
Hungary, Poland, Portugal, Herzegovina, Catalonia, Denmark, Scotland, Wales
Romania, Switzerland Friesland, Italy, Lithuania,
Netherlands, Spain, Ukraine

48
 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

As expected, attainment targets in line with the CEFR for foreign B2 seems to be the commonly agreed level for proficiency in
languages are much better established in secondary schools the first foreign language, with B1 for the second. These level
than in primary schools in the participating countries/regions, descriptions are presumably adapted to the target groups as
with 13 of them explicitly stating a level to be achieved. The appropriate in keeping with the principles of the CEFR. The
standards established are set out in Table 24. results of the SurveyLang study later this year will reveal to
what extent this aspiration is being met.
table 24: CEfR attainment targets for foreign language (fL)
education in secondary schools in 13 countries/regions
R/M languages in secondary education
Country/ Proficiency level expected to be reached Under ECRML and national obligations, countries/regions are still
region at the end of secondary education committed to offering teaching in and through R/M languages,
and we asked researchers a similar set of questions as for
Austria B2
foreign languages, enquiring about:
Basque B1
Country ■ target groups

Bulgaria B1-B2 for first FL; A1 for second FL

■ the extent to which there is a coherent and
explicit curriculum
Denmark B2
■ the spread of CLIL
Estonia Lower secondary: B1 level for first FL; A2 for second FL ■ scheduling during the school day
Upper secondary: two foreign languages
at B level (either B1 or B2) ■ group size requirements
■ monitoring of language skills
France B2 level for first foreign language; B1 level
for second foreign language; ■ the level to be achieved
A2/B1 for third foreign language
■ the level of state funding available.
Friesland Depending on school type, levels range between A1
to B2 (or C1 for reading skills) Nineteen countries/regions offer R/M languages within
secondary education and the results are presented in Table 25.
Hungary First foreign language: B1 or B2; B1 for second foreign
language

Lithuania Lower secondary level: B1 for first FL; A2 for second FL;
Upper secondary level: in connection with
achievements at lower secondary, B2, B1 or A2

Netherlands Depending on school type, levels range between A1

to B2 (or C1 for reading skills)

Portugal Levels vary from A.2.2 to B.1.2

Romania B2

Switzerland In the cantons of Zurich and Geneva: B2.

table 25: Organisation of R/M language teaching in secondary education in 19 countries/regions

Criteria replies N replies N replies N

target groups all 18 native speakers only 1 no support 0

Curriculum coherent and explicit 16 general 3 no guidelines 0

Languages used as medium widespread 10 localised 8 absent 1

of instruction (CLiL)

scheduling in school hours 15 partly in school hours 3 outside school hours 1

Minimum group size none 13 5–10 pupils 1 >10 pupils 5

requirements

Monitoring of language skills national standardised 10 school-based 8 absent 1

Level to be achieved national or regional 14 school norms 3 not specified 2

norms

state funding available full 19 partial 0 none 0

49
LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

The countries/regions not offering R/M language education are The 2008 EC Green Paper on Migration and Mobility
Denmark, England, Estonia, Greece and Poland. Of the 19 that do, referred back to Directive 77/486/CEE under which
CLIL is widespread in ten, and present in some areas in eight, with Member States should:
only Bulgaria reporting that these languages are only taught as
subjects. Courses are open to all pupils except in Bulgaria, where promote teaching of the mother tongue and culture
they are for native speakers only. They take place during school of the country of origin, in co-ordination with normal
hours except in Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Bulgaria, education, in co-operation with the Member State
where courses are scheduled partly in school time and partly of origin.
outside. There are no group size requirements in 13 countries/
regions, although in Scotland a minimum of five students is In our LRE research we set out to explore the extent to which
required to form a class. In Austria, Bulgaria, France, Northern Member States are offering both immigrant students and others
Ireland and Romania a minimum of ten is required. Eighteen the opportunity to learn these languages. As we saw in pre-primary
countries/regions monitor the language skills acquired either and primary, few countries/regions are making this choice available
through national/regional or school-based tests, with only Italy systematically (three in pre-primary and five in primary), and in
reporting no monitoring. Austria and Wales set no targets for the secondary eight countries/regions out of the 24 responded
standard to be achieved, but all other countries do. All countries/ positively. These are Austria, Denmark, England, Estonia, France,
regions offer the languages free of charge to all pupils. the Netherlands, Scotland and Switzerland.

In Table 26 we present an overview of immigrant languages

Immigrant languages in secondary education in these countries, focusing on:
With increased mobility and migration within Europe and into
■ target groups
Europe from outside, the number of immigrant languages
spoken in European schools has increased markedly, and ■ the extent to which there is a coherent and
for many children the language of instruction at school is their explicit curriculum
second language. European documents have been keen to ■ the spread of CLIL
emphasise the importance of valuing all the languages and
■ scheduling during the school day
cultures of the classroom, with the CoE Recommendation
CM/R (98) 6 urging Member States to ensure that: ■ group size requirements
■ monitoring of language skills
there is parity of esteem between all the languages and
cultures involved so that children in each community may ■ level to be achieved
have the opportunity to develop oracy and literacy in the ■ level of state funding available.
language of their own community as well as to learn to
understand and appreciate the language and culture
of the other.

table 26: Organisation of immigrant language teaching in secondary education in eight countries/regions

Criteria replies N replies N replies N

target groups all 4 native speakers only 3 no support 1

Curriculum coherent and explicit 3 general 3 no guidelines 2

Languages used as medium widespread 1 localised 2 absent 5

of instruction (CLiL)

scheduling in school hours 1 partly in school hours 1 outside school hours 6

Minimum group size none 4 5–10 pupils 2 >10 pupils 2

requirements

Monitoring of language skills national standardised 1 school-based 5 absent 2

Level to be achieved national or regional 2 school norms 3 no norms 3

norms

state funding available full 5 partial 2 none 1

50
 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Of the eight countries/regions reporting provision, England, Overview of languages other than the national
Denmark, France and the Netherlands offer languages such as language offered at secondary level
Turkish and Arabic not only to pupils from these backgrounds,
but to all secondary pupils as a foreign language, a model that Beyond primary education it becomes more difficult to distinguish
can be highlighted as good practice for other countries/regions between foreign, R/M and immigrant languages because the
to follow. France is the only country/region offering widespread target groups for provision become increasingly non-specific and
CLIL, while Austria and Switzerland offer it in some areas. The languages other than the national language (LONL) tend to be
Netherlands offers immigrant languages as part of the curriculum offered more to pupils independent from their home language
within school time, while England and Switzerland (Zurich only) background. In spite of these complexities, we have maintained
offer them partly in school time, and the other countries/regions our initial distinction between foreign, R/M and immigrant
as extra-curricular activities. There are no minimum group size languages which was used in describing language provision in
requirements in England, France, Netherlands and Scotland. In pre-primary and primary education, while recognising that the
Denmark and Switzerland a minimum of five students is required categories are not watertight. Table 27 gives a comparative
to start a class, and in Austria and Estonia the minimum is ten. overview of provision in (mainly) R/M languages, (mainly) foreign
Language skills are monitored using standardised national tests languages and (mainly) immigrant languages in 24 countries/
in England, using school-based instruments in Austria, Denmark, regions according to our researchers’ reports.
France, the Netherlands and Switzerland, and there is no
monitoring in Estonia and Scotland. Estonia and the Netherlands
are the only countries/regions to specify the proficiency level
to be achieved nationally. Full state funding is available for
immigrant languages in Austria, Denmark, England, the
Netherlands and Scotland. In France and Switzerland funding is
provided by the countries of origin of immigrant pupils and in
Estonia parents/guardians meet the costs. The only countries
offering immigrant languages in both primary and secondary
education are Austria, Denmark, France and Switzerland.

table 27: Comparative overview of provision in (mainly) R/M languages, (mainly) foreign languages and (mainly) immigrant languages in
secondary education (foreign languages referred to in italics are offered in upper secondary education only) in 24 countries/regions

Country/region (Mainly) r/M languages (Mainly) foreign languages (Mainly) immigrant languages

Austria Croatian in Burgenland, Czech, Compulsory Albanian, Bosnian/Croatian/

Hungarian, Romani, Slovak, Slovene 2 from English, French, Italian, Spanish Serbian, Polish, Russian, Turkish

Basque Country Basque Compulsory English, German –

optional Arabic, French, Italian,
Russian, Turkish

Bosnia and Bosnian/Croatian/Serbian as other Compulsory English, German –

Herzegovina national languages optional Arabic, French, Italian,
Russian, Turkish

Bulgaria Armenian, Hebrew, Romani, Turkish Compulsory: 1–2 from Croatian, Czech, –
English, French, German, Italian, Japanese,
Korean, Polish, Romanian, Russian, Serbian,
Slovak, Spanish
optional: others from above selection

Catalonia Catalan everywhere, Compulsory: 1 from English, –

Aranese-Occitan in Val d’Aran French, occasionally German and Italian
optional: Ancient Greek, Latin and others

Denmark – Compulsory: English Arabic, Turkish

optional: Ancient Greek, Chinese,
French, German, Italian, Japanese,
Latin, Russian, Spanish

England – Compulsory: 1 language up to age 14. Arabic, Chinese, Urdu

This can be any living language (with
suitable accreditation); the main languages
are French, German, Spanish but also include
Arabic, Italian, Japanese, Mandarin, Polish,
Portuguese, Russian, Turkish & Urdu

Estonia – Compulsory: 2 from English, French, Chinese, Finnish, Swedish

German, Russian

51
LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Country/region (Mainly) r/M languages (Mainly) foreign languages (Mainly) immigrant languages

France Alsacian/German, Basque, Breton, Compulsory: 2 languages from 19: Arabic, Croatian, Italian,
Catalan, Corsican, Occitan, English, Spanish, German, Arabic, Chinese, Portuguese, Serbian, Spanish
Mosellan, Creole, Tahitian, Italian, Portuguese, Russian, Danish, Dutch, and Turkish
Melanesian languages (Ajïé, Drehu, Greek, Hebrew, Japanese, Norwegian,
Nengone, Paici ) Polish, Swedish, Turkish, Ancient Greek and
Latin; other languages, such as regional
languages optional

Friesland Frisian in Friesland only See Netherlands –

Greece – Compulsory: English –

optional: French, German

Hungary Romani, Boyash Compulsory: 1–2 from Chinese, English, –

French, German, Italian, Russian, Spanish, Latin

Italy Albanian, Catalan, Croatian, Compulsory: English and another –

Franco-Provencal, French, Friulian, foreign language
German, Greek, Ladin, Occitan,
Sardinian, Slovene

Lithuania Russian, Polish, Hebrew, Belarusan Compulsory: 1 from English, French, German –
optional: other languages

Netherlands Frisian in Friesland only Compulsory: English plus one other language Arabic, Turkish
at highest level of secondary.
optional: Ancient Greek, Chinese, French,
German, Italian, Latin, Russian Spanish.

Northern Ireland Irish Compulsory: 1 language up to age 14, –

usually French, German or Spanish

Poland – Compulsory: 2 from English, French, German, –

Italian, Russian, Spanish

Portugal Mirandese Compulsory: 2 from English, French, German, –

Spanish, Latin, Greek

Romania Bulgarian, Croatian, Hungarian, Compulsory: 2 from English, French, German, –

Italian, Polish, Romani, Russian- Italian, Portuguese, Russian, Spanish
Lipovan, Slovak, Serbian, Turkish,
Ukrainian

Scotland Gaelic optional: 1 from French, German or Spanish, Chinese, Russian, Urdu
Italian and Chinese.

Spain (Madrid, Valencian in Valencia only Compulsory: 1 from English, French, German. –
Valencia, Sevilla)

Switzerland French, German, Italian as other Compulsory: 1–2 from English, Greek, In Zurich: Albanian, Bosnian,
national languages Latin, Spanish Chinese, Croatian, Finnish, French,
Greek, Hungarian, Italian, Korean,
Kurdish, Portuguese, Russian,
Serbian, Slovene, Spanish, Swedish,
Turkish
In Geneva: Albanian, Arabic, Italian,
Portuguese, Spanish, Turkish

Ukraine Belarusan, Bulgarian, Crimean Compulsory: 1–2 from English, French, –

Tatar, Gagauz, German, Greek, German or Spanish depending on the school
Hebrew, Hungarian, Moldovan, Optional: Armenian, Czech, Korean, Turkish,
Polish, Romanian, Russian, Slovak Vietnamese: as extra-curricular languages

Wales Welsh Compulsory: 1 language up to age 14, –

from French, German, Spanish

52
 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

The most commonly offered foreign languages are English, Teacher qualifications and development
German and French, although other European languages in secondary education
such as Spanish and Italian are also offered. Some immigrant
languages such as Arabic, Croatian, Polish, Russian and Turkish Regarding teacher qualifications and development, as expected
are also offered as optional foreign languages, and Arabic and secondary schools have tougher requirements than primary
Turkish have a firm status as examination subjects in secondary schools according to our researchers’ reports. In the LRE
schools in France and the Netherlands. France has the largest survey we asked about:
number of languages on offer, and all pupils can choose
■ teacher qualifications
from a large variety of languages such as modern European
languages, popular Asian languages such as Japanese and ■ provision of pre-service and in-service teacher training
Chinese as well as R/M languages and immigrant languages. ■ mobility of foreign language teachers
Austria and the Netherlands also have a rich variety of
■ level of language required
languages on offer according to according to our researchers’
reports. Russian is of course offered widely in Eastern European ■ measures to increase the supply of teachers where there
countries either as an R/M language or as a foreign language. In is a shortage .
England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales, French, German
and Spanish are the most commonly offered, although immigrant In Table 28, the results for all four language types in secondary
languages are also offered, sometimes in mainstream education, education are set out for all countries/regions. It is important
but more commonly in so-called complementary education. to bear in mind that not all language types are offered in
all countries/regions, and this accounts for the low score
particularly for immigrant languages, which are only offered
in eight countries/regions.

table 28: Teacher qualifications and development in secondary education in 24 countries/regions

Criteria replies NL r/M fL iL replies NL r/M fL iL replies NL r/M fL iL

teacher language 23 16 22 3 general 1 3 2 3 unqualified 0 5 0 18

qualifications teachers teachers

Pre-service subject- 22 17 22 3 general 2 2 2 2 none 0 5 0 19

training specific

in-service subject- 19 14 20 3 general 5 5 4 5 none 0 5 0 16

training specific

Level to be linked to 4 N/A 8 N/A national or 13 N/A 13 N/A none 7 N/A 4 N/A
achieved CEFR regionwide
standards

Measures to structural 7 8 10 1 campaigns 2 0 1 1 no specific 15 16 13 22

increase supply measures measures
of teachers
where there
is a shortage

teacher incorporated N/A N/A 2 N/A informal N/A N/A 17 N/A none N/A N/A 5 N/A
mobility into training financial
support

53
LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

In 23 of the 24 countries/regions, additional national language Only in Austria, Denmark and the Netherlands do qualified
(NL) support is provided by qualified language teachers, while subject-specific language teachers conduct classes in
only in Estonia is it provided by generally qualified classroom immigrant languages (IL), whereas in Estonia, France and
teachers. Pre-service and in-service teacher development is also Switzerland general classroom teachers are employed.
offered. Non-native teachers of the national language are
required to have attained a certain proficiency level in the As in primary education, in a number of countries there is a
national language in 17 countries/regions, although only four shortage of supply of teachers and special measures are being
stipulate explicit CEFR levels – Basque Country (B2), Estonia (C1), taken to recruit professionals with appropriate qualifications
Italy (C2) and Switzerland (in Zurich and Ticino) (C2). In seven and to encourage people to qualify as language teachers.
countries/regions, no standards are stipulated. Those countries/regions reporting such teacher recruitment
campaigns are set out in Table 30.
Foreign language teachers are also well qualified, and only
in Estonia and Northern Ireland do general classroom teachers table 30: Countries/regions actively recruiting language teachers
teach foreign languages. Italy and Greece report that pre- where there is a shortage
service training is general rather than language-specific. There is
NL teachers fL teachers r/ML iL teachers
a little more structured support for mobility at secondary level
teachers
than at primary, with Austria as well as Catalonia reporting that
teachers spend a semester abroad as part of their pre-service Basque Basque Basque England
or in-service development, Another 17 countries/regions Country Country Country
support mobility initiatives of teachers financially, leaving
England Bulgaria Friesland Scotland
Estonia, France, Italy, Portugal and Romania as countries where
teachers are less likely to spend time in a target language Estonia England Northern
country. In line with EU and CoE recommendations, foreign Ireland
language teachers in most countries/regions are required to
Friesland Friesland Romania
have attained a certain proficiency level in the foreign language
and this is measured against CEFR levels in eight countries/ Netherlands Hungary Scotland
regions, as set out in Table 29.
Northern Lithuania Spain (Madrid,
Ireland Valencia, Sevilla)
table 29: Proficiency requirement for teachers of foreign languages
in secondary education in eight countries/regions Romania Netherlands Switzerland

Country/region Proficiency level required by foreign Scotland Romania Wales

language teachers in secondary education
Switzerland Scotland
Austria C1
Switzerland
Basque Country B2
Wales
Bulgaria B2–C1

Catalonia C1–C2
Scotland is the only country/region which reports actively
Estonia C1 recruiting for language teachers in every category, while
Basque Country, England, Romania and Switzerland are taking
Hungary C1 measures to increase supply in three of the four language
Romania C1 categories.

Switzerland Canton of Zurich: C2

2.5 Cross-sectional perspectives

C1 appears to be the most common level required, while on (pre-)primary and
requirements are higher in Catalonia and Switzerland
(Zurich), where teachers are expected to reach C2. secondary education
Teachers of R/M languages in every country/region are In this section, cross-sectional perspectives are presented on
all qualified language teachers except in Friesland, where three important areas highlighted by EU and CoE documents:
courses are commonly taught by generally qualified language
■ content and language integrated learning (CLIL)
teachers. Pre-service and in-service teacher development is also
provided in all countries/regions. ■ foreign language teacher mobility
■ overall recognition of multilingualism and plurilingualism
in schools.

54
 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) table 32: Overview of foreign language teacher mobility in primary
and secondary education in 24 countries/regions
CLIL involves pupils learning subjects such as science or
geography through the medium of another language, which Primary secondary
is strongly encouraged as an efficient and effective way to
Structured Catalonia, Switzerland Austria, Catalonia,
develop communicative competence. We have already touched
programmes – at Spain (Madrid,
on the use of CLIL in the separate sections on primary and least one term Valencia, Sevilla),
secondary, and in Table 31 we present the results for both spent in target Switzerland
domains together. We asked researchers about the extent to country
which CLIL is widespread, localised or absent in their countries/
Individual Austria, Basque Basque Country,
regions. The total number of countries/regions offering each
initiatives Country, Bosnia and Bosnia and
language type is shown in brackets. supported Herzegovina, Denmark, Herzegovina, Bulgaria,
England, Estonia, Denmark, England,
table 31: Number of countries/regions reporting use of CLIL Greece, Hungary, Friesland, Greece,
in primary and secondary education Lithuania, Poland, Hungary, Lithuania,
Scotland, Spain Netherlands, Northern
Country/ Primary education secondary education (Madrid, Valencia, Ireland, Poland,
region Sevilla), Ukraine Scotland, Ukraine,
fL(23) r/M(22) iL(5) fL(24) r/M(19) iL(8) Wales

Widespread 1 12 1 1 10 1 Absent Bulgaria, France, Estonia, France, Italy,

Friesland, Italy, Portugal, Romania,
Localised 13 6 3 14 8 2 Netherlands, Northern
Ireland, Portugal,
Absent 9 4 1 9 1 5
Romania, Wales

As expected, CLIL is widespread primarily in the teaching Catalonia and Switzerland are the only countries/regions
of R/M languages, because these languages are usually providing structured mobility programmes at both primary and
the pupils’ home languages, and so they are already able to secondary level, although half of the countries surveyed finance
communicate in them. In foreign language classrooms, because individual teacher initiatives at both levels. A surprisingly large
pupils’ communicative competence is lower, very few countries/ number of countries appear not to support teacher mobility
regions report widespread practice: only Spain in primary and at either level, and the possible reasons for this are an area
France in secondary. Nonetheless, the fact that 13 countries/ for further research.
regions in primary and 14 in secondary report localised CLIL
initiatives suggests that there are pockets of good practice, and
further research to compare approaches and explore teacher Overall recognition of multi/plurilingualism
development and the design of materials would be helpful. in schools
Of the few countries/regions offering immigrant languages, it
The organisation of multi/plurilingual education and the
is Spain again that reports offering widespread CLIL at primary,
development of teachers for linguistically and culturally
and France at secondary level, suggesting that these countries
diverse classrooms are increasing challenges facing
have acquired expertise in this approach.
European public education. With so many different home
languages now represented in almost all classrooms, EU
Foreign language teacher mobility and CoE documents have emphasised the importance of
Mobility of teachers is strongly encouraged through the EC’s acknowledging the existing plurilingual repertoire of pupils in
Lifelong Learning Programme (LLP), and in the LRE survey we the learning and teaching of languages, and to develop teachers
asked researchers about the opportunities given to teachers in to valorise and make use of the plurilingual repertoire of pupils
their country/region to spend time in the country of the in classroom practice. The extent to which this actually takes
language they are intending to teach either as part of their place is difficult to ascertain and would be a research project
pre-service or in-service training. Researchers were asked in itself. However, for indicative purposes, we asked researchers
whether countries/regions: to estimate the extent to which it is practised in their country/
region. The results are presented in Table 33.
a) incorporate such programmes into the structure of teacher
development programmes, with teachers spending at least one
term in the target country,

b) do not incorporate this, but do encourage and finance

individual teacher initiatives, or

c) do neither of the above.

The results are presented in Table 32.

55
LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

table 33: Recognition of multi/plurilingualism in pre-primary (PPE), primary (PE) and secondary (SE) schools in 24 countries/regions
(figures refer to number of countries/regions)

Level of recognition Coherent integrated informal approach Not dealt with

approach

PPE PE sE PPE PE sE PPE PE sE

Acknowledgement of multilingualism and 8 11 9 15 11 11 1 2 4

the plurilingual repertoire of pupils

teachers trained to make use of plurilingual 7 8 4 14 12 16 3 4 4

repertoire of learners

The majority of countries/regions report that multilingualism domains were Romania, Spain (Madrid, Valencia, Sevilla) and
in society and the plurilingual repertoires of learners are Wales. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, England, France and Scotland
acknowledged at all stages of education formally or informally, the level of recognition of multi/plurilingualism is reported to be
although teacher development tends to be more informal, higher in pre-primary and primary compared to secondary
particularly at secondary level. The countries/regions which schools, whereas in the Netherlands and Switzerland, there is
reported a coherent integrated approach in all three education greater acknowledgement at secondary level.

2.6 Languages in further

and higher education
Languages in further education
Further education, commonly referred to as Vocational Education The LRE research objective was to find out about the range
and Training (VET), is a particularly important component of the of languages and the types of programmes offered in VET
EU 2020 strategy, and the EC has been working closely with EU institutions across Europe. In order to do this our network
Member States to strengthen provision across Europe on the basis of researchers collected primary data directly from the
of the Copenhagen Process agreed upon in 2002 by the Council institutions at the largest VET centres (69 in total) in our
of the EU. In its Communication of 2008, the EC highlighted the 67 participating cities (See Table 4 in Section 1.5).
importance of lifelong learning, the role of VET for the future of
Europe, and the need to provide more opportunities to study Additional support for the national language in VET
languages within such institutions. EU structural funds have been
To find out about the level of additional support available for
made available for job-specific language courses.
the national language, our researchers asked institutions about:
The 2010 EC Communication, A new impetus for European
■ the diversity of target groups
cooperation in Vocational Education and Training to support the
Europe 2020 strategy, calls for a strategic approach to mobility ■ the variety of programmes offered to trainees
in VET, and recommends that all courses include periods of ■ the extent to which a coherent and an explicit
study or training in other countries with a much stronger focus curriculum is used
on language learning. This is particularly important for those
■ support for job-related skills and for general upskilling
training to work in industries or sectors such as banking, tourism
or international trade. Equally, because most VET institutions ■ types of funding source
offer training programmes to the unemployed and newcomers, ■ on-the-job training opportunities
support in the national language is also of crucial importance. ■ the use of EU instruments.
The 1998 CoE Recommendation 98(6) had also called for
vocationally-oriented language learning, and urged institutions The results are presented in Table 34.
to provide language courses which ensure a balance between
general and vocational components, and which equip students
to participate in international projects and prepare them for
taking up their occupation and being mobile within it.

56
 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

table 34: Additional support for the national language in vET (N=69 institutions)

dimensions replies N replies N replies N

target groups all 37 restricted 9 not specified 23

range of language support wide variety 30 limited variety 24 none 15

programmes

Curriculum coherent and explicit 43 general 8 no guidelines 18

type of courses job-related courses 34 general courses only 13 job-related 7

and general courses courses only

state funding available full 39 partial 10 none 19

training periods in built into course 13 optional 3 none 53

companies

use of European instruments yes 0 no 69

According to the information gathered by our researchers, 30 Languages other than the national language
out of the 69 VET institutions surveyed offer a wide variety of in further education
support programmes in the national language, ranging from
basic communication to advanced skills, 24 institutions offer To explore the provision of foreign, R/M and immigrant
a limited variety, and 15 offer no support. Well over half of the languages, we asked institutions about:
institutions surveyed have a coherent and explicit curriculum,
■ the number of languages on offer
and 34 institutions (almost half) offer both job-related and
general language courses, with another seven offering job- ■ the types of programmes available
related language courses only. In 39 institutions additional ■ the extent to which there is a coherent
support in the national language is fully funded, with ten offering and explicit curriculum
partial funding. Although training opportunities in companies are
■ alignment with CEFR (for foreign languages)
recommended in EU documents, both for work experience and
to develop language skills, only 13 out of the 69 institutions ■ availability of state funding.
report building partnerships with business to offer this. None of
the institutions appears to use European instruments such as the The results are presented in Table 35.
European Credit System or Europass in defining and applying
learning outcomes in national language programmes, and the
assumption must be that this instrument is not known to the
institutions surveyed.

table 35: Organisation of foreign, R/M and immigrant language teaching in further education (N=69 institutions)

Criteria replies fL r/ML iL replies fL r/ML iL replies fL r/ML iL

Number of >4 languages 15 0 1 3–4 languages 22 3 1 1–2 languages 25 22 2

languages offered

range of wide variety 41 17 2 limited variety 18 7 2 not specified 10 45 65

programmes

Curriculum coherent and 50 18 1 general 11 5 3 not specified 8 46 65

explicit

Alignment with CEfr fully aligned 26 N/A N/A national 27 N/A N/A not specified 16 N/A N/A
standards

state funding no fees 38 13 1 partial fees 22 11 1 full fees 9 45 67

available

57
LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

In terms of the organisation of language teaching as a whole, a This contrasts with the picture for R/M languages, with only
similar pattern emerges to other education sectors, where national 24 institutions reporting that such courses are offered, and only
and foreign languages are given the most support, followed by 13 fully covering the costs. The countries/regions offering R/M
R/M languages, and immigrant languages receiving the least. language courses in all three of the VET institutions surveyed
are Basque Country, Catalonia, Hungary, Northern Ireland, and
Sixty-two of the 69 institutions surveyed offer foreign languages, Wales. Bosnia and Herzegovina and Switzerland offer courses in
with 15 reporting that more than four languages are taught, 22 the other official languages in all three institutions surveyed.
offering three to four languages, and 25, one to two languages. Immigrant languages are only offered in four of the institutions
Forty-one institutions offer a wide variety of programmes, from surveyed, one each in Austria, England, Italy and Wales.
basic language skills to advanced, while 18 offer basic language
skills only. A very high number, 50, have a coherent and explicit Table 36 gives a comparative overview of provision in (mainly)
curriculum, and 26 align their courses with the CEFR. In R/M languages, (mainly) foreign languages and (mainly)
38 institutions, students are not required to pay for these immigrant languages at the 69 VET institutions surveyed in
courses, and in another 22 part of the costs are covered. our 67 selected cities according to our researchers’ reports.

table 36: Comparative overview of (mainly) R/M languages, (mainly) foreign languages,
and (mainly) immigrant languages provision in vET institutions (three in each country)

Country/ (mainly) r/M languages (mainly) foreign languages (mainly) immigrant

region languages

Austria – Arabic, Chinese, Czech, Dutch (only e-learning), English, French, Bosnian/Croatian/Serbian,
German, Hungarian, Italian, Japanese, Polish, Romanian, Russian, Turkish
Slovak, Slovene, Spanish

Basque Country Basque English, French –

Bosnia and Bosnian, Croatian and Arabic, Czech, English, French, German, Italian, Latin, Persian, –
Herzegovina Serbian, as other national Russian, Turkish
languages

Bulgaria – Croatian, English, French, German, Italian, Romanian, Russian, –

Spanish Turkish

Catalonia Catalan English, French, German –

Denmark – English as CLIL, French, German, Spanish –

England – French, German, Greek, Italian, Japanese, Portuguese, Arabic, Chinese,

Russian, Spanish Turkish, Urdu

Estonia – English, French, Finnish, German, Russian –

France Corsican Arabic, Chinese, English, German, Italian, Spanish, Russian –

Greece – English –

Hungary German English –

Italy Slovene English, French, German, Spanish Arabic

Lithuania Polish, Russian English, French, German –

Netherlands – English, French, German, Spanish –

Northern Irish, Ulster Scots French, German, Greek, Italian, Japanese, Polish, Portuguese, Arabic, Turkish, Chinese
Ireland Russian, Spanish

Poland – English, French, German, Russian –

Portugal Mirandese English, French, German, Spanish –

Romania Hungarian, Romani English, French, German –

Scotland – French, German, Italian, Polish, Spanish –

Spain (Madrid, – English, French –

Valencia,
Sevilla)

Switzerland French, German, Italian as English, Spanish –

other national languages

Ukraine Russian and Ukrainian English, French, German –

languages

Wales Welsh Chinese, French, German, Greek, Italian, Spanish Arabic

58
 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

As expected, English, French, German and Spanish are EU documents are equally robust about increasing and
prominent among foreign languages, with some Russian offered diversifying language education in Higher Education. The EU
as an R/M language in some countries/regions and a foreign Council Conclusions (2011) call for Member States to step up
language in others. Arabic is also offered in a number of VET efforts to achieve the Barcelona objective by enhancing the
institutions. As expected the main offer for R/M languages is provision, quality and relevance of language teaching in general
from countries/regions where there is more than one official education, VET and higher education, as well as in the context
language. It is likely that Basque, Catalan, Irish/Ulster Scots, of lifelong learning. The 2008 EC Communication had also called
and Welsh are the medium of instruction in the institutions for greater mobility and exchanges, and for universities to teach
surveyed as well as being offered as a subject. languages to all students regardless of their chosen discipline.

In light of the above, we asked our researchers to interview

Languages in higher education
representatives of three general/public universities in each
Both the EU and the CoE emphasise in their documents the of our target cities about:
importance of linguistic diversification and the development
of plurilingual competencies at all stages of education. At ■ the languages of instruction
university level, this is particularly important as it is the final ■ the languages in which websites are presented
stage before starting a career. University graduates are likely
■ target groups for additional support in the national language
to travel in their careers and to have regular dealings with
speakers of other languages. It is essential that they acquire ■ the languages offered for non-language students
language skills to support them in this, as well as developing ■ the extent to which CEFR is used to guide syllabus
their core academic knowledge and skills. Some universities in development and assessment
Europe are already making language skills an entry requirement
■ recruitment of non-national students
for all courses, while others encourage all students to spend
some time each week following language courses. ■ mobility for language students
■ mobility for non-language students.
The 1998 CoE Recommendation 98 (6) supports the
development of links and exchanges between institutions and We succeeded in gathering data on 65 general/public
persons in higher education in other countries so as to offer to universities and the results are presented in Table 37.
all the possibility of authentic experience of the language and
culture of others. Higher education is also included under the
ECRML, and education in and of R/M languages should be
offered to students requesting it. For foreign languages, it is
expected that higher education institutions will use the CEFR
as the main document for developing their syllabuses and for
the purposes of assessment.

table 37: Practice of multilingualism at 65 general/public universities surveyed

dimension N countries/regions N countries/regions N countries/regions

Language(s) of instruction 23 31 11
national, foreign, R/M national and foreign national only

Languages on website 17 38 10
national, foreign, R/M national and foreign national only

target groups for 24 38 3

additional support in NL all students restricted none

Number of languages offered 31 10 14

to non-language students >4 3–4 1–2

Level to be achieved 34 22 9
by language students linked to CEFR national or institution based none

recruitment of 33 31 1
non-national students international and immigrant only international only native speakers of national
language

Mobility for 10 51 4
language students obligatory optional no offer

Mobility for 1 60 4
non-language students obligatory optional no offer

59
LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

As is to be expected, all of the targeted European universities in our Through this Communication Member States were invited
sample cities provide instruction in the national language because in to support the subtitling and circulation of cultural works.
most cases it is the main language of their student populations and The 2009 European Parliament Resolution also encouraged
it is the official state language. However, in the majority of institutions the use of subtitles in television programmes. The High Level
surveyed other languages can also be used. A breakdown of which Group on Multilingualism (2007) devoted a section of its report
languages are used as a medium of instruction and an exact picture
to this area, stressing the importance of the media in shaping
of how the language of instruction in European universities is
changing due to globalisation of both the economy and academic people’s attitudes to other languages and cultures and
research is a subject for further investigation. The international encouraging a move from dubbing to subtitling:
mobility of students and staff, and the desire to attract a global and
Television companies which normally use dubbing
diverse student body, appears to be making English the second
language of many European universities and many academic should be encouraged to offer subtitling in addition
textbooks are also being written in English. to traditional dubbing, so that viewers have a choice.

It is encouraging that 55 of the 65 university websites surveyed are From an R/M languages perspective, Article 11 of the
multilingual, with only ten universities providing information in the ECRML focuses on the media, and specifies that signatories
national language only. This is an indication that most European should ensure that radio and television stations are created
universities in large cities are making significant efforts to promote in R/M languages, as well as encouraging the production
diversity and attract a diverse student body. The LRE survey did not and distribution of television and radio programmes and
capture the exact languages in which the websites are displayed, newspapers in these languages. It also stipulates that there
and this is an area for further research.
should be freedom of direct reception of radio and television
In terms of additional support in the national language, important broadcasts from neighbouring countries in a language
even at this level to give all students the opportunity to achieve used in identical or similar format to an R/M language.
a good degree, 24 of the 65 universities surveyed provide
support for all, with another 38 providing it for non-native In our LRE research we aimed to reflect the above
speakers only, adding up to a good level of provision overall. recommendations and guidelines, asking researchers to
collect data from the target cities in each national or
A very high number of universities offer language courses regional context. The following variables were included:
to non-language students, as recommended by the European
institutions. The offer is wide, with 31 institutions (almost half) giving ■ the range of languages on radio and television
students the choice of more than four languages. Only eight ■ subtitling practices at the cinema and on television
universities from our sample do not offer non-language students
the opportunity to learn other languages. It is a positive sign that ■ reception of R/M languages outside the region of origin
the CEFR is used to design syllabuses and inform assessment in ■ provision available for sign languages
over half of the universities surveyed. Of course the actual take-up
of language courses among undergraduates and postgraduates is ■ the diversity of languages in which newspapers are
another matter, and is beyond the scope of our research. available in major kiosks and in major train stations.

Given the strong competition for talent and extra funding among In order to gather data on the range of languages on radio
European universities, it is no surprise that all universities except and television, we asked our researchers to record the radio
one make special efforts to attract international students. It is and television programmes listed in different languages in the
interesting, though, that half also report conscious efforts to attract best-selling newspapers in the cities surveyed. This method is
students with an immigrant background at home. How this is being basically in line with the rationale of linguistic landscaping. Being
done would be an excellent subject for further investigation. aware of the limitations of such research, the aim was to take at a
given time and place a snapshot of the actual situation as
Student mobility is supported financially by European universities portrayed in different newspapers regarding television and radio
but only ten of the universities surveyed make mobility programmes. Based on our researchers’ reports it becomes clear
programmes compulsory for language students, with the great that multilingual radio and television programmes are available in
majority only ‘encouraging’ it. As is to be expected, mobility is a number of countries. Our researchers recorded only
optional rather than obligatory for all but one of the universities programmes in the national language on television and radio as
surveyed for non-language students. The EC publishes statistics listed in the newspapers in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Greece and
on student mobility under the Erasmus programme and this Poland. Most other participating countries offered programmes in
source should be consulted to gain insights into the actual English, German and French both on television and on radio. Next
numbers of students from each country spending time in to the national language, English is the most common television
another country as part of their studies: [Link] language in Austria, Basque Country, Catalonia, Denmark, Estonia,
education/erasmus/statistics_en.htm Italy, the Netherlands/Friesland, Portugal, Spain, Switzerland and
Ukraine. German television programmes are recorded in
2.7 Languages in audiovisual Catalonia, Denmark, Estonia, France, Hungary, the Netherlands/
Friesland and Romania. French is listed in Catalonia, Denmark,
media and press England and Estonia. In a number of countries a rich variety of
television programmes in R/M languages are listed; for instance,
EU and CoE documents are clear about what they recognise Bulgaria offers television programmes in Armenian, Hebrew,
as good policies for multi/plurilingualism in the audiovisual media Romani and Turkish. France, Hungary and Romania display similar
and the press. The 2008 EC Communication emphasised the trends regarding R/M languages. In some countries/regions like
Catalonia, England, the Netherlands and Switzerland, television
need to provide for people who do not speak so many
programmes in immigrant languages are listed as well. Radio
languages through the media, new technologies and translation:
programmes show a similar pattern to the television programmes.
While the offer on radio is much broader compared to television
Media can be a great source of informal language
programmes in Bulgaria, France, Hungary, Italy and Lithuania,
learning through ‘edutainment’ and subtitled films.
the variety is much less in Catalonia, Estonia and the Netherlands.

60
 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Bosnia and Herzegovina, Denmark, Estonia, Lithuania, Portugal, The countries/regions where both television and cinema are
Switzerland and Wales report that television and radio broadcasts dubbed are Austria, Catalonia, Hungary, Italy, Poland and Spain.
in R/M languages can always be received from other countries/ The countries/regions where subtitles are used on both television
regions, while France and Catalonia report that this is never the and cinema are Bosnia and Herzegovina, Denmark, England,
case. Researchers in the remaining countries/regions said that R/M Estonia, Friesland, Greece, the Netherlands, Northern Ireland,
language programmes can sometimes be received across borders. Portugal, Romania, Scotland, Switzerland and Wales. Other
The reasons behind these findings are worth further exploration. countries/regions have a hybrid approach where programmes
are subtitled in one medium and dubbed in the other.
According to research conducted by the Media Consulting
Group (2007) and in line with repeatedly expressed EU Regarding the availability of newspapers at the largest kiosks
recommendations, subtitling is becoming more widespread and train stations in our surveyed cities in each country/region,
in European countries. However, dubbing and voice-over all researchers went into these kiosks and train stations and
practices are still common. Countries are commonly divided listed the available different newspapers in different languages,
into two large groupings (dubbing countries versus subtitling again following the methodology of linguistic landscaping to
countries), although the actual situation in Europe is far provide a snapshot at a given place and time.
more complex. The LRE findings presented in Table 38
are comparable to earlier studies, with around half of the In Table 39, the 20 most common non-national/non-regional
countries/regions commonly using dubbing practices, languages in which newspapers were sold in the sampled cities
while the other half commonly provide subtitles. outside the country/region of reference are presented.

table 38: Subtitling vs. dubbing on television and at the cinema table 39: Multilingual spectrum of reported newspapers at the city
level (Top 20 of languages of different newspapers outside
Country/ television productions film productions the country or region of reference)
region
Commonly Commonly Commonly Commonly Languages in newspapers frequency
dubbed subtitled dubbed subtitled
1. English 408
Austria √ √
2. German 270
Basque √ √
Country 3. French 181

Bosnia and √ √ 4. Russian 162

Herzegovina
5. Italian 127
Bulgaria √ √
6. Arabic 77
Catalonia √ √
7. Turkish 54
Denmark √ √
8. Spanish 51
England √ √
9. Dutch 46
Estonia √ √
10. Albanian 40
France √ √
11. Serbian 36
Friesland √ √
12. Chinese 27
Greece √ √
13. Croatian 23
Hungary √ √
14. Bulgarian 12
Italy √ √
15. Japanese 11
Lithuania √ √
16. Polish 10
Netherlands √ √
17. Greek 8
Northern √ √
Ireland 18. Bosnian 7

Poland √ √ 19. Hungarian 7

Portugal √ √ 20. Swedish 6

Romania √ √

Scotland √ √

Spain √ √

Switzerland √ √

Ukraine √ √

Wales √ √

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LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Overall, English is the most common language, followed at a that these languages are natural means of communication for
distance by German, French, Russian and Italian. One might infer people who are deaf, and that official recognition of sign
that there are basically two types of target audiences for these languages is needed. It was also recommended that
newspapers: a) newspapers appealing to international travellers, broadcasting television programmes in sign languages or with
business people and tourists such as newspapers in English, subtitling would enhance the process of integration of the deaf
German, French or Japanese; b) newspapers appealing to community into the mainstream.
immigrant groups in various European cities, such as newspapers
in Arabic, Turkish, Albanian or Chinese. Of course these In Table 40, we show the answers given by our researchers not
distinctions are not watertight. only to the question about sign language on television, but also
to the other two questions asked about sign languages in the
The other area we looked at in the audiovisual section was LRE project: the extent to which official language policy
the extent to which sign language is offered in television documents exist in which sign languages are officially recognised
programmes for important media events. The Parliamentary or promoted in a country/region, and also to what extent people
Assembly of the CoE in its 2003 Recommendation on the who are deaf could make use of sign languages in official
protection of sign languages in the Member States pointed interactions with the authorities in public services. Table 40
out that sign languages are a feature of Europe’s cultural wealth, provides an overview of the reported sign language provision.

table 40: Sign language provision in 24 countries/regions

Country/region sign language is officially deaf people can make use of sign sign language is offered in
recognised or promoted language in official interactions important media events
with the authorities

Austria √ Always Sometimes

Basque Country – – Sometimes

Bosnia and Herzegovina √ Always Sometimes

Bulgaria √ Only in some cases Regularly

Catalonia √ Always Sometimes

Denmark – Always Regularly

England √ – Regularly

Estonia √ Only in some cases Always

France √ Always Regularly

Friesland √ Only in some cases Sometimes

Greece – – Sometimes

Hungary √ Always Sometimes

Italy – – –

Lithuania √ Always Sometimes

Netherlands √ Only in some cases Sometimes

Northern Ireland √ Only in some cases Regularly

Poland – – –

Portugal √ Always Regularly

Romania √ Always –

Scotland √ Only in some cases Regularly

Spain (Madrid, Valencia, √ Always Regularly

Sevilla)

Switzerland √ Always Regularly

Ukraine √ Always Sometimes

Wales √ Only in some cases Sometimes

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 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Sign languages are officially recognised/promoted in all In the LRE research, our aim was to explore language
countries/regions with the exception of the Basque Country, strategies and policies at city level. To do this we looked
Denmark, Greece, Italy and Poland. People who are deaf can at the following dimensions:
always make use of sign languages in official interactions with
the authorities in half of the countries/regions surveyed. ■ to what extent the city has an institutionalised strategy
Facilities for sign language provision in important media events for promoting multilingualism
are always available in Estonia and regularly available in another ■ whether services and documents are provided in languages
nine countries/regions. In Italy, Poland and Romania researchers other than the national language
report that these facilities are not available. On the whole, levels ■ web presence in other languages
of awareness regarding sign languages appear to be increasing
across Europe, which is of crucial importance for the deaf ■ the use of interpreters and translators in public services
communities. ■ the languages included in staff job descriptions, provision of
language training recruitment of speakers of other languages,
and records kept of language competencies of staff
2.8 Languages in public services ■ recognition for plurilingual skills of staff.
and spaces We also asked city representatives to state the number of
The EC Communication (2008) is one of a number of EU languages for which the above policies are adopted. In addition,
documents to underline the importance of multilingual public the actual languages, offered by cities in oral and written
services being made available to citizens and visitors who communication facilities were surveyed in the domains of
do not speak the local language: education, emergency, health, social, legal, transport, immigration,
and tourism services, as well as theatre programmes.
Metropolitan areas and tourist resorts in Europe should
make information available in different languages and rely The LRE data was gathered through a mixture of questionnaire,
on multilingual people to act as cultural mediators and interview and desk research, and was for the most part
interpreters. This is required to cope with the needs of submitted by representatives of the city authorities. Inevitably
foreigners who do not speak the local language. Legal the nature of the questionnaire means that it is impossible to
translation and interpretation are particularly important. capture detail, but these are nonetheless useful indicative
findings for future discussion and exploration.
The ECRML also covers public services, more from a citizen’s
perspective. Article 9 focuses on legal proceedings, and Sixty-four cities in total were surveyed. The full list of cities and the
guarantees that both criminal and civil proceedings can be criteria for selection are set out in Part 1 of this book, the basic
conducted in R/M languages using interpreters and translators formula being that in each country/region a capital city, the
at no extra expense to the person concerned, and also allowing second largest city, and a city/town with a regional language
citizens to submit legal documents in these languages. Article presence were chosen. The data reported for language strategies
10 relates to administrative authorities and public services, and policies at institutional level is set out in Table 41.
and states that where the number of residents justifies it,
public officers should speak R/M languages and texts should
be made available in them. It should also be possible to use
these languages in debates within local and regional authorities.
It is important when making this provision that the official
languages of the state should not be excluded.

Both EC and CoE documents, while pushing cities and public

authorities to be more multilingual, at the same time encourage
them to offer opportunities for citizens to learn the local
language at low cost.

Our focus is on languages in public services and spaces at the

city (council) level, that is, at the central city level, not at the
decentralised level of different neighbourhoods. We make use of
recommendations of the Eurocities network of major European
cities and recent recommendations of a European pioneer in this
domain, the city of Sheffield in the UK. The Sheffield City
Languages Strategy was published in 2004 and sought to make
a link between language learning and the wider city agenda of
inclusion. In 2008, Sheffield became the first city in Europe to
have its language policies profiled by the Council of Europe,
which provides expert assistance with a self-evaluation of policy
by countries, regions or cities. A city report covering the
promotion of multilingualism in education and beyond, including
business, was compiled by Reynolds (2008).

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LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

table 41: Reported language strategies and policies in 64 participating cities

dimensions Widely practised occasionally practised Not practised

Having an institutionalised strategy 20 25 19

for promoting multilingualism

Multilingual services 30 24 10

Website presence 27 18 19
in other languages

Annual municipal reports 15 10 39

in other languages

Use of interpreters and translators 35 24 5

Language competencies in job 23 27 14

descriptions of staff

Language training offered to 18 24 22

employees

Recruitment of speakers 11 30 23
of other languages

Record of language skills of staff 17 9 38

According to our researchers’ reports, the cities provide services table 42: Policies for multilingualism and number of languages
in 140 languages other than the national language. More detail offered in 64 participating cities
on which languages are offered can be found in Table 46.
No policies in place 1 city
The overall picture that emerges is one where around half of
Poorly developed policies 6 cities
the cities surveyed report that the offer of multilingual services in very limited number
is widely practised, while one-third actually have a widely of languages
practised institutionalised strategy for promoting multilingualism.
Only ten cities out of the 64 surveyed do not provide multilingual Partly developed policies 21 cities
services. Twenty-seven cities have complete web services in in a few languages
other languages, while 18 report that this is practised, but only developed policies in 31 cities
in part. The use of interpreters and translators is an important several languages
source of information for non-native speakers of local languages.
Such services are provided widely in 35 cities and partly in 24, Well developed policies 3 cities
in many languages
with only five cities reporting no offer at all. Twenty-three cities
(over a third) make it a widespread practice to include languages Very well developed policies 2 cities
in the job descriptions of their staff, with another 27 reporting in many languages
that this happens, but only occasionally. Eighteen cities provide
thorough provision of language training for staff with another The five cities with the most developed policies in the most
24 reporting that it happens occasionally. Only 11 cities make languages according to the data are in ranked order: Vienna,
it widespread practice to recruit speakers of other languages. Barcelona, London, Milan and Kraków. Other cities tend to
Just under a third of cities make it common practice to keep offer certain services in many languages, but others only in the
a record of language competencies of staff, while over half national language or in a limited range of languages. In Table 43
do not have such practices. the services themselves are ranked according to the number of
languages in which they are offered.
As well as asking city representatives about how widely the
above policies for multilingualism are practised, LRE researchers
also asked about the number of languages for which these
policies are implemented. Table 42 shows the distribution
of cities when both elements are taken into consideration.

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 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

table 43: Public services ranked in order from the most to the least table 44: Distribution of cities according to number of languages
number of languages in which communication facilities offered in oral communication across ten public services
are offered in 64 participating cities
the extent of oral Number of cities
oral communication Written communication multilingual services

1. Tourism services Tourism services Services available only 1

in the national language
2. Immigration and integration Immigration and integration
services services Services available in 1 or 2 23
languages on average
3. Legal services Transport services
Services available in 3 or 4 23
4. Health services Health services languages on average

5. Social services Emergency services Services available in more than 17

4 languages on average
6. Emergency services Social services

7. Education services Legal services

According to the responses given, 17 cities offer most services
8. Transport services Education services in more than four languages, while 23 offer them in three to
9. Theatre programmes Theatre programmes four languages. The ten cities which report offering the most
oral communication services in the most languages are in
10. Political debates and Political debates and decision- ranked order London, Aberdeen, Glasgow, Madrid, Valencia,
decision-making processes making processes Zurich, Milan, Belfast, Barcelona and Lugano.

For written communication, the distribution of services

The best provision is in tourism, immigration and integration, according to the same system is set out in Table 45.
legal (oral communication) and transport services (written
communication). Health services are also commonly offered table 45: Distribution of cities according to number of
in a number of languages. The lowest levels of multilingual languages offered in written communication
services are in the cultural sector (theatre) and in political across ten public services
debates/decision making. Education services also do not rank
the extent of written Number
as high as one might expect given the large number of students multilingual services of cities
(and their parents) attending schools across Europe who are
not fluent in the official language of the country/region where Services available only in the national language 1
they are educated. The lower scores for political debates and
Services available in 1 or 2 languages 30
decision-making processes may have a negative effect on on average
equal opportunities for involvement of all stakeholders,
especially minority groups, newcomers and immigrants, Services available in 3 or 4 languages 27
in active citizenship. on average

Services available in more than 4 languages 6

In terms of the actual number and range of languages offered
on average
in each city, it should again be emphasised that the data is
based on questionnaires and written responses from city
representatives. Further in-depth observation would be required
A lower number of cities are in the top categories for written
to establish if the languages reported to be offered actually are
communication, suggesting that less emphasis is placed on
offered, together with the consistency and levels of language
providing documents in multiple languages than in providing
competence. Nonetheless, the LRE data gathered is a good
on-the-spot oral interpreting and mediation. While 40 cities
indicator and platform for further research.
reported offering oral communication facilities in more than
The distribution of cities according to the number of languages three languages, 33 do so in written form. According to the
in which oral communication services are available is set out reported data, the ten cities which offer the most written
in Table 44. communication services in the most languages are in ranked
order London, Glasgow, Aberdeen, Belfast, Valencia, Sevilla,
Lugano, Zurich, Madrid, and Milan.

What this high-level data does suggest is that cities are already
sensitive to the language needs of citizens, at least in the most
essential services, but that there is room for development in
broadening out the range of services across which multiple
languages are offered. In terms of the languages actually offered
by cities, Table 46 shows the 20 most frequently mentioned
languages across the policies and services surveyed.

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LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

table 46: Multilingual spectrum of reported languages for public

services and spaces in 64 cities (Top 20 of languages 2.9 Languages in business
outside the country or the region of reference)
The EU institutions have consistently promoted multilingualism
Languages in public services frequency as a factor in Europe’s competitiveness, and in the mobility
and public spaces and employability of people. The EU Council Resolution (2008)
called for businesses to develop capability in a wide range
1. English 771 of languages to broaden access to markets, and encouraged
2. German 290 them to take greater account of language skills in the career
development of staff. The EC Communication of the same year
3. Russian 285 referred to the ELAN study of 2006, which had concluded
that language and intercultural skills are relevant to success in
4. French 255
export, and a significant amount of business had been lost to
5. Spanish 153 Europe as a result of lack of language and intercultural skills.

6. Chinese 117 The High Level Group on Multilingualism (2007) also devoted
a section of their report to business, concluding that although
7. Arabic 117
English was the leading business language, it would be other
8. Italian 98 languages which would provide EU companies with a competitive
edge. It recommended that companies should invest in
9. Polish 69
languages, use the current language resources of their staff,
10. Turkish 67 develop language management strategies, and set up public-
private partnerships with the education sector to ensure that
11. Romanian 60 the right languages for business were being learnt.
12. Croatian 58
The Business Forum for Multilingualism (2008), established
13. Portuguese 55 by the EC, published a new series of recommendations on
language strategies in the business world. In its concluding
14. Bosnian 37 remarks, it pointed out that:
15. Japanese 36
Companies need to take stock of existing language skills
16. Hungarian 34 within the company and use these strategically. They
should look over their recruitment policies, their training
17. Urdu 34
strategies and their principles for mobility. They can
18. Albanian 27 encourage staff to use and develop the skills they have
already acquired and offer language training in ways that
19. Serbian 27 are both motivating and compatible with the demands of
20. Persian 21
the workplace. (2008:13)

In line with these recommendations, a survey was developed

English is by far the most widely offered language other than for LRE to explore the language strategies of companies, to find
the national language for oral and written services in all cities out whether or not they prioritise language skills in recruitment
surveyed, followed by German, Russian, French and Spanish. and support language training for their employees, to establish
Chinese and Arabic also emerge as high priority and are offered the level of multilingualism within companies, and the range of
by a number of cities. The outcomes for the top five languages in languages used to communicate with customers and in
newspapers and public services/spaces at the city level are very promotional materials. The criteria investigated are divided into
similar. As in the case of the languages in which newspapers are three main categories: general company language strategies,
offered, we can infer that there are two types of target groups for internal language strategies, and external language strategies.
oral and written communication services in public services and
LRE researchers collected data from a selected set of companies
spaces: a) services intended for international travellers, business
based in cities across all countries/regions and 484 companies
people and tourists in English, German, Russian, French, Spanish
were surveyed in total. Four business sectors were targeted
and Italian; b) services intended for immigrant groups in Arabic,
(banks, hotels, building construction companies and supermarkets)
Turkish, Croatian, Chinese, and so on. There may be a number of
as explained in Part 1 in Table 5. The reason for this choice was
reasons why cities prioritise certain languages over others, and
that we wanted to collect data about companies which, as well
this is an area for further exploration with city administrators and
as doing business with other countries, also have a strong
their communications teams.
customer-facing aspect to their work. Data collectors were asked
to conduct the survey with at least 24 companies in their
country/region, with samples distributed as evenly as possible
across multinational/international (M/I), national (N), and regional
or local (R/L) businesses, and as evenly as possible across
business sectors. This ambition turned out to be difficult to
realise across all countries/regions. Table 47 presents the
distribution of business types surveyed. Overall, although the
number of hotels participating was relatively high compared
to other sectors, there was a good balance of sectors.

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table 47: Distribution of companies across different sectors (N=484) The results show that a quarter of companies in these sectors
have an explicit languages strategy in place, and over half take
hotels Banks Building supermarkets total languages into account when recruiting new staff. A quarter
constructors regularly encourage mobility of staff for language learning
140 120 116 108 484 and development of intercultural awareness. However, 70%
do not keep a record of staff language skills, and very few take
advantage of EU programmes for language learning.
Under the heading of General company language strategies,
representatives of companies answered questions about: For Internal language strategies, we asked companies about how
they promote language skills in the workplace, and the approach
■ whether the company has an explicit language strategy they take to languages used in documents and for internal
in place communication. In order to ascertain the relative importance of
the national language, English, and R/M, foreign and immigrant
■ whether the company places an emphasis on language
languages to these companies, we asked them to specify which
skills in recruitment
practice they adopt for each language type, and also to specify
■ provision for international mobility for staff for language which languages other than the national language and English
learning and intercultural awareness are given the most attention. The areas covered were:
■ the use of external translators/interpreters
■ partnerships with the education sector for developing
■ whether records are kept of staff language skills
language skills of employees
■ the use of networks for language training
■ reward/promotion schemes based on language skills
■ awareness of EU programmes/funding
■ language training provision
■ the use of EU programmes/funding.
■ use of CEFR in language training

The results are presented in Table 48 for the 484 ■ languages used for workplace documents and the intranet
companies surveyed. ■ languages used for software and web programmes.

table 48: Companies reporting policies and practices for The results are presented in Table 49 according to
multilingualism in four sectors (484 companies, in %)
language type.
Policy Widely occasionally Not practised
practised practised table 49: Companies reporting good practice according to language
type: NL = National Language(s); bE = business English;
Languages 24 28 48 OL = Other Languages (484 companies, in %)
strategy
Criteria Widely occasionally Not practised
Language 55 28 17 practised practised
skills in
recruitment NL BE oL NL BE oL NL BE oL

Mobility 23 27 50 Partnerships 7 10 7 10 17 7 83 73 86
with education
use of external 22 35 43 sector
translators/
interpreters reward/ 5 11 5 9 12 6 86 77 89
promotion
staff records 1 29 70 schemes
of language
skills Language 14 27 12 18 23 12 68 50 76
training
use of 10 15 75 provision
networks for
language use of CEfr 4 7 3 7 9 6 89 84 91
training in language
training
use of Eu 5 8 87
programmes/ Languages 96 41 14 3 21 10 1 38 76
funding used for
workplace
Awareness 0 27 73 documents
of Eu and intranet
programmes/
funding Languages 88 46 11 6 22 5 6 32 84
used for
software
and web
programmes

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LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

As we can see from Table 49, widespread provision of language table 50: Languages used by companies in external
training is reported for business English in 27% of the companies communications: NL = national language(s); bE = business
English; OL = Other Languages (% of 484 companies)
surveyed, with 14% offering support in the national language for
non-native speakers, and 12% for other languages. A relatively
type of Widely occasionally Not practised
small percentage have reward or promotion schemes, with 11% communication practised practised
reporting that it is widespread for business English and only 5%
for the national language and other languages. The number of NL BE oL NL BE oL NL BE oL
companies forging partnerships with the education sector to
Annual business 92 38 11 2 11 5 6 51 84
develop the language skills of their staff also appears modest, report
with a quarter doing so either regularly or occasionally for
English, 17% for the national language for non-native speakers, Marketing 95 40 19 2 17 11 3 42 70
and 14% for developing other languages. The CEFR is used materials
widely by a very small percentage of the companies surveyed to
Corporate 92 48 22 5 24 19 3 28 59
develop curricula and evaluate progress, suggesting the need branding
for awareness-raising.
Company 92 61 30 2 5 5 6 34 65
In terms of the languages actually used in workplace website
documents and on corporate intranets, as expected the
national language predominates, although almost half of
the companies surveyed report that business English is also These results show that in the sectors surveyed just under
widely used. Other languages are widely used in just over half of the companies use business English widely in addition
10% of the companies surveyed. to the national language in external communications, and that
as many as 30% use other languages on their websites.
In looking at external language strategies we asked
companies about which languages they use to communicate The Business Forum for Multilingualism (2008:13) highlights
externally in their: multiple language strategies as one of the basic conditions
for success in trade and commerce for European businesses:
■ annual business reports
Real progress will be achieved if businesses, from micro
■ marketing materials
companies to multinationals, develop creative and
■ corporate branding/identity dynamic language strategies, adapted to the individual
■ company website. possibilities of each organisation.

The results are presented in Table 50 according to language type. Our LRE survey attempts to explore how this ambition is
being realised by asking companies questions about which
specific languages they prioritise and promote in addition to
the national language and English. Table 51 breaks down the
other languages according to frequency of mention by the
respondents to the questionnaire and lists the top 20 languages.

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table 51: Multilingual spectrum of reported languages prioritised by 484 companies in four sectors
(Top 20 languages other than English outside the country or region of reference)

Languages in total frequency distribution of language frequencies in different countries (if more than 5 countries
business of mention mentioned a language, only those countries with the 5 highest frequencies are shown)

1. German 430 Switzerland, Cantons of Geneva and Ticino only (57), Spain* (38), Bosnia and Herzegovina (33), Hungary/
Lithuania/Netherlands (27)

2. Russian 333 Estonia (94), Ukraine (78), Lithuania (64), Greece (20), Poland (15)

3. French 322 Switzerland, Cantons of Zurich and Ticino only (71), Spain* (47), UK (41), Netherlands (37), Portugal (33)

4. Spanish 155 Portugal (31), Switzerland (29), UK (28), Netherlands (18), France (16)

5. Italian 134 Switzerland, Cantons Zurich and Geneva only (26), Austria (24), Bosnia and Herzegovina (16), Spain* (15),
UK (15)

6. Finnish 66 Estonia (59), Denmark (2), Lithuania (2), Netherlands/Poland/UK (1)

7. Chinese 55 UK (34), Greece (9), Spain* (4), Netherlands (3), Poland (2)

8. Polish 47 Netherlands (12), Ukraine (11), Lithuania (7), Austria (6), UK (5)

9. Portuguese 35 Spain* (13), Switzerland (11), Netherlands (3), UK (3), Austria/France (2)

10. Turkish 29 Bosnia and Herzgovina (13), the Netherlands (6), Switzerland (4), Austria (3), Romania (2)

11. Arabic 26 UK (10), Portugal/Switzerland (4), Greece (3), Spain* (2)

12. Croatian 26 Austria (17), Hungary/Italy (3), Switzerland (2), Bosnia and Herzegovina (1)

13. Czech 26 Austria (16), Hungary (6), Poland (3), Switzerland (1)

14. Hungarian 23 Austria (11), Poland (9), Romania (3)

15. Catalan 22 Spain* (18), UK (3), Poland (1)

16. Swedish 22 Estonia (12), Denmark (4), Lithuania/UK (2), Poland/Spain* (1)

17. Japanese 20 UK (7), Poland (5), Italy (3), Netherlands (2), Greece/Switzerland/Ukraine (1)

18. Latvian 20 Estonia/Lithuania (9), Denmark/UK (1)

19. Romanian 19 Austria (9), Greece (5), Hungary (3), Bulgaria (2)

20. Danish 18 Hungary (6), Lithuania (5), Estonia/Poland (3), UK (1)

*Frequencies from Spain: only the mentions in Madrid, Sevilla and Valencia were taken into account.

German, Russian, French, Spanish and Italian emerge as the

most commonly used languages by the companies surveyed.
From the data presented on the distribution of languages, it
becomes clear that some languages, such as German, French
and Japanese, are used by a variety of companies in a rich
variety of countries. On the other hand, some languages, such
as Russian and Finnish, are used mainly in neighbouring
countries. The fact that Finnish is reported by most companies
in Estonia puts it high on the list. Chinese, Turkish, Arabic, and
Japanese are valued by some companies in Europe although
perhaps higher prioritisation of these might be expected. More
in-depth research will be required to gain further insights into
the reasons behind the choice of languages by companies, and
the results need to be compared with similar studies in these
and other sectors to see what patterns emerge.

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LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

2.10 Cross-sectional perspectives

on multilingual profiles
beyond education
In order to get a comparative overview of the distribution Regarding public services and spaces, English again turns out to
of different languages across different language domains be by far the most widely used language. In the cross-sectional
beyond education, we present in Table 52 the top 20 most table, we can see three groups of languages being used in
frequently mentioned languages other than the national different domains and for different services: languages that are
languages in the language domains of press, public services used as lingua franca such as English, French, German and
and spaces, and business. Russian; languages that are usually found in certain regions such
as Albanian, Catalan and Slovene; and languages that are used
Overall, English, French, German, Russian and Spanish (‘the by major immigrant groups such as Arabic and Turkish. Two of
big five’) are the most widely used languages in the European the three most supported R/M languages by countries/regions,
context with English in top position and other languages following namely Romani supported by six countries and Slovak supported
at a (very) large distance. English language newspapers are by five countries, appear in none of the three domains.
available at most kiosks and train stations in major cities.

table 52: Distribution of reported languages in newspapers, in public services/spaces

and in business outside the country or region of reference (Top 20)

Languages in frequency Languages in frequency Languages frequency

newspapers public services and in business (other
spaces than English)

English 408 English 771 German 430

German 270 German 290 Russian 333

French 181 Russian 285 French 322

Russian 162 French 255 Spanish 155

Italian 127 Spanish 153 Italian 134

Arabic 77 Chinese 117 Finnish 66

Turkish 54 Arabic 117 Chinese 55

Spanish 51 Italian 98 Polish 47

Dutch 46 Polish 69 Portuguese 35

Albanian 40 Turkish 67 Turkish 29

Serbian 36 Romanian 60 Arabic 26

Chinese 27 Croatian 58 Croatian 26

Croatian 23 Portuguese 55 Czech 26

Bulgarian 12 Bosnian 37 Hungarian 23

Japanese 11 Japanese 36 Catalan 22

Polish 10 Hungarian 34 Swedish 22

Greek 8 Urdu 34 Japanese 20

Bosnian 7 Albanian 27 Latvian 20

Hungarian 7 Serbian 27 Romanian 19

Swedish 6 Persian 21 Danish 18

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CILT (2006). ELAN: Effects on the European Economy
of Shortages of Foreign Language Skills in Enterprise. Cullen, J. et al. (2008). Multilingualism: Between Policy
London CILT: The National Centre for Languages. Objectives and Implementation. Brussels: European Parliament.

Civil Society Platform on Multilingualism (2009). www. European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages (ECRML)
[Link]/new/[Link]/partners-mainmenu-530/european- (1992). Strasbourg: Council of Europe.
citizenship/1207-eu-civil-society-platform-on-multilingualism
European Commission (2005). A New Framework Strategy for
Commission Staff Working Document (2008). Inventory Multilingualism. Brussels: European Commission.
of Community Actions in the Field of Multilingualism.
European Commission (2005a). White paper. Teaching and
Accompanying document to the Communication from the
Learning: Towards a Cognitive Society. Brussels: European
Commission to the European Parliament, the Council et al.
Commission.
Brussels: European Communities.
European Commission (2005b). White paper on Education and
Commission Staff Working Paper (2011a). An inventory
Training – Teaching and Learning – Towards the Learning
of Community Actions in the Field of Multilingualism –
Society. Com (95) 590 final, 29 November 1995. Brussels:
2011 update. Brussels: European Commission.
European Commission.
Commission Staff Working Paper (2011b). Report on the
European Commission (2001). Europeans and Languages.
Implementation of the Council Resolution of 21 November
Special Eurobarometer Report 54. Brussels: European
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Brussels: European Commission.
European Commission (2006). Europeans and their
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Languages. Special Eurobarometer Report 243.
at Pre-Primary School Level: Making it Efficient and Sustainable.
Brussels: European Commission.
A Policy Handbook. Brussels: European Commission.
European Commission (2008). Communication from the
Committee of Ministers (1998). Recommendation to
Commission to the European Parliament, the Council,
Member States concerning Modern Languages.
The European Economic and Social Committee, and the
Strasbourg: Council of Europe.
Committee of the Regions. Multilingualism: An Asset for Europe
and A Shared Commitment. Brussels: European Communities.

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European Commission (2010). Communication from the High Level Group on Multilingualism (HLGM) (2007). Final report.
Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, Brussels: European Communities.
the European Economic and Social Committee, and the
McPake, J. and T. Tinsley (co-ords.) (2007).
Committee of the Regions. A New Impetus for European
Valuing All Languages in Europe. Graz: ECML.
Cooperation in Vocational Education and Training to Support
the Europe 2020 Strategy. Brussels: European Communities. Media Consulting Group (2007). Study on dubbing and subtitling
needs and practices in the European audiovisual industry.
European Commission (2011). Report on the Implementation of Brussels: European Commission.
the Council Resolution of 21 November 2008 on a European
Strategy of Multilingualism. Brussels: European Commission. Media Consulting Group (2011). Study on the Use of Subtitling.
The Potential of Subtitling to Encourage Language Learning
European Commission (2012). Europeans and their Languages. and Improve the Mastery of Foreign Languages. Brussels:
Special Eurobarometer Report 386. Brussels: European Commission. European Commission.
European Commission (2012). First European Survey on Language Nic Craith, M. (2003). Facilitating or generating linguistic
Competences. Final Report and Executive Summary. Brussels: diversity. The European Charter for Regional or Minority
European Commission. Languages. In: G. Hogan-Brun and S. Wolff (eds.), Minority
European Commission Green Paper (2008). Migration and Languages in Europe. Frameworks, Status, Prospects,
Mobility: Challenges and Opportunities for EU Education 56–72. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan.
Systems. Brussels: European Commission. OMC Group Languages for Jobs (2011). Providing Multilingual
European Language Portfolio (ELP). Strasbourg: Communication Skills for the Labour Market. Brussels:
Council of Europe. European Commission.

European Parliament (2003). EP Resolution with Parliamentary Assembly (1998). Recommendation on

Recommendations to the Commission on European Regional Linguistic Diversification. Strasbourg: Council of Europe.
and Lesser-used Languages in the Context of Enlargement Parliamentary Assembly (2001). Recommendation on the
and Cultural Diversity. Brussels: European Parliament. European Year of Languages. Strasbourg: Council of Europe.
European Parliament (2009). EP Resolution on Multilingualism: Parliamentary Assembly (2003). Recommendation on the
An Asset for Europe and a Shared Commitment. Brussels: Protection of Sign Languages in the Member States of the
European Parliament. Council of Europe. Strasbourg: Council of Europe.
Eurydice (2009). Integrating Immigrant Children into Schools Parliamentary Assembly (2006). Recommendation on the
in Europe. Brussels: Eurydice/European Commission. Place of the Mother Tongue in School Education. Strasbourg:
Eurydice/EuroStat (2008). Key Data on Teaching Languages at Council of Europe.
School in Europe. Brussels/Luxembourg: Eurydice/EuroStat. Parliamentary Assembly (2008). Recommendation on the
Eurydice/EuroStat (2009). Key Data on Education in Europe. Integration of Adult Migrants and Education. Strasbourg:
Brussels: Eurydice/Eurostat. Council of Europe.

Extra, G. (2010). Mapping linguistic diversity in multicultural PIMLICO Project (2011). Report on Language Management
contexts: Demolinguistic perspectives. In: J. Fishman and O. Strategies and Best Practice in European SMEs. Brussels:
Garcia (eds.), Handbook of Language and Ethnic Identity, European Commission.
Second Edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 107–122. Poulain, M. (2008). European migration statistics: definitions,
Extra, G. and D. Gorter (eds.) (2008). Multilingual Europe: data and challenges. In: M. Barni and G. Extra (eds.), Mapping
Facts and Policies. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter. Linguistic Diversity in Multicultural Contexts. Berlin/New York:
Mouton de Gruyter, 43–66.
Extra, G. and Yağmur, K. (eds.) (2004). Urban Multilingualism
in Europe: Immigrant Minority Languages at Home and School. Reynolds, C. (2008). Sheffield’s Language Education Policies.
Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. City Report. Strasbourg/Sheffield: Council of Europe/Sheffield
City Council.
Extra, G. and K. Yağmur (2011). Report on the Pilot Studies
in Poland and Spain. Berlin/Brussels: British Council. Schermer, T. (2011). Language Politics. In: B. Wolff, M. Steinbach
and R. Pfau (eds.), Handbook of Sign Linguistics (to appear).
Fishman, J. and O. Garcia (eds.) (2010). Handbook of Language
and Ethnic Identity. Disciplinary and Regional Perspectives. Strubell, M., et al. (2007). The Diversity of Language Teaching in
Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press. the European Union. Final report to the European Commission,
Directorate General for Education and Culture. Brussels:
Grin, F. ( 2003). Language Policy Evaluation and the European Communities.
European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.
Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan. UNESCO (2003). Recommendation Concerning the Promotion
and Use of Multilingualism and Universal Access to Cyberspace.
Group of Intellectuals for Intercultural Dialogue (2008). Paris: UNESCO.
A Rewarding Challenge. How the Multiplicity of Languages
Could Strengthen Europe. Brussels: European Communities.
Heller, M. (2007). Bilingualism as ideology and practice.
In: M. Heller (ed.), Bilingualism: A Social Approach. Basingstoke:
Palgrave, 1–24.

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Glossary

Definitions given on levels and types of education originate Lower secondary education
from the International Standard Classification of Education. It continues the basic programmes of the primary level, although
The ISCE is widely used in a range of Eurydice documents teaching is typically more subject-focused. Usually, the end of
with key data on education in Europe. this level coincides with the end of compulsory education. In the
context of the participating LRE countries, lower and/or upper
CLiL secondary education may refer to age-related differences and/
Content and Language Integrated Learning. or differences related to type of schooling.

CLIL involves pupils learning subjects such as science or Mother tongue/Native language
geography through the medium of another language.
Most commonly conceived as the language first learnt and
still understood. The traditional research question on mother
Curriculum
tongue in European large-scale population studies (including
The total educational programme of a school type, specifying census research) is gradually replaced by a research question
for each year/grade what subjects are taught for how many on home language use because the latter concept is more
hours a week and how many weeks a year, and specifying for transparent for informants than the concepts of mother tongue
each year/grade the content and attainment level required or native language.
to complete the subject successfully.
Multilingualism
foreign languages
The presence in a geographical area, large or small, of more
Languages that are not learnt or used at home but than one variety of language, i.e. the mode of speaking of a
learnt and taught at school or used as languages of social group whether it is formally recognised as a language
wider communication in non-educational sectors. or not.

immigrants National language(s)

In Eurydice documents and EuroStat statistics, immigrants Official language(s) of a nation-state.
are foreign-born and/or non-national population groups in
the country of residence. In our LRE project, immigrants Plurilingualism
may or may not be foreign-born and they may or may not
The repertoire of varieties of language that many individuals
be non-nationals in the country of residence, depending
use; it includes the language variety often referred to as
on a whole range of variable country-specific regulations
mother tongue or first language and any number of other
on acquiring citizenship.
languages or varieties.
immigrant children
Pre-primary education
Children who attend school in a country other than their
Pre-primary education is defined as the initial stage of
country of origin, or the country of origin of their parents or
organised instruction. It is school or centre-based and is
grandparents. These terms of reference encompass several
designed for children aged at least three.
legally distinct situations, including those of refugees, asylum
seekers, children of immigrant workers, children of third-country
Pre-service teacher training
nationals with long-term residential status, children of workers
from third countries who are not long-term residents, children Course/programme training students to become qualified
who are irregularly resident and children of immigrant origin teachers, i.e. taking place before the person starts teaching.
who do not necessarily benefit from legal provisions relating
specifically to education. Primary education
This level begins between four and seven years of age,
immigrant languages is compulsory in all countries/regions and generally lasts
Languages spoken by immigrants and their descendants in the from five to six years.
country of residence, originating from a wide range of (former)
source countries.

in-service teacher training

Refresher courses for teachers (already active in teaching)
on the latest developments in the teacher’s field and/or in
the field of pedagogy/education.

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Public vocational education and training (VEt) upper secondary education

Vocational education and training funded through public This level generally begins at the end of compulsory education.
means, i.e. not privately funded. The entrance age is typically 15 or 16. Entrance qualifications
(end of compulsory education) and other minimum entry
Public general university education requirements are usually needed. Instruction is often more
Education at public (not private) universities, excepting subject-oriented than in lower secondary education. The typical
those that are exclusively technical or medical. duration of upper secondary education varies from two to five
years. In the context of the participating LRE countries, lower
regional or minority languages and/or upper secondary education may refer to age-related
differences and/or differences related to type of schooling.
Languages that are traditionally used within a given territory of
a state by nationals of that state who form a group numerically
Vocational education and training (VEt)
smaller than the rest of the state’s population. They are different
from the state language(s) of that state (definition based on the VET in European countries covers diverse national systems,
European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, Council rooted in their specific economic and social environments.
of Europe 1992). As a general rule, these are languages of VET may be part of secondary or tertiary education or may
populations that have their ethnic roots in the areas concerned be part of vocational types of adult education. It usually includes
or that settled in the regions concerned and have lived there a range of vocationally-oriented training providers and training
for generations. Regional/minority languages can have the programmes within relatively regulated frameworks. In our
status of official language, but this status will by definition be project, VET does not include university education, which
limited to the area in which they are spoken. is covered by domain 5B.

romani/sinte
To be referred to across countries in our LRE project as
regional/minority languages, not as non-territorial languages.

sign languages
Sign languages are languages in a visual-manual modality with
their own grammar and lexicon. They are the natural languages
of people who have been born deaf. Sign languages are not
derived from spoken languages and are not international or
universal. There are hundreds of distinct sign languages
around the world.

teaching in/of language X

If formulated like this, no distinction is made between teaching
in the language, i.e. using it as a medium of instruction, and
teaching of the language, i.e. teaching it as a subject in the
school’s curriculum.

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parT 3

National and regional profiles

Introduction
Guus Extra, Martin Hope & Kutlay Yağmur 1. Austria
2. Bosnia and Herzegovina
Part 3 of this publication includes 25 national and regional 3. Bulgaria
profiles, distributed across 19 chapters. National profiles are 4. Denmark
provided for 15 countries, namely 12 European Union (EU) 5. Estonia
countries plus Switzerland, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Ukraine. 6. France
Regional profiles are provided for four EU countries (the 7. Germany
Netherlands, Spain, UK and Germany). Each profile provides 8. Greece
both qualitative and quantitative data, and contains information 9. Hungary
on the national/regional context, on the eight language domains 10. Italy
referred to in Parts 1 and 2 of this publication, on key findings 11. Lithuania
overall, and on promising initiatives and/or pilots. The options 12. Netherlands
referred to within each of the eight chosen language domains 12.1 Netherlands at large
have been introduced in Part 2 of this study. The format of the 12.2 Friesland
profiles is illustrated and explained on the following pages of this 13. Poland
introduction. 14. Portugal
15. Romania
16. Spain
16.1 Madrid, Valencia, Sevilla
16.2 Catalonia
16.3 Basque Country
17. Switzerland
18. Ukraine
19. United Kingdom
19.1 England
19.2 Wales
19.3 Scotland
19.4 Northern Ireland

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GUIDELINES ON THE FORMAT OF NATIONAL/REGIONAL PROFILES

NL=National Language(s)
fL=foreign Languages
r/ML=regional or Minority Languages
iL=immigrant Languages

The purpose of the following guidelines is to help readers to documents for national (NL), foreign (FL), regional/minority
interpret the national/regional profiles. The profiles are a (R/ML) and immigrant (IL) languages. It also describes the data
combination of survey results, which are presented in the collection mechanisms for languages employed in each
tables, and a commentary on these, written by the country/ country/region.
regional researcher. The options presented in each table
reflect the actual questions asked in the Language Rich Europe
(LRE) questionnaire.
Domain 2: Languages in pre-primary
Each profile is divided into the following sections:
education
In this section, information is presented on language
Country/Regional context teaching provision in pre-primary education in R/M languages,
foreign languages, immigrant languages and also additional
In this section the national/regional context is described. support in the national language. For each language type,
Information is provided about the languages present from a information is presented on: target groups; the duration of
socio-historical, demographic and legal perspective. language provision; minimum group size requirements; how
many days per week such education is available; provision of
pre- and in-service training for teachers; and the source of
funding. The possible responses for each question are
Domain 1: Languages in official documents indicated in the table below, and researchers were asked to
choose the response which represents common practice in
and databases their country/region. The first option is the one regarded as
most aligned with desired European recommendations
This section presents information in a standardised
and practices.
format about language legislation and official policy

Minimum Pre-service in-service

group size teacher teacher state funding
target groups duration requirements days per week training training available

r/ML all/native ≥2 years/ none/5–10/>10 >1 day/0.5–1 day/ subject- subject- full/partial/none
speakers only/ 1 year/<1 year <0.5 day specific/ specific/
no support general/none general/none

fL all/restricted/ ≥2 years/ none/5–10/>10 >1 day/0.5–1 day/ subject- subject- full/partial/none

no support 1 year/<1 year <0.5 day specific/ specific/
general/none general/none

iL all/native ≥2 years/ none/5–10/>10 >1 day/0.5–1 day/ subject- subject- full/partial/none

speakers only/ 1 year/<1 year <0.5 day specific/ specific/
no support general/none general/none

Additional NL all/immigrant ≥2 years/ none/5–10/>10 >1 day/0.5–1 day/ subject- subject- full/partial/none
support children only/ 1 year/<1 year <0.5 day specific/ specific/
no support general/none general/none

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Domain 3: Languages in primary education

In this section, information is presented on languages in primary R/M language education, immigrant language education and
education. The information is divided into two sections: foreign language education are assessed in terms of curriculum
organisation of language education and actual teaching practice. characteristics; the type of target groups; whether these
languages are used as medium of instruction (CLIL); the start of
Regarding organisation, information is presented on language language education; the scheduling in the curriculum; whether
education for the four language types: the national language, there are group size requirements; whether language skills are
R/M languages, immigrant languages and foreign languages. In monitored with standardised instruments; whether there are set
the area of national language support, there is information about achievement levels to be reached; and the type of funding
the curriculum, the degree of extra support for newcomers, available. For all questions, the first option is the one regarded
whether diagnostic testing is available on entry, and whether as most aligned with desired European recommendations
language skills of pupils are monitored by means of standardised and practices.
instruments.

3a. organisation
Extra support for diagnostic testing on Monitoring of language
Curriculum newcomers entry skills

NL support coherent and explicit/ before mainstream/during all/immigrants only/absent national standardised/
general/no guidelines mainstream/absent school-based/absent

Languages
used as
medium of start of Minimum Monitoring of
target instruction language group size language Level to be state funding
groups Curriculum (CLiL) education scheduling requirements skills achieved available

r/ML all/native coherent widespread/ from year in school none/5–10 national national or full/partial/
speakers and explicit/ localised/ 1/from hours/partly />10 standardised/ regional none
only/no general/no absent mid-phase/ in school school-based/ norms/
support guidelines end-phase hours/ absent school
only outside norms/not
school specified
hours

fL all/ coherent widespread/ from year in school none/5–10 national linked to full/partial/
restricted/ and explicit/ localised/ 1/from hours/partly />10 standardised/ CEFR/ none
no general/no absent mid-phase/ in school school-based/ national or
support guidelines end-phase hours/ absent school
only outside norms/not
school specified
hours

iL all/native coherent widespread/ from year in school none/5–10 national national or full/partial/
speakers and explicit/ localised/ 1/from hours/partly />10 standardised/ regional none
only/no general/no absent mid-phase/ in school school-based/ norms/
support guidelines end-phase hours/ absent school
only outside norms/not
school specified
hours

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LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

3b. teaching
In any educational system, teachers are key players in enabling is information about teachers’ formal qualifications; whether they
the achievement of learning objectives. In this table, readers can receive pre-and in-service training; and, in the case of foreign
find information about language teachers and their formal languages, whether teachers benefit from international mobility
qualifications in primary schools. For each language type, there programmes.

Pre-service teacher in-service teacher

teacher qualifications training training Mobility

NL support language teachers/general subject-specific/general/ subject-specific/general/ N/A

teachers/unqualified none none

r/ML language teachers/general subject-specific/general/ subject-specific/general/ N/A

teachers/unqualified none none

fL language teachers/general subject-specific/general/ subject-specific/general/ incorporated into training/

teachers/unqualified none none informal financial support/
none

iL language teachers/general subject-specific/general/ subject-specific/general/ N/A

teachers/unqualified none none

Domain 4: Languages in secondary education

As for primary education, readers are presented with information For R/M, foreign and immigrant language education, information
along two major dimensions: organisation of language education is presented on the target groups; the curriculum; whether these
and actual teaching practice. Within organisation, information is languages are used as medium of instruction; the scheduling in
presented on national language education with a focus on the the curriculum; whether there are minimum group size
curriculum itself; the level of extra support for newcomers; requirements; whether language skills are monitored with
whether diagnostic testing is available on entry; and whether standardised instruments; whether there are set achievement
language skills of pupils are monitored by means of standardised levels to be reached; and the type of funding available for
instruments. teaching languages. The first option is the one regarded as most
aligned with desired European recommendations and practices.

4a. organisation
Extra support for diagnostic testing on Monitoring of language
Curriculum newcomers entry skills

NL support coherent and explicit/ before mainstream/during all/immigrants only/absent national standardised/
general/no guidelines mainstream/absent school-based/absent

Languages
used as
medium of Minimum Monitoring
target instruction group size of language Level to be state funding
groups Curriculum (CLiL) scheduling requirements skills achieved available

r/ML all/native coherent and widespread/ in school none/5–10/>10 national national or full/partial/
speakers explicit/ localised/ hours/partly in standardised/ regional none
only/no general/no absent school hours/ school-based/ norms/school
support guidelines outside school absent norms/not
hours specified

fL all/restricted/ coherent and widespread/ in school none/5–10/>10 national linked to full/partial/

no support explicit/ localised/ hours/partly in standardised/ CEFR/national none
general/no absent school hours/ school-based/ or school-
guidelines outside school absent based norms/
hours not specified

iL all/native coherent and widespread/ in school none/5–10/>10 national national or full/partial/

speakers explicit/ localised/ hours/partly in standardised/ regional none
only/no general/no absent school hours/ school-based/ norms/school
support guidelines outside school absent norms/no
hours norms

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4b. teaching
Similar to the primary teaching sub-domain, in this table readers teachers’ formal qualifications; whether they receive pre- and
can find information about language teachers and their formal in-service training; what their required language level is; and, for
qualifications in the four types of languages in secondary foreign language teachers, whether they benefit from
schools. For each language type, there is information about international mobility programmes.

teacher Pre-service in-service teacher Language level

qualifications teacher training training required Mobility

NL support language teachers/ subject-specific subject-specific/ linked to CEFR/national N/A

general teachers/ general/none general/none or school-based
unqualified norms/not specified

r/ML language teachers/ subject-specific/ subject-specific/ N/A N/A

general teachers/ general/none general/none
unqualified

fL language teachers/ subject-specific/ subject-specific/ linked to CEFR/national incorporated into

general teachers/ general/none general/none or regionwide training/informal
unqualified standards/none financial support/
none

iL language teachers/ subject-specific/ subject-specific/ N/A N/A

general teachers/ general/none general/none
unqualified

Domain 5: Languages in further and higher education

5a. further education (in three Vocational Education and training institutions)
Vocational Education and Training (VET) is offered in many For reasons of space, it was not possible to include information
countries. In each of the selected cities, the largest VET about additional support for the national language here, but on
institution was researched for LRE, and as with other school the LRE website detailed information is presented on the range
types, information was collected on the four main types of of language support programmes; the type of target groups;
languages in education. whether the curriculum is coherent and explicit; whether a VET
institution provides job-related skills and/or general up-skilling;
In this publication, readers can find information on R/M, foreign to what extent state funding is available; whether internships in
and immigrant language education regarding the range of companies are available, and whether EU instruments are used.
language programmes; curriculum characteristics; whether there
are set achievement levels to be reached; and the type of For all questions, the first option is the one regarded as most
funding available for teaching these different types of aligned with desired European recommendations and practices.
languages.

range of language state funding

programmes Curriculum Level to be achieved available

r/ML institution A wide variety/limited/no coherent and explicit/ N/A full/partial/none

specifications general/no guidelines

institution B wide variety/limited/no coherent and explicit/ N/A full/partial/none

specifications general/no guidelines

institution C wide variety/limited/no coherent and explicit/ N/A full/partial/none

specifications general/no guidelines

fL institution A wide variety/limited/no coherent and explicit/ linked to full/partial/none

specifications general/no guidelines CEFR/national/none

institution B wide variety/limited/no coherent and explicit/ linked to full/partial/none

specifications general/no guidelines CEFR/national/none

institution C wide variety/limited/no coherent and explicit/ linked to full/partial/none

specifications general/no guidelines CEFR/national/none

iL institution A wide variety/limited/no coherent and explicit/ N/A full/partial/none

specifications general/no guidelines

institution B wide variety/limited/no coherent and explicit/ N/A full/partial/none

specifications general/no guidelines

institution C wide variety/limited/no coherent and explicit/ N/A full/partial/none

specifications general/no guidelines

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LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

5b. higher education (in three universities)

In each of the selected cities, the largest state-funded general support in the national language; whether there are levels to be
university was targeted. Readers can find information on the achieved in foreign languages; the recruitment of non-national
language(s) of instruction at these universities; the languages students; whether international mobility programmes are
used on university websites; the target groups for additional available for language students and for non-language students.

target groups Level to be

for additional achieved in recruitment
support in the foreign of non- Mobility for Mobility for
Language(s) Languages on national language national language non-language
of instruction website language instruction students students students

university A national, foreign national, foreign all/restricted/ linked to CEFR/ international obligatory/ obligatory/
and R/M/ and R/M/ none national or and immigrant/ optional/no optional/no
national and national and institution- only offer offer
foreign/national foreign/national based/none international/
only only only native
speakers of
national
language

university B national, foreign national, foreign all/restricted/ linked to CEFR/ international obligatory/ obligatory/
and R/M/ and R/M/ none national or and immigrant/ optional/no optional/no
national and national and institution- only offer offer
foreign/national foreign/national based/none international/
only only only native
speakers of
national
language

university C national, foreign national, foreign all/restricted/ linked to CEFR/ international obligatory/ obligatory/
and R/M/ and R/M/ none national or and immigrant/ optional/no optional/no
national and national and institution- only offer offer
foreign/national foreign/national based/none international/
only only only native
speakers of
national
language

Domain 6: Languages in audiovisual media and press

In each of the selected cities, information was gathered on the outside of the region, and on the availability of sign language on
range of non-national languages on radio and television, on television. The first option is the one regarded as most aligned
subtitling versus dubbing in non-national language television with desired European recommendations and practices.
productions and in cinema, on the offer of R/M languages

Non-national language tV Non-national language r/ML programmes outside Availability of sign

Cities productions films in cinema of region language on tV

City 1 subtitled/dubbed subtitled/dubbed always/regularly/sometimes/ always/regularly/sometimes/

never never

City 2 subtitled/dubbed subtitled/dubbed always/regularly/sometimes/ always/regularly/sometimes/

never never

City 3 subtitled/dubbed subtitled/dubbed always/regularly/sometimes/ always/regularly/sometimes/

never never

Information was also collected about the non-national/non- the cities surveyed. This information is presented on the LRE
regional languages in which newspapers are available in each of website and in Part 2 of this publication at the European level only.

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Domain 7: Languages in public services and spaces

In each of the selected cities, information was gathered on are adopted is reflected in the table. For the communication
institutionalised language strategies at city level and on the facilities, the table shows a ranking of the most multilingual
extent to which oral and written communication facilities are facilities in each city surveyed. Information on the multilingual
multilingual in a range of domains. For institutionalised language profiles reported for languages in public services and spaces
strategies, the number of languages for which these strategies can be found on the LRE website.

7a. institutionalised language strategies at city level (3 cities)

Language
competencies recruitment of Language record of
Website use of in job speakers of training offered language skills
N languages presence interpreters descriptions languages to employees of employees

>4 A A A A A A
B B B B B B
C C C C C C

3–4 A A A A A A
B B B B B B
C C C C C C

1–2 A A A A A A
B B B B B B
C C C C C C

7b. Communication facilities

top five oral communication facilities top five written communication facilities

Domain 8: Languages in business (out of 24 companies)

In each of the selected cities, information was gathered from given strategy is widely practised. On the LRE website, the tables
selected companies on their general language strategies and also show the number of companies reporting that these
also on internal and external language strategies for the national strategies are occasionally practised or not practised at all.
language, business English, and additional languages. In the Information on the reported multilingual profiles in businesses
tables below we show the number of companies reporting that a can be found on the LRE website.

8a. General language strategies

GENErAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs
mobility provision
language skills in

Awareness of Eu
use of networks
staff records of
use of external

language skills

programmes/

programmes/
Availability of

international

for language
Emphasis on

interpreters
recruitment

translators/

use of Eu
language
strategy

training

funding

funding

Widely practised

81
82
English
National

Business
Language

Additional
languages
widely
widely
widely

practised
practised
practised
LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Partnerships with
education sector

reward/promotion
schemes based on
language skills

Language training
provision
8b. internal/external language strategies

use of CEfr

Language used for

iNtErNAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs

workplace
documents/intranet

Language used for

software, web
programmes

Language used for

annual/business
reports

Language used for

marketing

Language used for

branding/identity

Language used for

EXtErNAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs

website
 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

1 auSTria
Tanja Nagel, Anke Schad, Barbara Semmler and Michael Wimmer

Country context Languages in official

According to the latest register-based data in 2011, the Republic documents and databases
of Austria has a population of 8.43 million people, with foreign
citizenship rising between 2001 and 2011 by more than one-third
The national language and R/M languages are dealt with
(+35%) to 957,000. The largest proportion of current immigrants
in language legislation and/or language policy
comes from EU countries, with the number of German citizens
documents. The learning and teaching of the national
living in Austria more than doubling (+110%) to 152,000. The
language abroad for children and/or adults interested in
second largest immigration group, comprising Serbians,
learning German is (co-)funded in seven countries: Czech
Montenegrins and Kosovars remained static at 133,000 and the
Republic, Hungary, Italy, Poland, Serbia, Slovakia and
third largest group, immigrants from Turkey, declined by 10% to
Slovenia. The European Charter for Regional or Minority
114,000 (Statistik Austria 2011).
Languages has been signed and ratified by Austria. The
The calculation of minority language speakers in official censuses following R/M languages are recognised in the Charter:
(based on the category of colloquial languages, burgenland-Croatian, Croatian, Czech, Hungarian in
Umgangssprachen) has been criticised by minority rights burgenland, Hungarian in vienna, burgenland-Romani,
organisations, which state that many minorities choose German as Slovak, Slovene in Carinthia, and Slovene in Styria. There
their main language ‘due to actual or perceived pressure’, as the is official provision of R/M languages in education,
Council of Europe’s Advisory Committee on the Framework supported by the Charter, in specific regions.
Convention for the Protection of National Minorities states in their
Official nation-/regionwide data collection mechanisms
third opinion on Austria. The Advisory Committee ‘strongly
on language diversity in Austria no longer exist. Census
encourages the Austrian authorities to ensure that any future
data (2001) has been substituted by register data (2011)
census related to language use contains open-ended lists and
which does not include a language question.
allows for the possibility to indicate multiple languages and
identities’ (Advisory Committee 2011: 11–12). To make the point,
minority groups also declare their own estimated numbers of
speakers. For Hungarian, for example, the last census with a The National Action Plan (NAP) for Integration, issued in 2011,
language question in 2001 counted 25,884 speakers, whereas was co-ordinated by the Ministry of the Interior through a
their own estimate was almost double (Initiative Minderheiten n.d.). dialogue process with experts and stakeholders. Proficiency in
German is regarded as the key to integration. Immigrants to
Austria is a country with significant language diversity, especially Austria have to pass a language exam (level A1) before entering
among children and young people. The share of pupils using a the country. With prerequisites, Austria is similar to Germany,
language other than German in everyday life is highest in Vienna France, Denmark and the Netherlands (Bundesministerium für
(41.8%) and lowest in Carinthia (8.9%). The group of bi- or Inneres 2011).
multilingual young people is characterised by heterogeneity in
terms of their migration history, affecting also an individual’s In June 2011, the Austrian government issued its third report on
language and education profiles (Biffl/Skrivanek 2011:1). the implementation of the European Charter for Regional or
Minority Languages. The report refers also to the amendment of
the constitutional law in 2011, guaranteeing a stable solution to
the tedious Ortstafelstreit (controversy over bilingual signs)
about the use of minority languages in topography and in
specific public services in Burgenland and Carinthia
(Bundeskanzleramt 2011:11).

83
LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

NL=National Language(s)
fL=foreign Languages
r/ML=regional or Minority Languages
iL=immigrant Languages

Languages in pre-primary education (No provision of foreign languages and immigrant languages)

Minimum Pre-service in-service

group size teacher teacher state funding
target groups duration requirements days per week training training available

r/ML all ≥2 years none 0.5–1 day general subject-specific full

Additional all ≥2 years none 0.5–1 day subject-specific subject-specific full

NL support

Languages offered in pre-primary education

r/ML burgenland-Croatian, Czech, Hungarian, Italian in

Tyrol, Slovak, Slovene

Since 2010 pre-primary education attendance from the age of five has been obligatory in the
whole of Austria. This measure was mainly introduced to ensure that all children learn German
before entering school.
As described in the Language Education Policy Profile (LEPP), pre-primary education is
characterised by a decentralised fragmentation. This has consequences for the implementation
of language diversity in terms of quantity of offer (with disparities between the individual Länder)
and quality of offer, especially when it comes to the qualification of language educators
(Bundesministerium für Unterricht, Kunst und Kultur/Bundesministerium für Wissenschaft und
Forschung/Österreichisches Sprachen Kompetenz Zentrum 2008: 82-88).

Languages in primary education

organisation
Extra support for diagnostic testing on Monitoring of language
Curriculum newcomers entry skills

NL support coherent and explicit before mainstream all school-based

start of Minimum Monitoring of state

target language group size language Level to be funding
groups Curriculum CLiL education scheduling requirements skills achieved available

r/ML all no localised from year 1 partly in >10 school-based not specified full
guidelines school
hours

fL all coherent localised from year 1 in school none school-based not specified full
and expliict hours

iL native coherent absent from year 1 outside >10 school-based not specified full
speakers and explicit school
only hours

84
 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

teaching
Pre-service teacher in-service teacher
teacher qualifications training training Mobility

NL support general teachers subject-specific subject-specific N/A

r/ML language teachers subject-specific subject-specific N/A

fL general teachers subject-specific subject-specific informal financial support

iL language teachers subject-specific subject-specific N/A

Languages offered in primary education

r/ML burgenland-Croatian, Czech, Hungarian, Romani,

Slovak, Slovene

fL Croatian, Czech, English, french, Hungarian, Italian,

Slovak, Slovene (one of these languages is
compulsory)

iL Albanian, bosnian/Croatian/Serbian, Polish, Russian,

Turkish

Due to demographic development, the expansion of Muttersprachlicher Unterricht (immigrant

language education), especially at primary level, is regarded as a government priority. The aim of
Muttersprachlicher Unterricht is defined by the curriculum as enabling bilingualism and equality of
immigrant home languages and German.
In the school year 2009/10, 29.4% of primary school pupils in Austria with an additional language
other than German took part in Muttersprachlicher Unterricht (Bundesministerium für Unterricht,
Kunst und Kultur 2011: 13).
The Department for Migration and Schools at the Federal Ministry for Education, Culture and the
Arts co-ordinates the offer. It issues information sheets; for example on the legal framework, data
and statistics. On the platform [Link] information on registration of
children by parents can be accessed in Albanian, Bosnian/Croatian/Serbian, and Turkish.
For immigrant language teaching, as well as for other foreign and minority languages, the main
challenge is not only expansion, but also quality improvement. In both respects, the number of
qualified teachers is a key challenge demanding reform in teacher education (Bundesministerium
für Unterricht, Kunst und Kultur/Bundesministerium für Wissenschaft und Forschung/
Österreichisches Sprachen Kompetenz Zentrum 2008: 88-91).
Vienna is taking part in the European Multilingual Cities Project, collecting data among primary
school pupils to generate knowledge on the connection between language diversity and school
success (Brizic 2011).

Languages in secondary education

organisation
Extra support for diagnostic testing on Monitoring of language
Curriculum newcomers entry skills

NL support coherent and explicit before mainstream absent school-based

Minimum Monitoring state

target group size of language Level to be funding
groups Curriculum CLiL scheduling requirements skills achieved available

r/ML all coherent and localised partly in >10 school-based not specified full
explicit school hours

fL all coherent and localised in school none school-based linked to CEFR full
explicit hours

iL native coherent and localised outside >10 school-based school norms full
speakers only explicit school hours

85
LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

teaching
teacher Pre-service teacher in-service teacher Language level
qualifications training training required Mobility

NL support language teachers subject-specific subject-specific not specified N/A

r/ML language teachers subject-specific subject-specific N/A N/A

fL language teachers subject-specific subject-specific linked to CEFR incorporated into

training

iL language teachers subject-specific subject-specific N/A N/A

Languages offered in secondary education

r/ML Croatian in burgenland, Czech, Hungarian, Romani,

Slovak, Slovene

fL English, french, Italian, Spanish. At the level of

academic secondary schools: 2 compulsory. At the
level of general secondary schools: 1 compulsory

iL Albanian, bosnian/Croatian/Serbian, Polish, Russian,

Turkish

From secondary level (ISCED 2) onwards, the Austrian school system becomes diversified into
general (Hauptschule) and academic secondary schools. This interface is crucial for language
education processes that can be interrupted, continued or enhanced.
In 2009/10 Vienna was the only Bundesland which provided Muttersprachlicher Unterricht
(immigrant language education) in academic secondary schools as well as in general secondary
schools (Bundesministerium für Unterricht, Kunst und Kultur 2011: 25). All other Bundesländer
provided it in general secondary schools only.
However, the curriculum in academic secondary schools includes two compulsory modern
foreign languages (or one plus Latin), in contrast to the Hauptschule curriculum, which includes
only one.
The New Middle School (NMS) was introduced in 2008/09 to overcome the traditional divide.
By 2015/16, all Hauptschulen will be transformed into New Middle Schools. Social learning and
integration, together with a more individualised and differentiated teaching, is part of the
pedagogic concept of the NMS. This is specifically aimed at fostering the potential of pupils with
an immigrant background.
English is the most chosen modern foreign language at schools at all levels, studied by almost
99% of pupils. Regional and minority languages can also be offered as a subject at secondary
schools. The provision depends on the region: in Burgenland, 12.9% of pupils learn Croatian and
10.6% of Carinthian pupils learn Slovene (data from school year 2004/5, Bundesministerium für
Unterricht, Kunst und Kultur/Bundesministerium für Wissenschaft und Forschung/Österreichisches
Sprachen Kompetenz Zentrum 2008: 149).

Languages in further and higher education

further education (in three VEt institutions) (No provision of r/M languages)
range of language state funding
programmes Curriculum Level to be achieved available

fL institution A wide variety general linked to CEFR none

institution B wide variety coherent and explicit linked to CEFR partial

institution C wide variety general linked to CEFR partial

iL institution A wide variety general N/A none

institution B

institution C

86
 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

higher education (in three universities)

target groups Level to be
for additional achieved in recruitment
support in the foreign of non- Mobility for Mobility for
Language(s) Languages on national language national language non-language
of instruction website language instruction students students students

university A national and national and restricted linked to CEFR only optional optional
foreign foreign international

university B national, national and restricted linked to CEFR international optional optional
foreign, R/M foreign and immigrant

university C national and national and restricted linked to CEFR only optional optional
foreign foreign international

Apart from adult vocational training and university education, Austria’s tradition of
Volkshochschulen (VHS) deriving from both bourgeois and working-class initiatives in the 19th
century should be mentioned in the context of language learning. With a share of 39.4% of
education units in 2009/10, languages are the strongest education field of the VHS (Verband
Österreichischer Volkshochschulen 2011: 1). Vienna’s VHS currently offer more than 60 languages.

Languages in audiovisual media and press

Non-national language Non-national language r/ML programmes Availability of sign

tV productions films in cinema outside of region language on tV

dubbed dubbed sometimes sometimes

The Austrian broadcasting corporation ORF is by law obliged to provide services to recognised
R/ML speakers. Apart from television and radio magazines, the online platform [Link]
provides news and information and audio and video live streams in Croatian, Czech, Hungarian,
Romani, Slovakian and Slovenian.
FM4 is the ORF radio station targeted at a young audience. Although bilingual, English is spoken
predominantly. The news bulletins are read in English and twice a day in French. FM4’s hosts
and on-air guests are encouraged to follow FM4’s ‘Native Speaker Principle’ and speak in their
mother tongue.

87
LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Languages in public services and spaces

institutionalised language strategies at city level (2 cities)
Language recruitment of Language record of
Website use of competencies in speakers of training offered language skills
N languages presence interpreters job descriptions languages to employees of employees

>4 Vienna Vienna Graz Vienna Vienna Vienna

Graz Graz Graz

3–4

1–2 Graz Vienna Graz

Communication facilities
top five oral communication facilities top four written communication facilities

Tourism Tourism
Immigration and integration Transport
Political debates and decision making Theatre
Education Immigration and integration
Transport

Although the LRE project focus was on major cities in terms of population, Austria is largely
characterised by smaller towns, also in the regions with recognised linguistic minorities
(Volksgruppen). Therefore, the afore-mentioned constitutional amendment decided by the
parliament in 2011 on the use of minority languages (BGBl. I Nr. 46/2011) in topography and
official languages to be used in public services affects mainly those smaller towns.

88
 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Languages in business (out of 19 companies)

General language strategies

mobility provision
language skills in

Awareness of Eu
use of networks
staff records of
use of external

language skills

programmes/

programmes/
Availability of

international

for language
Emphasis on

interpreters
recruitment

translators/

use of Eu
language
strategy

training

funding

funding
Widely practised 6 12 5 4 0 0 2 0

internal language strategies External language strategies

documents/intranet
reward/promotion

Language used for

Language used for

Language used for

Language used for

Language used for

schemes based on

Language training

Language used for

Partnerships with

branding/identity
education sector

annual/business
language skills

software, web
programmes
use of CEfr

marketing
workplace
provision

website
reports
NL widely 4 0 5 1 19 19 19 19 18 18
practised

Business widely 7 2 9 2 7 5 9 6 9 12
English practised

Additional widely 6 0 4 1 2 2 2 3 4 3
languages practised

The Institute for Research on Qualifications and Training of the Austrian Economy (ibw) conducted
a survey in 2005 among 2,017 Austrian companies on their demand for foreign languages. 86%
said that they need foreign languages. In 45% of the companies, English is needed by ‘most’
employees. For contacts with business partners in Eastern Europe, German is the language used,
according to the survey (Tritscher-Archan 2008: 172).
Whereas language skills in Austria as an export-oriented country are traditionally regarded as a
tool to access foreign markets, some companies, for example, banks and telecommunication
providers, are also responding to a diversifying inland market with so-called ethno-marketing,
using immigrant languages in their campaigns and services.

89
LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Key findings overall References

Austria is characterised by ambivalent developments in terms of Biffl, Gudrun, Skrivanek, Isabella (2011): Schule-Migration-Gender
multi- and plurilingualism. On the one hand, the government Endbericht. Study commissioned by the Bundesministerium für
programme recognises the increasing diversity of Austrian Unterricht, Kunst und Kultur. Available at [Link]/
society by emphasising the importance of acquisition of medienpool/21041/schule_migration_gender_eb.pdf Accessed
language skills mainly through education for children and young 7 December 2011.
people, particularly referring to English, the languages of the
neighbouring countries, and immigrant languages (Republik Brizic, Katharina (2011): Multilingual cities, Wien. Available at
Österreich 2008: 206). [Link]/dinamlex/Multilingual-Cities_Wien-2009_
[Link] Accessed 7 December 2011.
On the other hand, it is above all a question of resources (for
example, when it comes to the number of qualified teachers), Bundeskanzleramt Österreich (2011): 3. Bericht der Republik
which prevents the creation of a more diverse and Österreich gemäß Artikel 15 Abs. 1 der Europäischen Charta der
comprehensive language education provision and makes it Regional- oder Minderheitensprachen. Available at [Link].
difficult to create a continuous language education process. [Link]/[Link]?CobId=45599 Accessed 7 December 2011.

Whereas German is regarded as the most important language Bundesministerium für Inneres (2011): Nationaler Aktionsplan für
for successful integration (also strengthened by current Integration. Available at [Link]/nap/bericht/
education and immigration policies), society is slowly becoming Accessed 7 December 2011.
aware of the benefits of additional language skills, at least when
Bundesministerium für Unterricht, Kunst und Kultur (2011): Der
they are seen to be ‘useful’, for example, in the economy for
muttersprachliche Unterricht in Österreich. Statistische
specific export-oriented trade and business.
Auswertung für das Schuljahr 2009/10. Available at [Link].
[Link]/medienpool/3720/nr5_11.pdf Accessed 7 December 2011.

Promising initiatives and pilots Bundesministerium für Unterricht, Kunst und Kultur und
Bundesministerium für Wissenschaft und Forschung,
There are many good practice examples throughout the
Österreichisches Sprachen Kompetenz Zentrum (eds.) (2008):
domains of Language Rich Europe. One example is a project that
Language Education Policy Profile. Country Report Austria.
EDUCULT is actively involved in: Sag’s multi is an annual rhetoric
Available at [Link]/download/spol/lepp_engl_1.pdf
competition for bilingual pupils organised by an association of
Accessed 7 December 2011.
business people, the Verein Wirtschaft für Integration (VWFI),
together with EDUCULT. Pupils from grade seven (age 12) Initiative Minderheiten (n.d.): Minderheiten in Österreich /
onwards present their speeches switching between German and Volksgruppen. Available at [Link]
their additional language. Since 2009, approximately 700 pupils php?option=com_content&task=view&id=26&Itemid=30
have already taken part in this competition, presenting Accessed 9 December 2011.
performances in more than 40 languages.
Republik Österreich (2008): Regierungsprogramm 2008-2013.
SPIN: SprachenInnovationsNetzwerk, a network initiated by the Available at [Link]/[Link]?CobId=32965
Österreichisches Sprachen-Kompetenz-Zentrum (ÖSZ), provides a Accessed 7 December 2011.
database at [Link]/spin on innovative language projects
to a wider interested public. Statistik Austria (2011): Registrierzählung 2011. Pressemeldung.
Available at [Link]/web_de/presse/059977 Accessed
7 December 2011.

Tritscher-Archan, Sabine (ed.), Institut für Bildungsforschung der

Wirtschaft (2008): Fremdsprachen für die Wirtschaft. Zahlen,
Daten, Fakten.

Verband österreichischer Volkshochschulen (2011):

Statistikbericht 2011. Available at [Link]
statistik/berichte/statistik_2011.pdf Accessed 7 December 2011.

90
 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

2 BoSnia anD herZegoVina

Jasmin Džindo and Selma Žerić

teaching of national languages, foreign languages and R/M

Country context languages such as the Revised Action Plan of Bosnia and
Bosnia and Herzegovina is a multinational and multilingual Herzegovina on Roma Educational Needs (published by the
country with three official national languages: Bosnian, Croatian Ministry for Human Rights and Refugees). Sign language is
and Serbian (with both Latin and Cyrillic script). These languages officially recognised by state documents which pertain to the
emerged from Serbo-Croatian, which used to be the official official language policies. This matter is under the legislation of
language in former Yugoslavia. After the dissolution of the Law on Use of Sign Language in Bosnia and Herzegovina
Yugoslavia, Bosnia and Herzegovina standardised this into (2009). People who are deaf have the legal right to use sign
Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian, which have been lawfully language in various procedures of any institution in Bosnia and
established as three completely equal official languages Herzegovina.
throughout the territory. From a grammatical, lexical and
phonetic point of view, however, the differences between these As well as being administratively divided into two entities, Bosnia
languages are minimal. This leads to the conclusion that the and Herzegovina also contains the Brčko District which does not
entire population of Bosnia and Herzegovina understands all belong to either of the entities, but forms a separate
three languages and is free to decide which to use in everyday administrative unit. The Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina is
and professional life. further divided into ten cantons which are considered federal
units within the entity, and which enjoy a high level of autonomy.
Due to the great complexity within the state structure, there are
no coherent approaches to either education or language
Languages in official policies. With that in mind, the current official language situation
documents and databases is diverse. Apart from various differences between the entities,
there are also diversities within the cantons as well, since there
is a separate Ministry of Education within each canton, with their
All three national languages (bosnian, Croatian and own laws. Given such a broad legal basis, the language politics
Serbian), foreign languages and R/M languages are dealt are not completely harmonised, and it is not unusual for the
with in language policy documents. The European Charter majority of the population in a certain canton (and the entity of
for Regional or Minority Languages has been signed by the Republika Srpska) to determine the official language in
government and ratified by parliament. The following educational institutions. Curricula are based on one of the three
languages are recognised in the Charter: Albanian, Czech, national languages but all three national languages are present
German, Hungarian, Italian, Jewish (yiddish and Ladino), at all levels of the educational system, from pre-primary to
Macedonian, Montenegrin, Polish, Romanian, Russian, higher education. Students decide which national language their
Slovak, Slovene, Turkish and Ukrainian. Official nationwide classes will be held in at the beginning of primary school.
data collection mechanisms on language diversity do Textbooks and curricula are adjusted according to this decision.
not exist. Apart from national languages, each educational level in Bosnia
and Herzegovina offers a wide variety of foreign languages.
However, there is a lack of harmony here as well. As a result,
There are a large number of laws which regulate pre-primary, different foreign languages are offered in schools within the
primary, secondary, and further and higher education, such as same canton, and throughout different cantons as well. In pre-
the Framework Law on Pre-Primary Education in Bosnia and primary, primary and secondary education there are usually
Herzegovina (2007), the Law on the Agency for Pre-Primary, five to six foreign languages offered, such as English, German,
Primary and Secondary Education (2007), the Framework Law on French, Italian, Russian or Arabic, depending on which entity
Primary and Secondary Education in Bosnia and Herzegovina or canton the school is in. Institutions for higher education in
(2003), the Framework Law on Secondary Vocational Education Bosnia and Herzegovina offer Arabic, Czech, English, French,
(2008), and the Framework Law on Higher Education in Bosnia German, Greek, Italian, Latin, Persian, Russian, Spanish and
and Herzegovina (2007). Turkish.

There is legislation which contains articles pertaining to national

languages in terms of the Constitution of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
It is the fundamental legal act of this country, used to establish
political and legal order. Since there are two entities in Bosnia
and Herzegovina, the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and
the Republic of Srpska, there are two further constitutions – the
Constitution of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the
Constitution of the Republika Srpska, which also mention national
languages and the official script/scripts. There are also official
language policies, created in order to promote the learning and

91
LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

NL=National Language(s)
fL=foreign Languages
r/ML=regional or Minority Languages
iL=immigrant Languages

Languages in pre-primary education

(No provision of additional national language support, R/M languages, or immigrant languages)

Minimum Pre-service in-service

group size teacher teacher state funding
target groups duration requirements days per week training training available

fL all ≥2 years none <0.5 day none none partial

Languages offered in pre-primary education

fL English, German, french

Throughout Bosnia and Herzegovina there is pre-primary language education with a coherent,
integrated approach to language-learning curricula, with special attention paid to plurilingualism
in the classroom and multilingualism of society in general. The foreign languages offered in pre-
primary education are mostly English, German and French, while immigrant languages are not
offered at all.

Languages in primary education (No provision of immigrant languages)

organisation
Extra support for diagnostic testing on Monitoring of language
Curriculum newcomers entry skills

NL support coherent and explicit before mainstream absent school-based

start of Minimum Monitoring of

target language group size language Level to be state funding
groups Curriculum CLiL education scheduling requirements skills achieved available

r/ML all coherent widespread from year 1 in school none school-based not specified full
and explicit hours

fL all coherent localised from year 1 in school none national national or full
and explicit hours standardised school norms

teaching
Pre-service teacher in-service teacher
teacher qualifications training training Mobility

NL support language teachers general subject specific N/A

r/ML language teachers subject-specific subject-specific N/A

fL language teachers general subject-specific informal financial support

92
 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Languages offered in primary education

other NL bosnian, Croatian, Serbian

fL English or German are compulsory. Arabic, french, or

Italian are optional.

A coherent and explicit curriculum is used to teach national as well as foreign languages
throughout primary education. Classes can be held only in national languages with one
compulsory foreign language to be chosen from a selection of five to six different languages,
including English, German, French, Italian, Russian and Arabic. Some of these are taught as
compulsory and some as optional foreign languages. They are offered as part of the curriculum,
and the level of proficiency is regularly tested and monitored using age-dependent standardised
instruments. Immigrant languages are not taught in primary schools.

Languages in secondary education (No provision of immigrant languages)

organisation
Extra support for diagnostic testing on Monitoring of language
Curriculum newcomers entry skills

NL support coherent and explicit before mainstream all national standardised

Minimum Monitoring
target group size of language Level to be state funding
groups Curriculum CLiL scheduling requirements skills achieved available

r/ML all coherent and widespread partly in none national national or full
explicit school hours standardised regional norms

fL all coherent and localised in school none national national or full

explicit hours standardised school-based
norms

teaching
teacher Pre-service teacher in-service teacher Language level
qualifications training training required Mobility

NL support language teachers subject-specific subject-specific national or school- N/A

based norms

r/ML language teachers subject-specific subject-specific N/A N/A

fL language teachers subject-specific subject-specific national or informal financial

regionwide standards support

93
LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Languages offered in secondary education

other NL bosnian, Croatian, Serbian

fL English or German are compulsory

Arabic, french, Italian, Russian, Turkish are optional

In secondary education a combination of teaching foreign languages as a subject and teaching all
subjects in a foreign language is used, even though the latter method is not common practice.
There are coherent and explicit curricula to teach national and foreign languages, and the level of
proficiency is regularly tested and monitored using age-dependent standardised instruments. In
secondary education two foreign languages are compulsory, from a selection of six to seven
foreign languages such as English, German, French, Italian, Russian, Turkish and Arabic. Some of
these languages are taught as compulsory and some as optional foreign languages. Immigrant
languages are not taught in secondary schools.

Languages in further and higher education

further education (in three VEt institutions) (No provision of immigrant languages)
range of language state funding
programmes Curriculum Level to be achieved available

r/ML institution A wide variety coherent and explicit N/A partial

institution B wide variety coherent and explicit N/A partial

institution C wide variety coherent and explicit N/A partial

fL institution A wide variety coherent and explicit linked to CEFR full

institution B wide variety coherent and explicit national full

institution C wide variety coherent and explicit national full

higher education (in three universities)

target groups Level to be
for additional achieved in recruitment
support in the foreign of non- Mobility for Mobility for
Language(s) Languages on national language national language non-language
of instruction website language instruction students students students

university A national, foreign national, foreign restricted national or international optional optional
and R/M and R/M institution-based and immigrant

university B national, foreign national, foreign restricted national or international optional optional
and R/M and R/M institution-based and immigrant

university C national, foreign national, foreign restricted national or international optional optional
and R/M and R/M institution-based and immigrant

According to the institutions surveyed, higher education institutions in Bosnia and Herzegovina
offer a wide selection of programmes in national and foreign languages, from basic
communication to advanced linguistic skills. Coherent and explicit curricula are set up for learning
national and foreign languages, and students can choose to study English, German, Italian,
French, Spanish, Turkish, Arabic, Persian, Latin, Greek, Russian and Czech.

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 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Languages in audiovisual media and press

Non-national language Non-national language r/ML programmes Availability of sign

tV productions films in cinema outside of region language on tV

subtitled subtitled always or regularly sometimes

National languages are more or less equally represented across audio-visual media and the
printed press, although at the local level, the majority determines which national language is
dominant. There is no systematic evaluation of these languages in the media. As for audio-visual
media at state level, there are three main broadcasters: state radio and television (BHRT) and the
entity-level broadcasters FTV and RTRS. On state television both scripts are used: one day a
television programme may be broadcast in the Latin script, and the next day in Cyrillic script.
Apart from national languages, newspapers are also available in English, French, German
and Italian.

Languages in public services and spaces

institutionalised language strategies at city level
Language recruitment of Language record of
Website use of competencies in speakers of training offered language skills
N languages presence interpreters job descriptions languages to employees of employees

>4

3–4 Sarajevo
Mostar

1–2 Banja Luka Sarajevo Sarajevo Sarajevo Sarajevo

Mostar Mostar Mostar Mostar
Banja Luka Banja Luka Banja Luka Banja Luka

Communication facilities
top three oral communication facilities top three written communication facilities

Tourism Tourism
Transport Transport
Immigration and integration Immigration and integration

Communication between local authorities is held in the national languages, with some use of
English and German. Oral and written communication in municipal facilities also takes place in the
national languages, except for transportation, tourism, immigration and integration services where
communication also takes place in English, French and German.

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LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Languages in business (out of 29 companies)

GENErAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs

mobility provision
language skills in

Awareness of Eu
use of networks
staff records of
use of external

language skills

programmes/

programmes/
Availability of

international

for language
Emphasis on

interpreters
recruitment

translators/

use of Eu
language
strategy

training

funding

funding
Widely practised 4 26 10 6 0 4 0 0

iNtErNAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs EXtErNAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs

documents/intranet
reward/promotion

Language used for

Language used for

Language used for

Language used for

Language used for

schemes based on

Language training

Language used for

Partnerships with

branding/identity
education sector

annual/business
language skills

software, web
programmes
use of CEfr

marketing
workplace
provision

website
reports
NL widely 0 6 3 0 29 23 29 28 27 29
practised

Business widely 0 14 6 2 21 24 11 20 16 25
English practised

Additional widely 0 4 3 0 3 1 1 0 5 2
languages practised

In the companies surveyed the main language for written and oral communication is one of the
three national languages (depending on the territory), with some use of English.

Key findings overall

According to the dynamics of social and economic development
of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and aiming at EU membership, state
authorities, as well as entity and canton authorities, are
constantly working on further harmonising and improving the
scope of language policies. Based on the previously mentioned
facts, and having in mind that this essay gives only a glimpse of
the current condition, we might conclude that the seemingly
complex multilingual situation in our country does not generally
represent a communication barrier in everyday life. Of course,
there is much room for improvement; for example, in
harmonising laws, as well as in raising public awareness on the
existence of the three official national languages and two scripts,
which should be accepted and respected for all their similarities
and minor differences.

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3 BuLgaria
Gueorgui Jetchev

Country context Languages in official

The Bulgarian medieval states supported three important cultural documents and databases
centres with a strong literary tradition: the Preslav and Ohrid
literary schools (during the First Bulgarian Kingdom, 8th–11th
The national language, foreign languages, R/M
centuries) and the Tarnovo literary school (Second Bulgarian
languages and immigrant languages are dealt with in
Kingdom, 12th–14th centuries). Under the Ottoman Empire,
language legislation and/or language policy documents.
Bulgarians successfully resisted the cultural influences of Turkish
The learning and teaching of the national language
speaking authorities and the Greeks.
abroad for children and/or adults originating from
Bulgarians have held consistently firm views on the correct use bulgaria is (co-)funded in around 30 countries in Europe
of their language and literary traditions. A special public holiday and abroad. The European Charter for Regional or
celebrates the missionary and literary work of Saints Cyril and Minority Languages has not been signed and ratified by
Methodius, apostles to the Slavs and co-patron saints of Europe bulgaria. At the national level, however, 4 R/M languages
annually on 24 May. The day is also dedicated to the Cyrillic are officially provided in nation- or regionwide education:
alphabet, the literature and the culture created in Bulgaria. Armenian, Hebrew, Romani, and Turkish.

The 1991 Constitution does not use the terms ‘national’ or Official nationwide data collection mechanisms on
‘ethnic minorities’. However, it guarantees the main rights of language diversity in bulgaria exist in terms of
persons belonging to ethnic, linguistic, and religious groups. periodically updated census data. In these data
Article 36 grants members of ethnic groups the right to study collection mechanisms, national, R/M and immigrant
and use their own language. Article 54 entitles them to develop language varieties are addressed, based on a mother
their own culture in accordance with their ethnic self-identification, tongue question.
which is recognised and guaranteed by law. All of this has
created a legal and political framework guaranteeing the equal
rights of minorities in Bulgaria. Official curricula in Bulgarian for Bulgarian citizens abroad can
be found on the Ministry of Education, Youth and Science
The Bulgarian ethnic model aims at balancing the principles of (MoEYS) website. They are part of the National Language and
integration, common national and European values, and respect Culture Abroad governmental programme.
for ethnic and religious identity.
The Education, Science, Children, Youth and Sports Committee
According to the 2011 population census, Bulgarian is mother and the Culture, Civil Society and Media Committee at the
tongue to 85.2% of the population, Turkish to 9.1% and Romani National Assembly are responsible for all issues concerning the
to 4.2% of the population. According to the National Statistical national language, and draft resolutions or recommendations.
Institute, census data shows a strong correlation between ethnic Scientists and experts are allowed to participate in the
and linguistic self-determination. Committees’ meetings. The Institute for Bulgarian Language (IBL)
at the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences is a central co-ordinating
body responsible for the Bulgarian national language policy
([Link]/en/[Link]). IBL co-operates with Bulgarian
language and literature university departments.

The 1991 Constitution declares Bulgarian the country’s sole

official language (Article 3), but it also guarantees (Article 36)
the right for ‘citizens whose mother tongue is not Bulgarian’ to
study and use their mother language.

Bulgaria has been a State Party to the Framework Convention for

the Protection of National Minorities since 7 May 1999. The
National Council for Cooperation on Ethnic and Integration
Issues ([Link]/), whose secretariat is part
of the government administration (the Council of Ministers),
monitors the implementation of the Convention at national level.

Turkish, Roma and other minorities are now entitled to mother

tongue tuition. The Educational Standards, Basic General
Education and Curriculum Law of July 1999, amended in 2002,
stipulates that the ‘mother tongue’ subject is a compulsory

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elective subject in the primary and secondary education curricula Article 49: (1) The Bulgarian National Radio and the
(Article 15–3). The Public Education Law of 1991 Implementation Bulgarian National Television shall produce national and
Rules, amended in 1998, provide a definition of the term ‘mother regional programmes; broadcasts for abroad, including
tongue’: the language in which the child communicates in his/her for Bulgarians living abroad; broadcasts intended for
family (Article 8–2). The Centre of Educational Integration of Bulgarian nationals whose mother tongue is not Bulgarian,
Children and Young people from the Minorities ([Link] including in their own language.
[Link]) was established in 2005. It is the only governmental
institution whose name contains the term ‘from the minorities’ The Union of the Deaf in Bulgaria created the National Centre on
instead of ‘citizens whose mother tongue is not Bulgarian’. Sign Language in 2004. The Bulgarian National Television offers
daily translation into sign language of the 4 p.m. news.
The Radio and Television Law of 1998 contains an article on
programmes in minority languages:

NL=National Language(s)
fL=foreign Languages
r/ML=regional or Minority Languages
iL=immigrant Languages

Languages in pre-primary education (No provision of R/M languages and immigrant languages)

Minimum Pre-service in-service

group size teacher teacher state funding
target groups duration requirements days per week training training available

fL all ≥2 years none <0.5 day subject-specific subject-specific none

Additional NL all 1 year none 0.5–1 day subject-specific subject-specific full

support

Languages offered in pre-primary education

fL English, french, German, Italian, Russian, Spanish

The national programme for the development of school instruction and pre-school education
(2006–2015) mentions the necessity to provide children whose mother tongue is not Bulgarian
with programmes in the Bulgarian language adapted to their special needs during the year
of pre-school education which has been obligatory since 2003. The National Education Law,
amended in 2002, introduced a specialised curriculum in the Bulgarian language for
these children.

Languages in primary education (No provision of immigrant languages)

organisation
Extra support for diagnostic testing on Monitoring of language
Curriculum newcomers entry skills

NL support coherent and explicit before mainstream all national standardised

start of Minimum Monitoring of

target language group size language Level to be state funding
groups Curriculum CLiL education scheduling requirements skills achieved available

r/ML native coherent absent from year 1 partly in >10 school-based school full
speakers and explicit school norms
only hours

fL all coherent absent from year 1 in school >10 national linked to full
and explicit hours standardised CEFR

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 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

teaching
Pre-service teacher in-service teacher
teacher qualifications training training Mobility

NL support language teachers subject-specific subject-specific N/A

r/ML language teachers subject-specific general N/A

fL language teachers subject-specific subject-specific none

Languages offered in primary education

r/ML Armenian, Hebrew, Romani, Turkish

fL English, french, German, Italian, Russian, Spanish:

one of these languages is compulsory

Official curricula for four languages offered as a ‘mother tongue’ subject (Turkish, Armenian,
Hebrew, Romani) for primary and secondary education can be found on the MoEYS website.
Mother tongue tuition is not compulsory; it is only a ‘compulsory elective subject’ which means it
can be chosen from a list of alternative subjects including English, German, French or Russian.
This is why few Turkish-speaking children take these courses, and their number has been
decreasing in recent years.

Languages in secondary education (No provision of immigrant languages)

organisation
Extra support for diagnostic testing on Monitoring of language
Curriculum newcomers entry skills

NL support coherent and explicit before mainstream immigrants only national standardised

Minimum Monitoring state

target group size of language Level to be funding
groups Curriculum CLiL scheduling requirements skills achieved available

r/ML native coherent and absent partly in >10 school-based school norms full
speakers only explicit school hours

fL all coherent and localised in school >10 national linked to CEFR full
explicit hours standardised

teaching
teacher Pre-service in-service teacher Language level
qualifications teacher training training required Mobility

NL support language teachers subject-specific subject-specific national or school- N/A

based norms

r/ML language teachers subject-specific general N/A N/A

fL language teachers subject-specific subject-specific linked to CEFR informal financial

support

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LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Languages offered in secondary education

r/ML Armenian, Hebrew, Romani, Turkish

fL (languages in italics offered in upper Croatian, Czech, English, french, German, Italian,
secondary only) Japanese, Korean, Polish, Romanian, Russian, Serbian,
Slovak, Spanish: 1 or 2 of these are compulsory, a 2nd
or 3rd is optional

There is a dense network of schools that are ‘foreign-languages oriented’ (in all or part of their
classes) all over the country. These schools use the first foreign language as a medium of
instruction for a variety of subjects including mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology,
geography, history, and philosophy. These subjects are taught using Content and Language
Integrated Learning (CLIL) methods from the beginning of upper secondary education (ninth and
tenth year). These schools offer an intensive language course (at least 18 hours per week) for one
year (the final year of lower secondary education – the eighth year).
At the level of upper secondary education, it is difficult to find a class which is not part of the
network. The ‘foreign-languages oriented’ school model was established in 1952 at a school in
Lovech, a town in North Bulgaria, where English, French and German were the three languages of
instruction. In 1960, new schools were established in other towns, including the capital, with each
of these three languages taught separately and with Russian. In 1970 Spanish was added to the
network. Since 1990, all of the above-mentioned languages, as well as other languages, are
offered all over the country in (partly or fully) ‘foreign-languages oriented’ schools.

Languages in further and higher education

further education (in three VEt institutions) (No provision of r/M languages and
immigrant languages)
range of language state funding
programmes Curriculum Level to be achieved available

fL institution A wide variety coherent and explicit linked to CEFR full

institution B limited coherent and explicit national full

institution C wide variety coherent and explicit linked to CEFR none

higher education (in three universities)

target groups Level to be
for additional achieved in recruitment
support in the foreign of non- Mobility for Mobility for
Language(s) Languages on national language national language non-language
of instruction website language instruction students students students

university A national and national and all linked to CEFR international optional optional
foreign foreign and immigrant

university B national and national and restricted national or international optional optional
foreign foreign institution-based and immigrant

university C national and national only restricted linked to CEFR international optional optional
foreign and immigrant

A two year course of Bulgarian as a foreign language is offered to Erasmus students, as well as to
foreign students attending university. The courses in Turkish language and literature at Sofia,
Plovdiv and Shumen universities are in great need of highly qualified experts, as are the Higher
Islamic Institute in Sofia and the newly established Turkish theatres in Kurdzhali and Razgrad,
which rely on the universities for this provision.

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Languages in audiovisual media and press

Non-national language Non-national language r/ML programmes Availability of sign

tV productions films in cinema outside of region language on tV

dubbed subtitled sometimes always in Sofia

regularly in Plovdiv
sometimes in Shumen

Radio Bulgaria offers web-based programmes in ten languages: English, German, Russian, French,
Spanish, Serbian, Greek, Albanian, Turkish and Arabic.
Although on a rather limited scale, the Turkish language has also been introduced in mass media.
The Bulgarian National Radio has had half-hour morning and evening broadcasts for the Turkish
population in Bulgaria since 1993. The news and Turkish and Bulgarian folk songs are included in
the broadcasts. In the spring of 2001, the Bulgarian National Television began broadcasting ten-
minute programmes in Turkish.
During the transition period attempts were also made to establish a Turkish press. At present,
there are three weekly Turkish newspapers in Sofia (Sabah, Zaman and Müslümanlar), a children’s
newspaper Filiz and a children’s magazine called Balon.

Languages in public services and spaces

institutionalised language strategies at city level
Language recruitment of Language record of
Website use of competencies in speakers of training offered language skills
N languages presence interpreters job descriptions languages to employees of employees

>4 Shumen

3–4 Sofia Sofia

Plovdiv

1–2 Sofia Sofia Plovdiv Sofia

Plovdiv Plovdiv Shumen Plovdiv
Shumen Shumen Shumen

Communication facilities
top five oral communication facilities top five written communication facilities

Tourism Tourism
Legal Transport
Health Emergency
Emergency Health
= Transport Immigration and integration
= Immigration and integration

There is still a lot to be done to strengthen multilingualism in this domain. In the three cities
researched, Sofia, Plovdiv and Shumen all provide limited services in foreign languages, with a
focus on emergency, immigration and tourism services, although commonly interpreters are used.
Aside from Bulgarian, English is the language most often available in public services and spaces
with some services also being available in Turkish, German, French and Russian. The websites of
all cities are available in English, but in Shumen Russian is also available. All city administrations
recruit employees who speak foreign languages, with English being the main priority, and English
language teaching is also provided for them during their employment.

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Languages in business (out of 24 companies)

GENErAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs

mobility provision
language skills in

Awareness of Eu
use of networks
staff records of
use of external

language skills

programmes/

programmes/
Availability of

international

for language
Emphasis on

interpreters
recruitment

translators/

use of Eu
language
strategy

training

funding

funding
Widely practised 1 7 0 1 0 0 0 0

iNtErNAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs EXtErNAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs

documents/intranet
reward/promotion

Language used for

Language used for

Language used for

Language used for

Language used for

schemes based on

Language training

Language used for

Partnerships with

branding/identity
education sector

annual/business
language skills

software, web
programmes
use of CEfr

marketing
workplace
provision

website
reports
NL widely 0 0 0 0 21 18 22 23 18 23
practised

Business widely 0 1 0 1 5 7 8 4 9 12
English practised

Additional widely 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
languages practised

As with the Public Services and Spaces domain, there is much to be done to strengthen
multilingualism in business. In the surveyed companies, almost half have some form of language
strategy. Business English is used by two-thirds of companies in addition to Bulgarian for
promotional purposes and on the web. Other languages are rarely used and training in languages
is not provided other than occasionally in business English. A few companies have partnerships
with the education sector to support language training, and a very small number make use of
international networks to support language skills of employees.

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Key findings overall References

Our LRE research revealed many strong points in multilingualism National Statistical Institute, Republic of Bulgaria: 2011 population
in the domains of education at all levels, both for the national census in the Republic of Bulgaria (final data).
language and for foreign languages. Some important steps have
been made towards a greater involvement of regional/minority Advisory committee on the framework convention for the
languages in education and in the media. protection of national minorities: Opinion on Bulgaria. (adopted
on 27 May 2004).
Domains that need further development are public services and
spaces and business. Stoycheva, Maria, Chavdarova, Albena and Veselinov, Dimitar
(2011), Language Policies Bulgaria-Europe (Ezikovi politiki.
Bulgaria-Evropa). Sofia, Universitetsko izdatelstvo ‘Sv. Kliment
Promising initiatives and pilots Ohridski’.

Lilyana Kovatcheva, Director of the Centre of Educational Pachev, Angel (2006): Ezikovite obštnosti, Sofia, Sema RŠ.
Integration of Children and Young people from the Minorities
Videnov, Mihail (2005): Diglosijata, Sofia, Akademicno
Akademic izdatelstvo
Akademič
(affiliated to MoEYS), was one of the six national consultants for
Marin Drinov.
the Curriculum Framework for Romani, created by the Language
Policy Division of the Council of Europe in 2008 ([Link]/t/ Jetchev, Gueorgui (2006): «Éléments de politique linguistique
dg4/linguistic/Romani_doc_EN.asp). de l’État bulgare», Lengas, revue de sociolinguistique, n° 60,
pp. 191–203.
The European Day of Languages in Bulgaria is a successful
event organised by EUNIC – the network of European Union
National Institutes for Culture. In its last edition the following
member institutions participated: Austrian Embassy, the British
Council, Czech Centre, Polish Institute, French Institute,
Goethe Institut, Hellenic Foundation of Culture, Hungarian
Cultural Institute, Instituto Cervantes, Embassy of Spain,
Italian Cultural Institute, as well as partners from the Russian
Cultural Centre, Embassy of Switzerland, Directorate General for
Translation to the European Commission, Bulgarian Cultural
Institute, and Human Resource Development Centre. The
European Day of Languages 2011 was supported by the Sofia
Municipality, MoEYS, and with the media partnership of the
Bulgarian National Radio.

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4 DenMarK
Sabine Kirchmeier-Andersen

Country context Languages in official

Danish is the official language of Denmark, which has documents and databases
approximately 5,500,000 inhabitants. 90% of these are ethnic
Danes with Danish as their mother tongue. For the remaining
The national language, foreign languages, R/M languages
10%, only one minority language, German, is recognised
and immigrant languages are dealt with in language
officially. The overall number of native speakers of German
legislation. The learning and teaching of the national
located in South Jutland amounts to approximately 20,000.
language abroad for children and/or adults originating
Apart from the Danish speakers who live in Denmark, Danish is from Denmark is (co-)funded in about 20 countries in
also the native or cultural language of around 50,000 Germano- Europe and abroad. The European Charter for Regional or
Danish citizens living in the south of Schleswig. Minority Languages has been signed and ratified by
Denmark. German as a R/M language is recognised in the
In the Faroe Islands and Greenland, the law of autonomy Charter. Eskimo-Aleut (in Greenland) and faroese are also
guarantees the official status of the Faroese and Greenlandic protected by Laws on Home Rule. In Denmark, there is
languages, although Danish is a compulsory subject in schools. official provision in education, supported by the Charter,
In Iceland, Danish has been a part of the school curriculum since for German.
the beginning of the 19th century and Danish is still used to
facilitate communication with other Nordic countries. Official nation-/regionwide data collection mechanisms on
language diversity in Denmark do not exist.
Denmark has ratified the Nordic Language Convention (1987),
which secures the right of Nordic citizens to use their own
language to communicate with the authorities in all Nordic There are no provisions for the use of Danish or other languages
countries. Denmark has also ratified the Nordic Language in the Danish Constitution and there is no specific law providing
Declaration (2006), which is a joint policy document of the overall regulation for language use. However, rulings for
Nordic Council of Ministers. It states that both national and language are part of legislation in other fields, for example in
minority languages should be supported and protected, that promoting Danish as a second language for minority students,
universities should use a parallel language strategy ensuring and there is a law stating that all schools and public institutions
the use of English alongside the use of the national languages, must use the Danish orthography provided by the Danish
and that the citizens of Nordic countries should be given the Language Council. Although there is no official recognition or
opportunity to learn their mother tongue and acquire skills in policy document for sign languages, official recommendations
a language of international importance and skills in another for the teaching of sign languages exist.
foreign language.

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 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

NL=National Language(s)
fL=foreign Languages
r/ML=regional or Minority Languages
iL=immigrant Languages

Languages in pre-primary education (No provision of foreign languages)

Minimum Pre-service in-service

group size teacher teacher state funding
target groups duration requirements days per week training training available

r/ML all 1 year 5–10 0.5–1 day general general full

iL native speakers 1 year 5–10 0.5–1 day general general full

only

Additional NL all 1 year none 0.5–1 day general subject-specific full

support

Languages offered in pre-primary education

r/ML German

iL Albanian, Arabic, bosnian, Icelandic, Panjabi, Somali,

Tamil, Turkish, Urdu

More than 85% of the children in Denmark attend either private or public day care. Danish local
authorities are obliged to monitor the language development of all children who do not attend
day care at the age of three, and to initiate language stimulation up to 15 hours a week if
necessary. The purpose of language stimulation is to provide the child with the necessary
language skills in Danish before the start of school. Children that attend day care on a regular
basis do not have to be monitored but they receive mandatory language stimulation if necessary.

Languages in primary education (No provision of R/M languages)

organisation
Extra support for diagnostic testing on Monitoring of language
Curriculum newcomers entry skills

NL support coherent and explicit before mainstream all national standardised

start of Minimum Monitoring state

target language group size of language Level to be funding
groups Curriculum CLiL education scheduling requirements skills achieved available

fL all coherent and absent from mid- in school 5–10 national national or full
explicit phase hours standardised school
norms

iL native coherent and absent from year 1 outside >10 school-based not specified full
speakers explicit school hours
only

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LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

teaching
Pre-service teacher in-service teacher
teacher qualifications training training Mobility

NL support general teachers general general N/A

fL language teachers subject-specific general informal financial support

iL language teachers general general N/A

Languages offered in primary education

fL English and french or German compulsory; Spanish,

German, french and immigrant languages optional

iL Albanian, Arabic, bosnian, Icelandic, Somali, Tamil,

Turkish, Urdu/Panjabi

Danish children normally start primary school at the age of five or six and leave at the age of
15 or 16.
Until 2002 extra-curricular education in immigrant languages was provided at primary school
level and funded by the government. This is still the case for children from the EU, European
Economic Area (EEA), Greenland and the Faroe islands. For all other children since 2002 it has
been up to each local community to provide education in immigrant languages. Therefore
education in immigrant languages is only offered in large communities with a high number of
immigrants, for example, Copenhagen.
A recent committee report Sprog er nøglen til verden (2011) suggests the introduction of English
in the first year of primary school and the introduction of a third language (German or French) at
the age of 11–12. Furthermore, the report recommends that a broad range of languages such as
Arabic, Chinese and Portuguese/Brazilian should be offered as electives.

Languages in secondary education (No provision of R/M languages)

organisation
Extra support for diagnostic testing on Monitoring of language
Curriculum newcomers entry skills

NL support coherent and explicit absent absent absent

Minimum Monitoring state

target group size of language Level to be funding
groups Curriculum CLiL scheduling requirements skills achieved available

fL all coherent and absent partly in >10 national linked to CEFR full
explicit school hours standardised

iL all coherent and absent outside 5–10 school-based school norms full
explicit school hours

teaching
teacher Pre-service teacher in-service teacher Language level
qualifications training training required Mobility

NL support language teachers subject-specific general national or school- N/A

based norms

fL language teachers subject-specific general national or regionwide informal financial

standards support

iL language teachers subject-specific general N/A N/A

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 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Languages offered in secondary education

fL (languages in italics offered in upper English is compulsory. Ancient Greek, Chinese,

secondary only) french, German, Italian, Japanese, Latin, Russian,
Spanish are optional

iL Arabic and Turkish

Good knowledge of the national language is expected in upper secondary education in Denmark.
The assessment of language skills is part of the admission procedure to the secondary level.
Danish and English are the only compulsory languages, whereas Ancient Greek, Arabic, Chinese,
German, French, Italian, Japanese, Latin, Russian, Spanish and Turkish have been optional since
the latest reform in 2005. The reform has lead to a dramatic decrease in the number of students
that learn multiple foreign languages. The number of students who are taught three foreign
languages dropped from 41% to 3% and in spite of minor adjustments of the reform, the picture
has not changed significantly.

Languages in further and higher education

further education (in three VEt institutions) (No provision of r/M languages and
immigrant languages)
range of language state funding
programmes Curriculum Level to be achieved available

fL institution A

institution B no specifications no guidelines none full

institution C

higher education (in three universities)

target groups Level to be
for additional achieved in recruitment
support in the foreign of non- Mobility for Mobility for
Language(s) Languages on national language national language non-language
of instruction website language instruction students students students

university A national and national and all none only optional optional
foreign foreign international

university B national and national and all none only optional optional
foreign foreign international

university C national, foreign national and restricted none only optional optional
and R/ML foreign international

Danish universities comply with the Anglo-Saxon education system (Bachelor-Master) following
the process to create a European Higher Education Area (Bologna process). As a result of these
changes as well as an increased focus on internationalisation in general and to attract
international students, Danish universities offer more than 25% of their courses in English. Also
academy profession schools (90–150 ECTS) and professional bachelor’s schools (180–240 ECTS)
offer quite a number of programmes in English.
Since 2005 the number of students entering programmes in foreign languages other than English
has been falling steadily, which has led to the closing of several language programmes. Spanish,
German and French are still taught in many places whereas Italian and Russian have almost no
students. A small increase has been noticed for Japanese and Chinese. Some universities offer
Turkish and Arabic.

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Languages in audiovisual media and press

Non-national language Non-national language r/ML programmes Availability of sign

tV productions films in cinema outside of region language on tV

subtitled subtitled always regularly in Copenhagen

never in Aarhus and
Aabenraa

Denmark has six national television channels, three of which (DR1, DR2, TV2) are paid via a
general license fee. In addition, several local television channels broadcast every day. According
to a law of December 2002, programmes on public radio and television must ensure public
access to information and important social debates. They must also draw on Danish language
and culture.
Sign language is regularly offered at important media events and there is a special sign language
channel.

Languages in public services and spaces

institutionalised language strategies at city level
Language recruitment of Language record of
Website use of competencies in speakers of training offered language skills
N languages presence interpreters job descriptions languages to employees of employees

>4 Copenhagen Copenhagen Copenhagen

Aabenraa

3–4

1–2 Aabenraa Aabenraa Aabenraa Aabenraa

Communication facilities
top five oral communication facilities top five written communication facilities

Emergency Immigration and integration

Immigration and integration Legal
Tourism Tourism
Health Health
= Social Social
= Legal

The Nordic Language Convention states that speakers of the Nordic languages have the right to
address public institutions in any of the Nordic countries in their own language.

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Languages in business (out of 12 companies)

GENErAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs

mobility provision
language skills in

Awareness of Eu
use of networks
staff records of
use of external

language skills

programmes/

programmes/
Availability of

international

for language
Emphasis on

interpreters
recruitment

translators/

use of Eu
language
strategy

training

funding

funding
Widely practised 4 7 1 5 0 0 0 0

iNtErNAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs EXtErNAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs

documents/intranet
reward/promotion

Language used for

Language used for

Language used for

Language used for

Language used for

schemes based on

Language training

Language used for

Partnerships with

branding/identity
education sector

annual/business
language skills

software, web
programmes
use of CEfr

marketing
workplace
provision

website
reports
NL widely 1 0 3 0 11 11 10 12 12 11
practised

Business widely 0 0 2 0 3 6 4 3 5 6
English practised

Additional widely 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2
languages practised

Danish businesses are mainly composed of small, and medium-sized companies – 92% have
fewer than ten employees and less than 2% have more than 50 employees. 68% of the jobs are
in private companies.
According to a survey by Danish Industry in 2007, more than 25% of the large businesses use
English as the corporate language. The use of other languages and of translation services is
decreasing. Danish Industry has expressed severe concerns about the falling numbers of
language students and has suggested combined competences, such as the combination of
engineering skills and language skills as one of the solutions.

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Key findings overall Promising initiatives and pilots

For the last 150 years Denmark has been a mainly monolingual Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL):
country with Danish as the main language, and a country where At Købmagergade skole in Fredericia experiments with
citizens had a fairly good command of German and French and, internationalisation and Content and Language Integrated
since 1945, English. Furthermore, Danes have had easy access Learning (CLIL) have been taking place since 2001. In 2005 an
to the whole of Scandinavia due to Danish, Norwegian and international stream was established for the lower secondary
Swedish being mutually understandable. level where sciences such as biology and mathematics are
taught in English by native English teachers.
During the last ten years, English has gained a much stronger
position at the cost of German and French. The parallel Danish/ Centre for Internationalisation and Parallel Language Use (CIP):
English language strategy of the Danish government has The Centre for Internationalisation and Parallel Language Use
strongly supported this development. Language skills in foreign (CIP) was established in 2008 at the University of Copenhagen in
languages including the Scandinavian languages are decreasing, order to augment the University’s efforts to implement a
and the command of immigrant languages such as Arabic and language policy based on the principles of parallel language use.
Turkish has not been promoted as an asset. As a consequence,
there is a falling interest in foreign languages other than English Nordic Language Coordination:
in universities, companies and schools. The recent Nordic Language Coordination was established in 2009 under
recommendations to introduce English at the beginning of the auspices of the Nordic Council of Ministers in order to
primary school will probably further accelerate this enhance the mutual understanding between speakers of the
development. If Denmark wants to live up to the language mainland Scandinavian languages: Danish, Swedish and
policies of the EU and the Council of Europe, this development Norwegian.
may become a serious challenge.
Tegn på sprog (Sign language):
Tegn på sprog is a research and development project
established in 2008 for a period of six years by the Ministries
of Education and Integration in broad co-operation with
universities, university colleges and schools. The aim of the
project is to gain insights into how children with Danish as their
second language approach written Danish, and to develop new
teaching strategies.

References
Sprog til Tiden (Language in time). Report by the language policy
group of the Danish government (2008).

Sprog er nøglen til verden (Language is the key to the world).

Report by a working group under the ministry of research,
innovation and higher education (2011).

Nordic Convention of Languages (1987).

[Link]

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5 eSTonia
Kersti Sõstar

Country context Languages in official

To understand the current language situation in Estonian society, documents and databases
we should take a look at history. Before the First World War,
Estonia was part of the Russian empire for two centuries.
The national language, foreign languages, and immigrant
However, the official language of state authorities was German
languages are dealt with in language legislation and/or
until 1880 when Russian took over. The Estonian language
language policy documents. The learning and teaching of
achieved the status of official language during the first period of
the national language abroad for children and/or adults
independence of the Republic of Estonia (1918–1940) on the
originating from Estonia is (co-)funded in belgium and
basis of the first Constitution of Estonia of 1920. During the
Luxembourg. The European Charter for Regional or
Soviet period (1945–1985), Estonian continued to be developed,
Minority Languages has not been signed and ratified by
but to a lesser extent than previously. At the time, centralised
Estonia. The new national Law on Languages (2011),
management across the Soviet Union in Russian prevailed in
however, considers it important to protect all Estonian
various sectors of the economy. The Russian language also
R/M languages.
spread to other areas of life. Non Estonian-speaking Soviet
citizens who had moved to Estonia were employed in the Official nationwide data collection mechanisms on
public sector, but knowledge of Estonian was not required of language diversity in Estonia exist in terms of periodically
them until 1989. Since then, more attention has been paid to updated census data. In these data collection
creating opportunities to learn Estonian for all residents of the mechanisms, national, R/M and immigrant language
country, as well as for learning foreign languages. The language varieties are addressed, based on a mother tongue
policy also aims to support the right of national minorities to question plus a language proficiency question in terms of
maintain their cultures. how well the language can be spoken/understood/read/
written.

In addition to the Language Act, language use is also governed

by the Constitution, the Citizenship Act and several other acts of
law pertaining to the sphere of education in the Republic of
Estonia. The Language Act focuses on the conditions of using
varieties of Estonian, foreign languages, minority languages and
Estonian Sign Language, plus the language use of people with
special needs. Language development strategies have a
significant role. The Estonian Language Council set up by the
Minister of Education prepared the first strategy for the
development of Estonian for the period 2004–2010; the Estonian
Language Development Plan has been prepared for the period
2011–2017. Both documents also address issues related to
multilingualism and foreign languages to a certain extent. Issues
related to foreign languages are dealt with in the Estonian
Foreign Language Strategy 2009–2015 ([Link]/index.
php?03247 Eesti võõrkeelte strateegia 2009–2015).

According to the Ministry of Education and Research, in the near

future the ratification of the European Charter of Regional or
Minority Languages is not planned, but Estonia fulfils the criteria
of the ECRML.

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LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

NL=National Language(s)
fL=foreign Languages
r/ML=regional or Minority Languages
iL=immigrant Languages

Languages in pre-primary education

(No provision of R/M languages, immigrant languages and additional national language support)

Minimum Pre-service in-service

group size teacher teacher state funding
target groups duration requirements days per week training training available

fL no support <1 year none <0.5 day general general none

Languages offered in pre-primary education

fL English, German, french, Russian

In nursery schools the language of instruction is mostly Estonian but another language may
be used subject to the decision of the local government. Teaching is based on the national
curriculum for pre-school childcare institutions. To non Estonian-speaking children, Estonian
is taught from the age of three, with the state supporting language training through local
governments. Many of the nursery schools in which Estonian is taught have participated in
the language immersion programme since 2003. Nursery school teachers affiliated with the
programme have been specially trained. Studying Estonian as a mother tongue involves
learning pronunciation, sentence structure, reading and writing, and arousing children’s
interest in literature.
At the request of parents, as well as on the initiative and with the support of foreign states’
language and cultural representations, foreign languages are increasingly being taught in
pre-school childcare institutions. However, there is no statistical data available on foreign
language learning in nursery schools.

Languages in primary education (No provision of R/M languages and immigrant languages)
organisation
Extra support for diagnostic testing on Monitoring of language
Curriculum newcomers entry skills

NL support coherent and explicit before mainstream absent school-based

start of Minimum Monitoring of

target language group size language Level to be state funding
groups Curriculum CLiL education scheduling requirements skills achieved available

fL all coherent absent from mid-phase in school none school-based linked to full
and explicit hours CEFR

teaching
Pre-service teacher in-service teacher
teacher qualifications training training Mobility

NL support language teachers subject-specific subject-specific N/A

fL language teachers subject-specific subject-specific informal financial support

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Languages offered in primary education

fL Either English, German, french or Russian: one

language is compulsory, the rest optional

Teaching the mother tongue (Estonian language and literature or Russian language and literature)
is compulsory in the first stage of primary school (as well as in all subsequent stages of
schooling). Foreign languages have been taught in general education schools starting from grade
three since the 1991/1992 academic year, with children (or parents) being able to freely choose
the language to be studied (English, Russian, German or French). In schools with a language of
instruction other than Estonian, the national language is taught from grade one. In addition to
Estonian, foreign languages are taught in accordance with the schools’ curricula. The first
Estonian-language study programme for schools with another language of instruction was
adopted in 1997. To support learning Estonian, many of those schools have joined the early
language immersion programme. The 2002 curriculum introduced the opportunity to start
learning foreign languages from grade one and the obligation to start learning them from
grade three.

Languages in secondary education (No provision of R/M languages)

organisation
Extra support for diagnostic testing on Monitoring of language
Curriculum newcomers entry skills

NL support coherent and explicit before mainstream absent national standardised

Minimum Monitoring
target group size of language Level to be state funding
groups Curriculum CLiL scheduling requirements skills achieved available

fL all coherent and absent in school none national linked to CEFR full
explicit hours standardised

iL native no guidelines absent outside school >10 absent national or none

speakers only hours regional norms

teaching
teacher Pre-service teacher in-service teacher Language level
qualifications training training required Mobility

NL support general teachers subject-specific subject-specific linked to CEFR N/A

fL general teachers subject-specific subject-specific linked to CEFR none

iL general teachers general general N/A N/A

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Languages offered in secondary education

fL English, German, french, Russian, other languages:

two of these languages are compulsory

iL Chinese, finnish, Swedish

In 1996 the first national general education curriculum was adopted in which the contents of
studies were set out by school stage. Based on the national curriculum, schools prepared their
subject syllabi, including for mother tongue and literature (Estonian and Russian) and for foreign
languages. Foreign language A, the first foreign language, was taught from grade three and
foreign language B from grade six. The third foreign language, foreign language C, was added as
an elective subject in grade ten. In recent years, nearly half of all secondary school pupils have
chosen English as their first foreign language, followed by Russian as the second and German as
the third. In the academic year 2010/2011, German was studied by 8.9% and French by just
1.9% of all pupils. Of elective subjects, German is the most common choice. In addition to these
languages, several schools offer the opportunity to learn other languages such as Hebrew,
Chinese (Mandarin), Spanish, Italian, Japanese, Latin, Swedish or Finnish as a third foreign
language.
To support the learning of Estonian as the second language from grade six, many schools have
joined the late language immersion programme. In 2007 the transition to partially Estonian-
language instruction began in schools with other languages of instruction; in the academic year
2011/2012, 60% of the minimum number of compulsory courses were taught in Estonian. Revised
national curricula for primary and secondary schools have been implemented from 2011/2012.
Learning outcomes for Estonian as a second language and for foreign languages are assessed in
accordance with the Council of Europe system of uniform language proficiency levels (CEFR).

Languages in further and higher education

further education (in three VEt institutions) (No provision of r/M languages and immigrant languages)
range of language
programmes Curriculum Level to be achieved state funding available

fL institution A

institution B wide variety coherent and explicit national full

institution C limited coherent and explicit national full

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higher education (in three universities)

target groups Level to be
for additional achieved in recruitment
support in the foreign of non- Mobility for Mobility for
Language(s) Languages on national language national language non-language
of instruction website language instruction students students students

university A national and national, foreign restricted linked to CEFR international optional optional
foreign and R/ML and immigrant

university B national and national and restricted linked to CEFR only optional optional
foreign foreign international

university C national, foreign national and all linked to CEFR international optional optional
and R/ML foreign and immigrant

Estonian is the language of instruction in vocational schools; the use of any other language as the
language of instruction is decided by the Minister of Education and Research. Vocational schools
provide education in accordance with the curricula of schools and the national curricula for
vocational subjects. Teaching Estonian is compulsory in vocational schools for Russian medium
classes and is based on the level achieved at the end of basic education (that is, ISCED II or the
Estonian ninth form). Foreign languages are taught as two different strands under two curricula:
foreign languages and specialist foreign languages. While in the case of some technical
disciplines there is virtually no foreign language training, for a number of service disciplines the
foreign languages taught in vocational schools include English, French, German, Russian, Italian,
Swedish and Finnish.
The Estonian Qualifications Authority co-ordinates the development of professional standards,
which specify the required level of proficiency in Estonian and in foreign languages for pursuing
the profession in question. Requirements for civil servants, employees and entrepreneurs in terms
of knowledge of Estonian have been established in a government regulation. Following an
amendment introduced to the Language Act (2008), mandatory levels of language proficiency
were introduced in alignment with the Council of Europe’s Common European Framework of
Reference; Estonian language proficiency state exams are conducted for the A2, B1, B2 and
C1 levels.
According to the Universities Act, Estonian is the language of instruction at universities; the use of
other languages is decided by the council of the university. On the one hand, the aim is to provide
Estonian language higher education that ensures a high level of proficiency in Estonian; on the
other hand, in particular at higher-study levels, the proportion of English-language instruction is
growing in connection with internationalisation. Russian is also used as a language of instruction
in institutions of higher education.
Students in Bachelor’s or diploma studies mostly take English as a general subject, followed by
Russian, Estonian as a second or foreign language, German, and, to a lesser extent, French. The
opportunities to learn other foreign languages have expanded significantly through university
language centres: it is possible to study Italian, Spanish, Finnish, Swedish, Turkish and other
languages. Foreign languages are taught to foreign philologists as a specialism and to all other
students as a general and specialist language. Although foreign languages can mostly be taken as
optional subjects under curricula, the learning outcomes of higher education levels stipulated in
the Higher Education Standard also provide for the foreign language proficiency level. This acts as
an incentive to learn foreign languages. Good foreign language skills among teachers and
students serve as a basis for pursuing the goals of the Higher Education Internationalisation
Strategy.

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Languages in audiovisual media and press

Non-national language Non-national language r/ML programmes Availability of sign

tV productions films in cinema outside of region language on tV

subtitled in Tallinn and subtitled in Tallinn and always in Tallinn and always
Tartu Tartu Tartu
dubbed in Narva dubbed in Narva regularly in Narva

The common practice of subtitling television programmes and films means that from an early age
people are exposed to languages other than Estonian. However, the large majority of foreign
programmes offered on Estonian television are in English. Viewers are mainly exposed to the
English language, and to a lesser extent to Russian, German and Spanish. Children’s programmes,
cartoons in particular, are often dubbed.
The range of languages other than Estonian offered in national television programmes is limited.
An effort has been made by Estonian National Broadcasting to offer news and cultural
programmes in Russian. On the other hand, satellite television and the internet provide access to
programmes from all over the world and they are viewed intensively. However, those types of
television providers have not been included in this study.
A limited choice of foreign language newspapers, dominated by Russian, is available in the three
cities surveyed. Tourism and the presence of a large Russian community explain the linguistic
offer regarding newspapers.

Languages in public services and spaces

institutionalised language strategies at city level
Language recruitment of Language record of
Website use of competencies in speakers of training offered language skills
N languages presence interpreters job descriptions languages to employees of employees

>4 Tallinn

3–4 Tartu Tallinn Tallinn Narva

Tartu

1–2 Narva Narva Tartu Tallinn Tallinn

Narva Tartu Tartu
Narva Narva

Communication facilities
top five oral communication facilities top five written communication facilities

Tourism Tourism
Education Education
Emergency Emergency
= Health = Health
= Social = Social
= Legal = Legal
= Transport = Transport
= Immigration and integration = Immigration and integration

The Language Act of the Estonian Republic, adopted in 1995, defines the domains in which the
use of Estonian is obligatory. It also sets out the conditions and extent of the use of the languages
of national minorities in state agencies and local governments. In areas where at least half of the
population belongs to a national minority group, residents have the right to receive information in
that minority language (in addition to Estonian) from the local government and from state
agencies based in that area. This is the case in two out of the three cities surveyed. The services
in these cities are offered in several languages with Russian, English and Finnish prevailing. City
websites have language versions besides the national language also in English and Russian. In
addition, basic city information and tourist information is offered in Finnish, Swedish and German.

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Languages in business (out of 24 companies)

GENErAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs

mobility provision
language skills in

Awareness of Eu
use of networks
staff records of
use of external

language skills

programmes/

programmes/
Availability of

international

for language
Emphasis on

interpreters
recruitment

translators/

use of Eu
language
strategy

training

funding

funding
Widely practised 5 15 7 6 0 6 0 0

iNtErNAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs EXtErNAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs

documents/intranet
reward/promotion

Language used for

Language used for

Language used for

Language used for

Language used for

schemes based on

Language training

Language used for

Partnerships with

branding/identity
education sector

annual/business
language skills

software, web
programmes
use of CEfr

marketing
workplace
provision

website
reports
NL widely 4 1 7 1 24 21 24 24 23 19
practised

Business widely 2 0 8 0 9 13 9 12 9 14
English practised

Additional widely 3 1 7 0 3 4 4 8 5 15
languages practised

Historically international relations and trade have always been and still are very important for the
Estonian economy, and general language practices are much stronger than companies’ written
communication strategies. Linguistic competencies are generally considered as an important
requirement for employees. It is a common standard that for many jobs the knowledge of Russian
and one additional foreign language, English or German, is a prerequisite.
The importance of multilingualism in Estonia is not reflected in Estonia’s profile of languages in
business. Not all four company types investigated (banks, hotels, supermarkets, and construction
companies) are necessarily company types that focus on international business. Small local shops
and construction businesses solely target local communities.

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Key findings overall Promising initiatives and pilots

Estonia has addressed language issues over time and has done The objectives of promoting the learning and spread of Estonian
its best to preserve and develop Estonian; to enhance the as a mother tongue and second language set out in the Estonian
language skills of the entire population; and to promote the use Language Development Plan should be pursued. The transition
of various languages. In analysing its language education policy, to Estonian language instruction in schools with languages
Estonia was assisted by the Language Policy Division of the of instruction other than Estonian which began in 2007 has
Council of Europe. The analysis was completed in 2011. required and will require a lot of resources. The transition has
Strategies for Estonian and foreign languages developed over been more successful in schools that joined the language
the past decade set further goals. The process of developing immersion programme. In addition, the methodology for
strategies has played an important role, bringing together integrated subject and language teaching should become
specialists from different spheres, which in turn has improved more widespread.
language-related co-operation. Joint efforts have contributed
to strengthening the position of Estonian at all education levels. Although foreign languages are mentioned in Estonian language
Although all of the strategic objectives are worthwhile, their development plans, and development plans concerning foreign
implementation depends on the availability of resources. languages refer to connections with the mother tongue, the
This is felt particularly in the implementation of the Foreign objectives concerning mother tongue and foreign languages are
Language Strategy
Strategy. often separated in the development plans of the language
sphere. Estonia should take guidance from the Common
In conclusion, Estonia has created good conditions for teaching European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning,
Estonian as a mother tongue and as the state language. Among Teaching and Assessment, both as regards the principles set out
other languages, Russian and English prevail, while other in the document and the language proficiency levels defined by
languages are learnt and used much less frequently. Educational the Council of Europe. This document was translated into
institutions are seeking to introduce more diverse opportunities Estonian in 2006 at the request of the Ministry of Education and
for learning a third foreign language in their curricula. The Research. The Estonian Foreign Language Strategy aims to
development of multilingualism is supported and encouraged promote the continuity of the policy of learning and teaching
with the help of various projects for the teaching of, for example, foreign languages, as well as the continuity of the principles
French, German, Swedish and Finnish. Yet Estonia is still quite a of funding the recognition and assessment of language skills.
long way from true multilingualism. Of the many strategic objectives, those prioritised should be
distinguished.

While the assessment of adult proficiency in Estonian as a

second language is based on the Council of Europe’s language
proficiency levels, the development of self-assessment tools
(such as the Language Portfolio) and national tests should
continue and international certificates of proficiency should be
accepted according to these language proficiency levels.
Implementation of the National Curriculum (2011) based on the
Council of Europe’s language proficiency levels is a challenge f
or the education system. An understanding of the language
proficiency levels should be disseminated and harmonised in
vocational and adult education, as well as among employers.

References
Estonian Language Development Plan 2011–2017
[Link]/[Link]?03238

Language Education Policy Profile: Estonia

[Link]/[Link]?044904

Language Education Policy Profile: Estonia

[Link]/[Link]?044904

Estonian Foreign Language Strategy 2009–2015

[Link]/[Link]?03238

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6 France
Louis-Jean Calvet

Country context Languages in official

Before describing the French national context, it is important to documents and databases
stress the fact that the questionnaire that was used is based on
the assumption that European situations are comparable. There
The national language, foreign languages, R/M languages
is, therefore, a risk that certain national specificities are
and immigrant languages are dealt with in language
overlooked. It is, of course, legitimate to take stock of the
legislation and/or language policy documents. The
application of European directives on linguistic matters, and the
learning and teaching of the national language abroad for
results of the survey constitute an invaluable database of the
children and/or adults originating from france is (co-)
countries in question. It would be interesting to make this data
funded in approximately 130 countries in Europe and
available to the general public in the form of an ‘on-request’
beyond. The European Charter for Regional or Minority
index based on the OECD’s Better Life Index, for example.
Languages has been signed by government but not
France (Metropolitan France and overseas territories) is a ratified by parliament in france. At the national level, a
country where a large number of languages are spoken, be they range of R/M languages and immigrant languages are
indigenous or a consequence of migration. As part of its work recognised, protected and/or promoted in official
on the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, country documents, including nation- or regionwide
the Ministry for National Education, Research and Technology education. The languages referred to are basque, breton,
and the Ministry of Culture and Communication commissioned Catalan, Corsican, Alsacien, Mosellan, Western flemish,
the linguist Bernard Cerquiglini to produce a report on the franco-Provencal, Langues d’Oil (‘Languages of the
Languages of France which was presented to the authorities in North’ – franc-Comtois, Wallon, Champenois, Picard,
April 1999. It listed 75 ‘languages spoken in the country other Normand, Gallo, Poitevin-Saintongeais, Lorrain,
than the official language’. These are languages ‘spoken by bourguignon-Morvandiau), Occitan or Langue d’Oc
French nationals’ and the many languages spoken by immigrants (‘Languages of the South’ – Gascon, Languedocien,
should therefore be added to this list. On this point it should be Provençal, Auvergnat, Limousin, vivaro-Alpin), Parlers
highlighted that, for ethical reasons, in France there is no Liguriens (from the valley of Royain in the Alpes-
monitoring of ethnic or national minorities. Maritimes and bonifacio in Corsica), plus the 41
languages from overseas territories included in the
However, with regards to the transmission of immigrant Langues de France official list, and the non-territorial
languages and regional languages, the 1999 census provides languages spoken by immigrant populations: dialectical
interesting data. It shows that 26% of French people were raised Arabic, Western Armenian, berber, Jewish, Spanish and
by parents who spoke a language other than French at home. Romani. both R/M languages and immigrant languages
The respondents cite 6,700 ‘names of languages’ corresponding are referred to as Langues de France, that is languages
to around 400 languages identified and catalogued by of, rather than languages in, france. Such reference
Ethnologue with a ISO 639-3 code. As for the rate of shows a remarkable inclusive perspective on minority
transmission of immigrant languages, it is 86% for Turkish, 25% languages that is rarely found across European countries.
for Polish and, for regional languages, 45% for Alsatian and 10%
for Breton. This means that some immigrant languages are Official nationwide data collection mechanisms on
transmitted more than regional languages and that the more language diversity in france exist in terms of periodically
recent the migration, the higher the rate of transmission. As for updated survey data. In these data collection mechanisms,
regional languages, their transmission rate is constantly falling. national, R/M and immigrant language varieties are
addressed, based on a home language question plus a
Finally, French, the official language of over thirty countries in language proficiency question in terms of whether this
which it is the second language and has a wide range of forms, language can be spoken/understood/read/written.
is also taught as a foreign language to immigrant groups in
France.
Article 2 of the French Constitution (amended on 25 June 1992)
stipulates that ‘the language of the French Republic is French’ and
Article 75-1 (amended on 23 July 2008) states that ‘regional
languages are the national heritage’ (it should be noted that these
languages are not listed in the Constitution). Moreover, these
regional languages are taught at secondary level and there are
regular competitive exams to recruit teachers (CAPES). Article 1 of
the law on ‘the use of the French language’ (4 August 1994), the
so-called Toubon LawLaw, specifies that French is ‘the language of
teaching, working and discussion in public services’. Other articles
of this law will be cited below under the relevant headings.

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LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

NL=National Language(s)
fL=foreign Languages
r/ML=regional or Minority Languages
iL=immigrant Languages

Languages in pre-primary education (no provision)

Regarding this heading and the three subsequent headings (primary, secondary and higher
education), Article 11 of the Law on ‘the use of the French language’ stipulates that:

The language of teaching, examinations and competitive examinations as well as theses

and dissertations in state and private institutions is French, notwithstanding exceptions that
are justified by the requirements of teaching regional or foreign languages and cultures or
where teachers are foreign associate or guest teachers. Foreign schools or those that are
set up especially to host pupils of a foreign nationality as well as schools teaching lessons
of an international nature are not subject to this requirement.

Languages in primary education

organisation
Extra support for diagnostic testing on Monitoring of language
Curriculum newcomers entry skills

NL support coherent and explicit before mainstream absent national standardised

start of Minimum Monitoring of

target language group size language Level to be state funding
groups Curriculum CLiL education scheduling requirements skills achieved available

r/ML all coherent and localised from in school none school-based national or full
explicit mid-phase hours regional
norms

fL all coherent and localised from in school none school-based linked to full
explicit mid-phase hours CEFR

iL all general absent end-phase outside none school-based not specified partial
only school
hours

teaching
teacher qualifications Pre-service teacher training in-service teacher training Mobility

NL support language teachers subject-specific subject-specific N/A

r/ML general teachers subject-specific subject-specific N/A

fL general teachers subject-specific subject-specific none

iL general teachers none general N/A

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Languages offered in primary education

r/ML basque, breton, Catalan, Corsican, Occitan in

Continental france, Tahitian, Melanesian languages
(Ajïé, Drehu, Nengone, Paici) in france Overseas

fL Compulsory: one language from English, German and,

less commonly, other languages such as Arabic,
Chinese, Italian, Portuguese, Russian and Spanish

iL Arabic, Croatian, Italian, Portuguese, Serbian,

Spanish, Turkish

Primary education is in French. In parallel, education in languages and culture of origin (ELCO)
is offered for a number of immigrant languages such as Arabic or Turkish, aimed at children of
migrants and organised in the school setting by the country of origin. With regards to Arabic,
it is the standard form that is taught rather than the linguistic forms actually spoken in families.
Primary pupils (99.9% of pupils in cycle 3) are also taught a foreign language, usually English.
They are also sometimes taught a regional language (49,800 pupils).
There are also secular and free charity-run schools (for example, Diwan for Breton, Calendreta
for Occitan, Bressola for Catalan) in which teaching is in the regional language.

Languages in secondary education

organisation
Extra support for
Curriculum newcomers diagnostic testing on entry Monitoring of language skills

NL support coherent and explicit before mainstream all national standardised

Minimum Monitoring of state

target group size language Level to be funding
groups Curriculum CLiL scheduling requirements skills achieved available

r/ML all coherent and localised in school none school-based national or full
explicit hours regional norms

fL all coherent and widespread in school none school-based linked to CEFR full
explicit hours

iL all general widespread partly in none school-based no norms partial

school hours

teaching
teacher Pre-service teacher in-service teacher Language level
qualifications training training required Mobility

NL support language teachers subject-specific subject-specific N/A N/A

r/ML language teachers subject-specific subject-specific linked to CEFR N/A

fL language teachers subject-specific subject-specific linked to CEFR none

iL general teachers none subject-specific N/A N/A

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Languages offered in secondary education

r/ML basque, breton, Catalan, Corsican, Creole, Occitan,

Alsacian/German, Mosellan; Tahitian, Melanesian
languages (Ajïé, Drehu, Nengone, Paici) in france
Overseas

fL 2 languages from 19 are compulsory: English,

Spanish, German, Arabic, Chinese, Italian, Portuguese,
Russian, Danish, Dutch, Greek, Hebrew, Japanese,
Norwegian, Polish, Swedish, Turkish, Ancient Greek
and Latin. Other languages, such as regional ones,
are optional

iL Arabic, Croatian, Italian, Portuguese, Serbian, Spanish

and Turkish

Under the compulsory foreign language syllabus, pupils can choose between more languages
than in most other European countries. These are divided into two types according to two
political approaches: the languages of EU Member States on the one hand, and languages that
are in keeping with France’s foreign policy choices (Arabic, Chinese, Japanese). Pupils (or parents)
tend to favour English, followed by Spanish and German. It should be noted that Russian has fallen
out of favour in parallel with the fall of the Berlin Wall and that Arabic is mainly chosen by pupils of
immigrant origin.
Eleven regional languages should be added to the taught foreign languages cited in the France
country profile: Basque, Breton, Catalan, Corsican, Creole, Gallo, Melanesian languages, and the
regional languages of Alsace, regional languages of the Moselle, Occitan, and Tahitian.
Moreover, pupils may take a paper at the baccalauréat in a regional or foreign language of their
choice. Altogether, 57 languages were assessed orally or in writing in the 2011 baccalauréat exam.

Languages in further and higher education

further education (in three VEt institutions) (No provision of immigrant languages)
range of language state funding
programmes Curriculum Level to be achieved available

r/ML institution A

institution B

institution C limited general N/A full

fL institution A wide variety general national partial

institution B wide variety general linked to CEFR none

institution C wide variety coherent and explicit national full

higher education (in three universities)

target groups Level to be
for additional achieved in recruitment
support in the foreign of non- Mobility for Mobility for
Language(s) Languages on national language national language non-language
of instruction website language instruction students students students

university A national and national and restricted national or only obligatory obligatory
foreign foreign institution-based international

university B national only national and restricted linked to CEFR only optional optional
foreign international

university C national only national only restricted linked to CEFR only optional optional
international

As stipulated by law (see above) French is the language of higher education. However, many
languages are taught at universities (thirty, for example, at the University of Aix-Marseille), and
a specialised higher education institute such as the Institut National des Langues et Civilisations
Orientales (INALCO) teaches 93 different languages.

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Languages in audiovisual media and press

Non-national language Non-national language r/ML programmes Availability of sign

tV productions films in cinema outside of region language on tV

dubbed subtitled never regularly

On the national media (radio and television) there are local programmes in regional languages.
The survey did not address access to foreign languages on television and it should be specified
here that the various cable or satellite packages make it possible to access channels in a great
number of the world’s languages. As for the press, there are few publications in regional
languages but a great number of foreign publications. The combined effect of tourism and
immigration ensure that non-indigenous multilingualism maintains an important position in France.
An extensive range of foreign language print media is available all year round in Paris, Marseille,
and in the tourist season in Corte, with 13 languages in Marseille and 15 in Paris, totalling nearly
80 foreign language publications for these two cities.

Languages in public services and spaces

institutionalised language strategies at city level
Language recruitment of Language record of
Website use of competencies in speakers of training offered language skills
N languages presence interpreters job descriptions languages to employees of employees

>4 Marseille Marseille Paris

3–4 Paris Marseille

1–2 Paris Marseille Marseille

Communication facilities
top five oral communication facilities top five written communication facilities

Tourism Tourism
Transport Transport
Legal Legal
Theatre = Education
Health = Health
= Immigration and integration
= Theatre

Public services operate in French. The law on ‘the use of the French language’ stipulates in
particular that, whether governed by public or private law, when carrying out a public service
duty, individuals must use the French language (Article 5).
In the public sphere, regional languages appear on street signs in some towns and on road signs
of some highways next to French. The situation varies substantially from one region to another:
Corsican is prevalent in Corsica; Breton and Occitan less so in their respective regions. This
should be understood in the context of our introduction on the low transmission rate of these
languages.

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Languages in business (out of 24 companies)

GENErAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs

mobility provision
language skills in

Awareness of Eu
use of networks
staff records of
use of external

language skills

programmes/

programmes/
Availability of

international

for language
Emphasis on

interpreters
recruitment

translators/

use of Eu
language
strategy

training

funding

funding
Widely practised 7 11 5 7 0 3 0 0

iNtErNAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs EXtErNAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs

documents/intranet
reward/promotion

Language used for

Language used for

Language used for

Language used for

Language used for

schemes based on

Language training

Language used for

Partnerships with

branding/identity
education sector

annual/business
language skills

software, web
programmes
use of CEfr

marketing
workplace
provision

website
reports
NL widely 3 1 4 1 23 21 23 23 23 22
practised

Business widely 4 2 12 3 12 11 7 11 12 12
English practised

Additional widely 2 1 5 1 1 0 1 0 2 1
languages practised

Regarding the use of languages in companies, the most prevalent languages (English, Spanish,
German, Dutch, Italian, Portuguese) are European languages which, taking into account the
various factors, carry the most weight relatively speaking.
With regard to work contracts, French law highlights the precedence of French and, at the same
time, protects foreign employees. Article 8 of the law on ‘the use of the French language’
specifies that
when a position that is under contract can only be designated by a foreign term without a
French equivalent, the contract must include an explanation in French of the foreign term.
When the employee is of foreign nationality and the contract is in writing, a translation of
the contract is drafted, at the request of the employee, in their own language. Both texts
are legally binding. In the event of discrepancies between the two texts, only the text
drafted in the language of the foreign employee can be held against them.

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Key findings overall Promising initiatives and pilots

It is important to underline that the classification which At the international level, the Organisation Internationale de la
distinguishes between ‘immigrant languages’ and ‘foreign Francophonie organised a global forum on the French language
languages’ can be flawed by the reality and complexity of real- in Quebec in 2012. At the national level, the French authorities
life situations. For example, languages like Italian, Spanish or organised a convention on multilingualism in overseas territories
Portuguese can be taught in secondary education as ‘foreign’ in December 2011, and the Strategic Advisory Council on
languages and at the same time be the first language of part of Languages published a report in January 2012 entitled To learn
the immigrant population. The survey shows that the linguistic a language is to learn about the world. Universities, city councils
policy of France in the area of education is both open and training centres in France make significant efforts to provide
linguistically (many languages are offered) but equally reflects teaching of French as a foreign language with the double
the linguistic aspects of globalisation (English widely dominates objective of integrating immigrants and disseminating the French
compared to German and Spanish). It should be noted, however, language externally. At the beginning of the 2012/3 academic
that the situation in Corte gives the impression that the presence year, the University of Strasbourg is putting in place, a project
of a regional language seems to slow down the trend towards looking at mutual understanding of related languages. Finally,
multillingualism. the city of Marseille will be the European Capital of Culture in
2013, which should support its effort to become more
multilingual.

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7 gerMany
Ingrid Gogolin, Joana Duarte, Patrick Grommes

high-quality training. One of the central pillars of these initiatives

Country context is how to deal appropriately with linguistic and cultural diversity
Germany is a federal and highly decentralised state, especially in in elementary education. (see, for example, www.
the fields of educational, cultural and social welfare policies. The [Link]; [Link]/sprachfoerderung).
field of education in particular is the responsibility of the
individual Länder (Federal States) and so it is not possible to In 14 out of 16 German Länder
Länder, children with ‘identified deficits’
provide generalised information for Germany as a whole. This in German are entitled to receive special support before
report concentrates, therefore, on three Länder only. Because entering primary school. The vast majority of the respective
even in the Länder
Länder, for many questions of the LRE questionnaire tests neither consider bi- or multilingualism as a relevant
no reliable generalisation is possible, we prefer to present our influential factor for language development, nor do they take
report without quantified data. languages other than German into account. Some tests,
however, include the aspect of multilingualism and allow for
In the following sections, we present illustrations for the different bilingual testing in a number of immigrant languages. An
domains approached by the LRE project. These illustrations are example is HAVAS 5 Katze und Vogel, a test for the age group
supported by answers to the LRE questionnaire. For domains 1 to five to six, which was developed for German and roughly ten
4 (Languages in official documents and databases, pre-primary, immigrant languages (Autorengruppe Bildungsberichterstattung,
primary and secondary education), we sent the questionnaire to 2012; Reich, Roth, & Neumann, 2007).
experts in the respective ministries in Hamburg, North Rhine-
Westphalia, Saxony and Bavaria. For domain 5 (Languages in Pre-primary education in the Sorbian language takes place in
further and higher education), we contacted three vocational some nurseries in Saxony and Brandenburg, and in Schleswig-
schools and universities in the cities of Berlin, Flensburg, and Holstein we find such nurseries in Danish. Only the Länder
Munich. For domains 6 (Languages in audiovisual media and Saxony, Brandenburg (Sorbian) and Schleswig-Holstein
press), 7 (Languages in public services and spaces) and 8 integrated the protection of regional minorities in their
(Languages in business), we equally contacted informants in the constitutions. In the other Länder
Länder, there are no officially
three cities Berlin, Flensburg and Munich. The cities as well as accepted regional minority languages.1 Instruction in languages
Länder were selected at the request of the LRE Steering Group. other than German takes place in a wide number of foreign
languages (mostly English and French), as well as, in some cases,
immigrant languages.

Languages in official documents

and databases Languages in primary education
Nationwide data collection on language diversity does not take German is the language of schooling in the majority of
place. With respect to migration, the National Statistics Bureau primary schools in Germany, although there is no official
([Link]/DE/) collects data on foreign citizenship. Since regulation determining this. In some Länder we find single
2008, the Mikrozensus – a regular representative household primary schools working according to so-called bilingual
survey – collects additional data on ‘place of birth’. Recently models. The majority of these schools – some of them call
and in a small number of Länder (such as in Hamburg and themselves ‘international schools’ – work with English or one
North Rhine-Westphalia), data on the question ‘which language of the other prestigious ‘classical’ foreign languages, such as
is dominantly spoken at home’ has been collected French (see, for example, the Staatliche Europaschulen Berlin).
at school entry. A few Länder have established bilingual models for pupils
from autochthonous minorities (for example, in Danish in
Schleswig-Holstein, and Sorbian in Saxony – see Gantefort
Languages in pre-primary education und Roth 2011 for an overview). Likewise, in a few Länder,
Länder
bilingual schools with immigrant minority languages have
A number of special programmes have been initiated in pre- been established. Hamburg is one example for this, with a
school institutions, many of which aim to integrate immigrant total of six schools with one ‘bilingual’ branch or class,
minority children as early as possible. One such programme was concerning the languages Italian, Portuguese, Spanish and
called Sag mal was and was developed by the Land Baden- Turkish (Duarte 2011).
Württemberg (see [Link]/) (Baden-
Württemberg-Stiftung, 2011). In general, English is the first foreign language. However,
according to regional regulations, other languages can also be
There is also a major push to raise the quality of pre-primary offered. Schools in border regions, for example, offer French or
educators’ qualifications, since as yet the majority of these Dutch as the first foreign language. Some Länder offer the first
educators do not have academic degrees or comparably foreign language from grade one, but mostly children start at
1
This remark concerns the whole education system.

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 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

grade three, that is, at the age of nine years. Where these offers languages are taught as foreign languages in Germany’s public
are made they are obligatory for all children, including those with school system.
an immigrant background.
Syllabi for German as a Second Language exist in most of the
With respect to education in immigrant minority languages, Länder (see overview: [Link]/Lehrplaene-
again a highly differentiated picture emerges. In the 1970s, [Link]). In general, these syllabi focus on pupils
the Länder of the former Bundesrepublik Deutschland had who just arrived in the system. They aim at supporting the
established systems of so-called mother tongue teaching with transfer from initial ‘reception classes’ into mainstream
respect to the then relevant Gastarbeiter languages, that is, the schooling. Comparable to the primary school system, heritage
languages of those sending countries with which contracts for language teaching is offered in some immigrant languages
labour migration had been established. The languages (for example, in 12 languages in Saxony), mostly outside the
concerned were primarily Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Greek, mainstream school or at best attached to it. Most Länder
‘Yugoslavian’, Turkish, and, in rare cases, Moroccan-Arabic. established provisions for the recognition of achievement in
These systems were established in response to heritage language classes, such as by including the grades from
recommendations of the European Community. respective classes, no matter if they were offered inside or
outside the mainstream school system, in the official school
However, since the late 1990s, and especially after German certificate.
re-unification, these models faded out for manifold reasons.
Today, there is no reliable data available about the number and A recent phenomenon within secondary schools is the increase
range of immigrant languages that are taught either within the of bilingual programmes with English. These programmes differ
official school systems or outside of it, and likewise no data in type. Some are immersion, English-only; others use both
about the numbers of participants in these programmes. We German and English and can be referred to as Content and
can assume on the basis of reported data that there is a Language Integrated Learning – CLIL. In most cases these
considerable and probably growing interest in such language programmes are established in the highest track of secondary
tuition (Fürstenau, Gogolin, & Yağmur, 2003). Most of the education. All in all, foreign language education is highly
provisions are based on private initiatives and not linked to the developed in the German education system and covers a broad
official school system. range of different offers. Teaching and learning of English is
almost the minimum requirement offered to all pupils.
In principle, teachers are qualified in teaching German as well
as foreign languages, as German teacher education requires In Bavaria, according to our informants only German is used as
that two subjects are studied, and that teachers are appointed means of instruction. Foreign languages are compulsory in both
according to their qualification. There is hardly any specific lower and upper secondary education. The actual choice of
qualification at German universities for teachers of immigrant languages differs from school to school and also within the
languages. A small number of teachers of Russian or Turkish school types. The standard offer of foreign languages comprises
as foreign languages are trained, for example, at the Latin, Russian, French, Italian and Spanish. No regional or
Universities of Hamburg, Duisburg-Essen (North-Rhine minority language exists in Bavaria. No immigrant languages
Westphalia) and Tübingen (Baden-Württemberg). Proficiency are used for instruction. Teachers of German and of foreign
levels for national and foreign languages must comply with languages are qualified at universities and clear standards of
national standards. proficiency must be met.

In North Rhine-Westphalia, no regional or minority languages

Languages in secondary education exist. German as well as foreign and immigrant languages are
used for instruction, in each case with an explicit curriculum.
Germany has established a rather extensive system of foreign Teachers of German and foreign languages are qualified, and
language education at secondary level. The vast majority of their proficiency level is described in respective standards.
pupils learn at least one foreign language, namely English.
German is compulsory at all levels and school types of
secondary education and is also part of all school leaving Languages in further and higher
exams. Additionally, one foreign language is compulsory in all
secondary schools with the exception of special needs education
schools. A second foreign language is compulsory only for the
purpose of reaching the highest school leaving examination Further education (in three VET institutions)
(Abitur), but is often also offered from grade six in intermediate In the responding schools, the focus was on skills in German as
schools. The choice of languages varies regionally, as well as well as foreign languages (English, French and Spanish) and no
from school to school. Today, French and Spanish are the most immigrant languages were offered. One interesting result was
popular foreign languages. Languages such as Chinese or found in the vocational school in Flensburg, where Danish was
Japanese, however, show increasing numbers of learners, listed as a foreign language rather than a recognised minority
especially in urban area schools. Schools are more or less free language.
to offer a range of different foreign languages in their curricula,
if they wish to promote distinctive profiles or programmes. For Higher education (in three universities)
a number of university degree courses (for example, for
doctorates), Latin is still required in most universities. Thus, The LRE questionnaire was delivered to three universities:
Latin (and in less common cases also classical Greek) is offered Ludwig Maximilians University, Munich, the University of
at many schools that lead to the highest school leaving Flensburg and the Free University of Berlin. In all of them,
examination, the Abitur. As a rule of thumb, roughly 15 different parts of the tuition were provided in both German and foreign

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languages. There was no question about the language of tuition the newspaper market is ‘print on demand’. This technology
in the questionnaire, but it is most likely that it is English. All allows for the presence of printed media in any language,
universities offer websites and information on admission even if only a single person asks for it.
requirements in German and foreign languages. The University
of Flensburg points to the usage of ‘regional and minority
languages’; in practice this refers most likely to Danish, the Languages in public services
regional minority language of the area. The languages offered at
the universities surveyed are Arabic, Basque, Chinese, English, and spaces
French, Italian, Dutch, Persian, Polish, Portuguese, Russian,
Spanish, Turkish and Danish. Institutionalised language strategies at city level
The official language of Germany is German, although no
codification of a ‘national language’ exists. Any communication
Languages in audiovisual media that is legally binding has to take place in German or it will be
and press assumed not to have taken place. In the case of legal disputes,
the defendants are entitled to be assisted in their home
Until the late 1990s, many public and private radio and television language by interpreters.
stations offered programmes in regional dialects, autochthonous
In practice, however, at least larger cities in Germany apparently
minority languages or immigrant languages. The latter were
take a pragmatic stance and cities aim to convey as much
often labelled as multicultural programmes (or even stations).
information as possible to speakers of languages other than
These offers are almost completely gone in radio or television
German, particularly regarding social welfare and social
under public law.
inclusion, security, immigration services and tourism. How far
One considerable ‘multilingual’ station is the French-German this represents a coherent strategy remains unclear from the
television co-operation ARTE. ARTE offers most of its answers to the questionnaire.
programmes with a second – French or German – audio
The respondents from all three cities – Berlin, Flensburg and
programme. Other widely offered ‘multilingual’ options are
Munich – state that a strategy for promoting multilingualism is
subtitles, in German, for the hearing impaired and audio
at least occasionally practised. Danish has a special status as
commentaries for visually impaired audiences. Sign language
an official minority language in Schleswig-Holstein. English is
plays only a minor role; there is no regulation requiring this
supported, as everywhere in Germany, not only for business
provision. The private television and radio market is largely
purposes. The respondent from Munich gives very detailed
monolingual. However, cable and satellite television and radio
examples of support to multilingualism.
allow audiences to access a lot of foreign stations. Many of them
are from the UK and France, but there is also a considerable In the following paragraphs we present some of the answers
amount of programmes in immigrant languages, for example, for the cities Berlin and Munich. For Flensburg we do not have
from Russia and Turkey. sufficient information to say more than we stated above.
Another specific feature of German television, as well as the wider Domain 7A asked for institutionalised language strategies at city
movie market, is the dubbing of foreign language films. Almost all or council level. The Berlin contact remarked that it is difficult to
foreign language films and television series are dubbed. Only in answer these questions at city, or, in the case of Berlin,
exceptional cases can the original languages be accessed on a concurrently state-level.2 Here again, decentralisation as a
second audio programme. Similarly, most mainstream cinemas general element of administration and politics becomes visible:
only show dubbed versions of foreign language films. Original authorities at district level are free to set their own policies. The
language and subtitled versions are more or less restricted to art- main topics that call for multilingual communication from the
house cinemas. This is due to the development of a considerable respondent’s point of view are security, crime- and accident
‘dubbing industry’ alongside a flourishing film industry. prevention and general information. For example, leaflets on
home security in Arabic and Turkish are distributed in districts
The number of newspaper titles as well as languages offered we
with a significant immigrant population.
identified in Berlin exceeds those in Flensburg by a large margin.
Given the size of the two cities and the international character of Also, parts of the city council’s website and other information are
a city like Berlin this comes as no surprise. The offer in Berlin is available in English, French, Italian, Chinese, Polish, Russian,
again dominated by European languages, but Chinese, Japanese, Turkish, Serbian, Croatian and Spanish. In most other cases,
Arabic and other African languages are also represented. multilingual competences of civil servants or other state
employees are exploited on an ad hoc basis. This leads to a
In line with expectations, autochthonous minority languages do
situation where in some cases a broad variety of languages are
not play a significant role in the German media market, except
available, and in others there will only be German and English,
of the regions where the respective languages are recognised.
depending on who is working what shift. For legal purposes
Media in immigrant languages are widespread. Media in foreign and in criminal prosecution, qualified external translators or
languages representing main political and economic partners of interpreters are drawn in. Apparently it is only the police who ask
Germany can be found in all regions. A recent development on for non-German language skills as an additional competence

2
The three German cities Berlin, Bremen and Hamburg have also the political status of Bundesländer (Federal States).

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that is rewarded with extra credits in the application process.

This holds for high-interest languages such as Arabic, English,
Languages in business3
Chinese, French, Italian, Croatian and Serbian, Polish, Russian, The public debate around languages in businesses in Germany
Spanish, Turkish and Vietnamese. concentrates on two issues. The first is the issue of German
language competencies. Employers’ organisations – among
Munich city authorities provide a more diversified picture. others – complain that school leavers do not show sufficient
However, this is most likely an effect of the communicative German language skills to start an apprenticeship. Although this
strategy of a particular respondent. For Munich it is reported, complaint is sometimes narrowed down to school leavers with
for example, that the department of social welfare offers an immigrant background, it is usually more general and refers
interpreter services in Albanian, Amharic, Arabic, Azerbaijani, to young people with a school leaving certificate from the lower
Bosnian/Croatian/Serbian, Bulgarian, Chinese, Czech, Dari, tracks. The second is that a number of substantial studies show
English, Filipino, French, Greek, Hebrew, Hindi, Italian, Kikongo, that employers do not consider the mastery of English and
Kiswahili, Kurdish, Lao, Macedonian, Pashto, Polish, Portuguese, German as sufficient any more, but require mastery of additional
Panjabi, Romanian, Russian, Slovenian, Somali, Spanish, Tamil, languages from their employees (Meyer & Apfelbaum, 2010).
Tajik, Thai, Turkish, Uyghur, Ukrainian, Urdu and Vietnamese.
Advice on educational topics is offered by the authority for From the 15 companies we spoke to, it is probably safe to
education and sports in many of these languages too. The City conclude that multilingual strategies do play a role in the
of Munich also has a web presence in English, French, Italian, companies, provided there is a need to use other languages for
Arabic, Chinese, Russian, Japanese, Spanish and Portuguese. internal communication in the case of multinational companies
The City administration offers translation and interpretation or communication with customers, clients, and business
services in English, French, Turkish, Bosnian/Croatian/Serbian. partners. In many cases, however, these strategies would not
For 40 other languages external support can be drawn in. be termed ‘multilingual strategies’, but be part of more general
The City of Munich further acknowledges multilingualism by concepts of dealing with diversity.
allowing job applicants to balance ‘deficits’ in German language
competence with multilingual competences. Also, language In terms of specific language management practices, almost all
courses taken by staff of city authorities can be part- (13 out of 15) use German for internal documents. Business
sponsored if the language can be useful in their job. But, like English is widely used by two companies, with five using it
Berlin, Munich does not keep track of the language skills of occasionally, and the rest not at all. Other languages are only
their employees. used by three companies and these languages are: Danish (a
bank); Slovenian, Russian, Polish, Italian, Hungarian, Czech and
Domain 7B asks for oral communication facilities in the city. Bulgarian (a construction company, presumably using the
The replies in this section have been scarce, which could be languages that cover their area of operation as well as the
due to the formulation of the questions or that some services, countries of origin of their employees); and English and French
for example, transport and tourist information, are provided by by a hotel. Questions about the languages of internal software,
private companies. Some detailed information has been marketing activities, and websites show a very similar picture,
provided for the emergency services in Berlin where, with only one bank standing out from the crowd in reporting the
depending on who is on duty, Turkish, Russian, Polish, Spanish, use of German and Danish across the board. Furthermore, one
Italian, Dutch, Portuguese and French, as well as English, are construction company ran a marketing campaign in Danish but
spoken at varying levels of competence but independent of a this has been terminated. One of the hotels provides information
person’s first language. Immigration and integration services on its website in – according to their response – English, French,
are often accessible in English plus in some cases in French, ‘Belgian’, Spanish, Italian, Dutch, ‘Austrian’, Portuguese, ‘Swiss’
Turkish, Russian, and Spanish. For languages like Arabic, and ‘Brazilian’. Only two companies use external translators or
Vietnamese, Romanian and Bulgarian, external support will interpreters widely and four occasionally. Only one company, a
be called in. Theatres mainly offer information in German and bank, keeps a regular record of the language skills in German
English with the exception of the Russian Theatre and one and English of their employees.
fringe theatre, the ufa-Fabrik, where information in English,
Spanish, and French is provided. For Munich we do not have These rather anecdotal answers do not allow for any
information at a comparable level of detail. generalisations. They might be interpreted as indicators of a
lack of interest in language management, which only becomes
Many German cities have established either a Foreign Citizens’ relevant when business demands require communication in
Council (Ausländerbeirat) or similar institutions dealing with the languages other than German. The question could be posed
interests of immigrants and supporting their integration. as to which other expectation one could have with respect to
the business sector. Meyer (2009) could show that German
Domain 7C then asks for written communication facilities. Here companies actually invest in linguistic diversity among their
the answers do not offer any additional insights compared to the staff if this is justified by the requirements of diversity
previous two domains. The general impression is that the two management on the one hand and of their field of business
big cities acknowledge linguistic diversity, but their reaction on the other.
towards it could be more coherent.

3
We only received a few answers to the questionnaire because many companies were reluctant to reveal their internal policies.

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Key findings overall Another example is the numerous diversity management

strategies in companies. Such strategies can usually be found in
In Germany, we find an ambivalent atmosphere with respect to big companies rather than small and medium-sized enterprises,
linguistic diversity. On the one hand, many public initiatives and although the latter also develop ways to deal with diversity
campaigns carry a ‘German only’ message. A recent campaign of among their staff or in their clientele. In major motor companies,
the Deutschlandstiftung (which is supported by the National for example, language resource groups take care of migrant
Commissary for the Integration of Migrants and Refugees, members of staff. Support for heritage language abilities is one
Minister Maria Böhmer) is one example for this kind of strategy. part of such activities.
The message is that speaking German is the best (if not only) key
To conclude: whereas on the level of public laws and regulations
to integration ([Link]/de/) On the other
we do not find extensive initiatives that promote multilingualism,
hand, and at least on a rhetorical basis, we can find clear
we can find a lot of such initiatives on the regional and local
statements that support and recognise multilingualism. An
level. In other words, the closer we look at actual practice, the
example for this is a campaign ‘Multilingualism – languages
more we can make discoveries on multilingual experience.
without borders’ which was initiated by the Goethe-Institut (see
[Link]/ges/spa/prj/sog/[Link]). Even on the
highest political level, the acknowledgement of multilingualism is References
frequently expressed. An example for this can be found in the
Autorengruppe Bildungsberichterstattung (Ed.). (2012). Bildung
‘National Integration Plan’, a political framework that was
in Deutschland 2012. Ein indikatorengestützter Bericht mit einer
developed on behalf of the central government
Analyse zu Perspektiven des Bildungswesens im demografischen
(Bundesregierung, 2007). In the section concerning education,
Wandel. Im Auftrag der Ständigen Konferenz der Kultusminister
we find the statement that the Ministers of Cultural Affairs of the
der Länder in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland und des
Länder will invest in strategies that promote a better command of
Bundesministeriums für Bildung und Forschung. Bielefeld: W.
German for all pupils. Besides the support for learning German,
Bertelsmann.
however, the Ministers declare that ‘the Länder acknowledge the
importance and relevance of multilingualism for all pupils. This Baden-Württemberg-Stiftung (Ed.). (2011). Sag’ mal was -
includes the heritage or family languages of immigrant children. Sprachförderung für Vorschulkinder. Zur Evaluation des
Appropriate measures shall be identified that support the Programms der Baden-Württemberg-Stiftung. Tübingen: Narr
establishment of multilingualism as a general educational Francke Attempto Verlag.
principle in the school routines’ (Bundesregierung, 2007, p. 25f,
our translation). The illustration of ‘policies and practices for Bundesregierung. (2007). Der Nationale Integrationsplan. Neue
multilingualism’, as it is intended by the LRE project, brings about Wege, neue Chancen. Berlin: Retrieved from [Link]/
a highly fluid, anything but definitive picture of the situation and files/-/2321/181007_Nationaler%[Link]
we are convinced that this is no German peculiarity, but an Duarte. J. (2011): Bilingual language proficiency. A comparative
appropriate sketch of European societies in general. study. Münster u.a.: Waxmann.

Fürstenau, S., Gogolin, I., & Yağmur, K. (Eds.). (2003).

Promising initiatives and pilots Mehrsprachigkeit in Hamburg. Ergebnisse einer Sprachenerhebung
Although there is no general strategy for dealing with it in an den Grundschulen in Hamburg. Münster u.a.: Waxmann.
Germany, the official recognition of multilingualism has risen in Gantefort, Christoph and Roth, Hans-Joachim (2011): Sorbisch-
recent years. Many promising initiatives can be identified; yet, Deutsche Schulen in Sachsen. Ergebnisse zur Sprachentwicklung
in a decentralised system as is the case in Germany, they will in der Sekundarstufe I. Hamburg and Köln: University of Cologne.
probably not be discovered on the basis of the LRE instrument. Available under: [Link]
Initiatives range from bilingual education models to wide-ranging
models of school innovation which aim at implementing Meyer, B. (2009). Nutzung der Mehrsprachigkeit von Menschen
multilingualism as a general feature of language education (see mit Migrationshintergrund. Berufsfelder mit besonderem
the projects Durchgängige Sprachbildung/Continuous Language Potenzial. Nürnberg: Bundesamt für Migration und Flüchtlinge.
Education – [Link]). A number of projects Meyer, B., & Apfelbaum, B. (Eds.). (2010). Multilingualism at Work.
promote linguistic diversity as a general feature of early From policies to pactices in public, medical and business settings
childhood education (Tracy, Weber, & Münch, 2006). Such (Vol. 9). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
initiatives can be found in the private sector as well as in public
elementary education. They include models with ‘classical’ Reich, H. H., Roth, H.-J., & Neumann, U. (Eds.). (2007).
foreign languages, namely English or French, as well as models Sprachdiagnostik im Lernprozess. Verfahren zur Analyse von
which care for immigrant languages. Information portals exist for Sprachständen im Kontext von Zweisprachigkeit. Münster:
parents as well as for interested teachers or experts (see, for Waxmann.
example, [Link] with respect to foreign languages,
Tracy, R., Weber, A., & Münch, A. (2006). Frühe Mehrsprachigkeit.
or regional portals such as Bilingual erziehen [educating
Mythen - Risiken - Chancen. Stuttgart: Bande-Württemberg-Stiftung.
bilingual], [Link] which refer to all models,
irrespective of the languages that are addressed). As in the latter
example, the terms ‘bilingual’ and ‘multilingual’ are often used as
if they were synonyms by private initiatives as well as in the
public or political sphere and in research.

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 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

8 greece
Sara Hannam and Evagelia Papathanasiou

Country context Languages in official

Greece has a population size of approximately 11,320,000 documents and databases
(Eurostat, 2011) and is located in the southern part of the Balkan
peninsular. The national language is Greek, which is spoken by
both the national language and foreign languages are
the majority of the population. A variety of other languages are
dealt with in language legislation and/or language policy
present which represent old and newer waves of immigration –
documents. The learning and teaching of the national
they include most Balkan countries and Turkey, China, Pakistan,
language abroad for children and/or adults originating
Sri Lanka, Afghanistan, the Philippines and various African
from Greece is (co-)funded in countries all over Europe,
countries (Hannam and Papathanasiou, 2011). Turkish also exists
most notably in Germany, the United Kingdom and france,
as a regional language. At the time of data collection Greece
and also in the USA, Australia and some African countries.
was at the point of economic collapse and continues to be in a
Greece has not ratified/signed the European Charter for
vulnerable position within the European structures which affects
Regional or Minority Languages. Greece is among several
all levels of education and public services.
EU countries that has been unable to sign due to
restrictions of the Constitution governing the country.
Ever since the Treaty of Lausanne (24 July 1923), which
resulted in what is referred to as ‘an exchange of
populations’, both Greece and Turkey do not recognise
the existence of ethnic minorities on their respective
territories. both countries only recognise the existence of
religious minorities. In Greece, this holds in particular for
the Turkish community in the North-Eastern province of
Thrace, referred to as a Muslim minority.

Official nation-/regionwide data collection mechanisms on

language diversity in Greece do not exist.

The issue of regional, minority and immigrant languages is

politically sensitive (Kiliari, 2009) as it intersects with discussions
about immigration flow and control. Although there are schools
offering education in Turkish in the Thrace area, this is presented
as a provision for the Muslim minority with no explicit reference
made to the language of this community in a policy document.
A language policy may be developed soon governing foreign
languages and a survey has been set up by the Ministry of
Education which addresses the need for ‘promoting heritage
languages of foreign and repatriated students’ ([Link].
[Link], 2011).

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LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

NL=National Language(s)
fL=foreign Languages
r/ML=regional or Minority Languages
iL=immigrant Languages

Languages in pre-primary education (No provision)

Languages in primary education (No provision of immigrant languages)

organisation
Extra support for diagnostic testing on Monitoring of language
Curriculum newcomers entry skills

NL support coherent and explicit before mainstream absent national standardised

start of Minimum Monitoring of

target language group size language Level to be state funding
groups Curriculum CLiL education scheduling requirements skills achieved available

r/ML native general widespread from year 1 in school none national not specified full
speakers hours standardised
only

fL all coherent localised from year 1 in school none national not specified full
and explicit hours standardised

teaching
Pre-service teacher in-service teacher
teacher qualifications training training Mobility

NL support language teachers subject-specific none N/A

r/ML language teachers subject-specific subject-specific N/A

fL language teachers subject-specific subject-specific informal financial support

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Languages offered in primary education

r/ML Turkish

fL English and french or German

There is no compulsory state provision in foreign languages at pre-primary level, although foreign
languages are introduced at the primary stage and taken very seriously. There is considerable
investment from the state sector and through additional private provision. The results do not
adequately reflect the amount of investment at this stage in either the Greek language or foreign
languages. It is also at primary level that Turkish is offered in schools in the Thrace region for the
established population from various population exchanges between Greece and Turkey. There are
more than 200 schools offering Turkish at primary level although that has decreased in recent
years. By secondary level this is reduced to less than ten (Συντονιστικό Γραφείο Μειονοτικών
Σχολείων – Co-ordination Office of Minority Schools, 2011). English remains dominant as the default
foreign language offered. We found that there is a wish to provide more languages beyond English,
French and German (the latter two also being available). There is limited teacher training provision
in Italian, Spanish, some Balkan languages and Turkish, although little provision in state schools.
Immigrant languages remain unrepresented in this sector and we found evidence that many are
taught within the communities themselves.

Languages in secondary education (No provision of R/M languages and immigrant languages)
organisation
Extra support for diagnostic testing on Monitoring of language
Curriculum newcomers entry skills

NL support coherent and explicit before mainstream absent school-based

Minimum group Monitoring of

target size language Level to be state funding
groups Curriculum CLiL scheduling requirements skills achieved available

fL all coherent and absent in school >10 school-based national or full

explicit hours school-based
norms

teaching
teacher Pre-service teacher in-service teacher Language level
qualifications training training required Mobility

NL support language teachers general general not specified N/A

fL language teachers general general national or regionwide informal financial

standards support

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Languages offered in secondary education

fL English is compulsory
french and German are optional

A significant number of hours are devoted to the learning of foreign languages in secondary
education with great emphasis on passing language examinations, often with extra provision
being financed by families. English is the compulsory language with other foreign languages
(French, German, Italian and Spanish) being optional. There is some evidence of experimental
CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning) in a state school in Thessaloniki with English as
the language of instruction. Additionally, multimedia applications (such as Xenios) and new
technologies are being implemented as part of a cross-curricular approach to foreign language
teaching (Tangas, 2006). Immigrant languages remain unrepresented in this sector.

Languages in further and higher education

further education (in three VEt institutions) (No provision of r/M languages and immigrant languages)
range of language state funding
programmes Curriculum Level to be achieved available

fL institution A

institution B

institution C limited no guidelines none full

higher education (in two universities)

target groups Level to be
for additional achieved in recruitment
support in the foreign of non- Mobility for Mobility for
Language(s) Languages on national language national language non-language
of instruction website language instruction students students students

university A national and national and all national or only optional optional
foreign foreign institution-based international

university B national and national and restricted national or international optional optional
foreign foreign institution-based and immigrant

Vocational Education and Training (VET) institutions appear to function primarily in Greek and
where there is language provision it is largely focused on English. The VET institution surveyed in
Athens implemented a large number of training programmes in Greek for refugees, immigrants,
and repatriates offered by the Ministry of Labour and Social Security. In total, 15 programmes of
300 hours each were implemented for 323 refugees, immigrants and repatriates who then took
an examination for the certificate of attainment in Greek organised by the Centre of Greek
Language. We experienced significant problems accessing data on VET institutions which
appeared to be in transition and were going through an inspection by the Department of
Education at the time.
Universities demonstrate much wider diversity of languages which is likely influenced by
programmes like Erasmus. There are initiatives to cater for students coming from different
countries but also offering learning opportunities to Greek students in European and non-
European languages. There is evidence of experimental practice in schools which is generated by
university departments (for example, the CLIL project in Thessaloniki, headed by Aristotle
University of Thessaloniki).

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Languages in audiovisual media and press

Non-national language Non-national language r/ML programmes Availability of sign

tV productions films in cinema outside of region language on tV

subtitled subtitled sometimes sometimes

New language communities are not given official broadcasting time on television and radio
although they are not prevented from utilising such time. Films are streamed using subtitles and
dubbing is extremely rare other than in children’s provision. Additionally, a small number of hours
of news are accompanied by sign language as required by Greek Law. We found a wide array of
newspapers sold in different languages demonstrating slippage between real populations and
those officially recognised. The variation was greatest in the capital city of Athens.

Languages in public services and spaces

institutionalised language strategies at city level
Language recruitment of Language record of
Website use of competencies in speakers of training offered language skills
N languages presence interpreters job descriptions languages to employees of employees

>4 Thessaloniki

3–4 Xanthi

1–2 Xanthi Xanthi

Communication facilities
top two oral communication facilities top two written communication facilities

Education Immigration and integration

Tourism Tourism

We had significant difficulty obtaining the data for this set at a time of political and economic
upheaval. There appears to be a lack of systematic policy for dealing with other languages in
relation to seeking and provision of public services. Where provision is available, we found that
it is ad hoc. English appears to be dominant in these settings. There is an expectation on public
service users that they are both conversant and literate in Greek.

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Languages in business (out of 24 companies)

GENErAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs

mobility provision
language skills in

Awareness of Eu
use of networks
staff records of
use of external

language skills

programmes/

programmes/
Availability of

international

for language
Emphasis on

interpreters
recruitment

translators/

use of Eu
language
strategy

training

funding

funding
Widely practised 9 14 8 1 0 4 1 0

iNtErNAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs EXtErNAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs

documents/intranet
reward/promotion

Language used for

Language used for

Language used for

Language used for

Language used for

schemes based on

Language training

Language used for

Partnerships with

branding/identity
education sector

annual/business
language skills

software, web
programmes
use of CEfr

marketing
workplace
provision

website
reports
NL widely 1 2 2 0 21 18 20 22 19 20
practised

Business widely 2 4 6 0 10 12 9 12 13 22
English practised

Additional widely 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 2
languages practised

Foreign languages are highly sought after in the business sector and are considered essential
rather than desirable. However, in the businesses surveyed, little attention seems to be paid to
the value of recruiting employees with knowledge of immigrant languages. The pragmatic use
of most Balkan languages can be seen in communication due to strong business and commerce
links with neighbouring countries. Where these languages are not present in the workplace,
English is used as a default lingua franca and the highest value appears to be attached to a
fluent working knowledge of English as a result. Few businesses have a policy to explicitly reward
knowledge of languages or structures to support multilingualism. This may exist more widely
than captured by the data but is not perceived in terms of multilingualism.

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Key findings overall References

There is significant and long-term investment in the learning of Coordination Office of Minority Schools [Link]
foreign languages in Greece. A diversity of other languages is [Link]/. Accessed 2 December 2011.
also spoken deriving from the Balkans and other parts of the
world, but there is little discussion of this as it is tied to debates Eurostat [Link]
about immigration. We experienced an overall reluctance to e&language=en&pcode=tps00001&tableSelection=1&footnotes
provide data in most domains which we believe to be partly due =yes&labeling=labels&plugin=1. Accessed 2 December 2011.
to unfamiliarity with research of this kind but also due to our
Hannam, S. and Papathanasiou, E. (2011) Current Issues and
intervention at the peak of the economic crisis with the country
Trends in Language Education in Greece: A Brief Overview.
in a state of alert. The issue of multilingualism was not perceived
In Towards a Language Rich Europe – Multilingual essays on
by many potential data providers as a priority. There is clearly a
language policies and practices, British Council.
need to address Greek monolingualism in state and public
services, and the dominance of English is of concern throughout Kiliari, A. (2009) Language Practice in Greece: The Effects of
all domains. The lack of key agencies working on multilingualism European Policy on Multilingualism. In European Journal of
either in the state or NGO sector may be a barrier to this as the Language Policy. 1/1. pp. 21–28.
responsibility currently falls to individual researchers and
community organisations. Such organisations might ordinarily Tangas, P. (2006) Multimedia and Foreign Language Teaching:
focus on widening participation and representation of different the Case of Greece. In Grabe, D. & Zimmemann, L. (eds),
linguistic communities - we found no evidence of these kinds of Multimedia Applications in Education Conference Proceedings
initiatives during data collection. 2006, FH JOANNEUM, Graz, Austria, pp.139–48. Available from:
[Link]
Foreign_Language_Teaching_the_Case_of_Greece_Tagkas.pdf.
Promising initiatives and pilots Accessed 5 December 2011.

Regarding regional and minority languages in primary education

we found evidence of two programmes at Aristotle University in
Thessaloniki which offer help to schools with repatriates,
immigrants and Roma students. This was the only time the Roma
community was represented in our data set. The survey to
promote heritage languages is also a very promising initiative.
Ministry of Education/university partnerships offer one month
Modern Greek language and culture courses for foreign students,
teachers of Greek and Greek scholars. Scholarships are available
for Greek students to study in the EU and other countries and
attend undergraduate, postgraduate and foreign language
seminars. The State Scholarship Foundation (IKY) awards mobility
scholarships to students and teaching staff encouraging their
contact with other education systems and their familiarisation
with the culture and language of another European country
(Eurydice 2009/10: 222–223). This is as of 2010 and may have
changed with the onset of the economic crisis.

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9 hungary
Csilla Bartha

Country context Languages in official

Hungary has a population of 9,960,000.1 There are 13 officially documents and databases
recognised minorities,2 the proportion of which is nearly 3% of
the total population according to the 2001 census data and
The national language, foreign languages and R/M
about 8–10% according to recent estimates.3 The largest
languages are dealt with in language legislation and/or
minority is the Roma, who constitute an estimated 6–10% of the
language policy documents. The learning and teaching of
country’s total and 60% of the minority population. They are
Hungarian abroad for children and/or adults originating
underrepresented in positions of power and have a considerably
from Hungary is (co-)funded in Austria. The European
lower socio-economic status compared with other minorities.
Charter for Regional or Minority Languages has been
Immigration is a growing phenomenon with 206,909 third- signed and ratified by Hungary. The following 8 R/M
country nationals which makes up approximately 2% of the languages are recognised in the Charter: Croatian,
population. This is quite a small number as compared to the German, Romani, Romanian, Serbian, Slovak, Slovene, and
immigration figures of other European countries. The number boyash. There is official provision in nation- or region-
and proportion of people belonging to the most significant wide education, supported by the Charter, for these 8
immigrant groups are as follows: Romanians (76,878 – 37%), languages. Apart from the R/M languages recognised in
Germans (20,232 – 9%), Serbians (16,301 – 9%), Ukrainians the Charter, the following R/M languages are promoted by
(16,537 – 9%), Chinese (11,829 – 6%) and Slovaks (3%).4 official country documents: Armenian, bulgarian, Greek,
Polish, Rusyn and Ukrainian.

Official nationwide data collection mechanisms on

language diversity in Hungary exist in terms of
periodically updated census data. In these data collection
mechanisms, national and R/M language varieties are
addressed, based on a home language and a mother
tongue question plus a language proficiency question in
terms of whether this language can be spoken/
understood/read/written.

Since 1 January 2012, the legal framework of language diversity

and multilingualism in Hungary has changed. However, we will
analyse the linguistic situation based on the legislation in force
at the time of the completion of LRE questionnaire.

The (former) Hungarian Constitution does not contain any explicit

provisions on the official language of the state. Article 68 sets
out that the Republic of Hungary shall provide for the protection
of national and ethnic minorities and ensure their collective
participation in public affairs, the fostering of their cultures, the
use of their native languages, education in their native languages
and the use of names in their native languages.1

The new Hungarian constitution of 2011 (Fundamental Law) recognises the

1

Hungarian language as the official language of the state. It undertakes to protect

the Hungarian language and the Hungarian Sign Language as part of the
Hungarian culture. Article XXIX sets out that
every nationality and ethnic group living in Hungary shall be considered a part
of the state forming entity. Every Hungarian citizen belonging to a nationality has
the right to undertake and preserve their identity. National and ethnic minorities
1
[Link] will have the right to use their own languages, to use their names in their own
2
And a statutorily recognised linguistic minority, the Deaf people. languages both individually and collectively, to foster their culture and to
3
Edit H. Kontra – Csilla Bartha (2010): Foreign language education in Hungary: education in their own languages.
Concerns and controversies. In: Sociolinguistica 24/2010. pp. 61–84, p. 74. The new constitution explicitly prohibits the discrimination on the grounds of
4
[Link] national origin and language, as well.

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 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Act LXXVII of 1993 on the Rights of National and Ethnic Act CXXV of 2009 on Hungarian Sign Language and the use of
Minorities2 recognised 13 minority languages: Armenian, Hungarian Sign Language is considered to be the most up-to-
Bulgarian, Croatian, German, Greek, Gypsy (Romani and Boyash), date sign language law in Europe, defining the deaf community
Polish, Romanian, Rusyn, Serbian, Slovak, Slovene and Ukrainian. as a linguistic minority. According to it, from 1 September 2017
In addition to this law, today’s minority and foreign language HSL-Hungarian bilingual education will be compulsory for deaf
education is based on the 1993 Public Education Act, the children in schools for the deaf; meanwhile, in integrating
Government Decrees of 1995 on the National Core Curriculum schools, it will be optional even if chosen by only one child’s
and of 1997 on the school-leaving (Matura) exams, and the 2005 parent.
Higher Education Act.
There are three important legal instruments on migration: Act I
Hungary ratified the two most significant Council of Europe of 2007 on the Admission and Residence of Persons with the
documents, the European Charter for Regional or Minority Right of Free Movement and Residence, Act II of 2007 on the
Languages (1992/1995/1998) and the Framework Convention Admission and Right of Residence of Third-Country Nationals,
for the Protection of National Minorities (1995/1998), for the and Act LXXX of 2007 on Asylum.
languages of the so-called traditional minorities: Croatian,
German, Romanian, Serbian, Slovak and Slovene. Act XLIII of
2008 included Gypsy languages (Romani and Boyash) under the
scope of Article 2(2).

2
The Hungarian terminological distinction between national minority and ethnic
minority rests primarily on whether a minority has a ‘kin state’ or not. The Roma do
not, hence they are considered to be an ethnic minority. In virtue of Act CLXXIX of
2011 on the Rights of Nationalities, which entered into force on 1 January 2012,
‘nationality’ is the new term to be used instead of ‘national and ethnic minorities’.

NL=National Language(s)
fL=foreign Languages
r/ML=regional or Minority Languages
iL=immigrant Languages

Languages in pre-primary education

(No provision of foreign languages, immigrant languages and additional national language support)

Minimum Pre-service in-service

group size teacher teacher state funding
target groups duration requirements days per week training training available

r/ML All ≥2 years 5–10 >1 day subject-specific general full

Languages offered in pre-primary education:

r/ML bulgarian, Croatian, German, Greek, Romani/boyash,

Romanian, Rusyn, Serbian, Slovak, Slovene

There is pre-primary education in national minority schools and specific bilingual institutions.
Local governments must provide pre-primary education in R/M languages in a settlement only
if it is required by the parents of at least eight pupils. There are 927 nurseries with a minority
education programme (21% of all nurseries). More than 40,000 children (12.5% of all children in
pre-primary education) are enrolled in minority nurseries, with more than 21,000 children enrolled
in Gypsy minority education but only 2.4% (approximately 500 children) receiving education in
Romani/Boyash language.1 In many cases, minority programmes (at all levels of the education
system) function as covert forms of foreign language (FL) teaching, especially in the case of
German, where children may not have a minority background at all, but schools use the minority
education label in order to gain extra financial support.
Although pre-primary education in foreign languages is becoming more and more popular in
private (generally fee-paying) nurseries, in public institutions it is not common practice. There
is no pre-primary education in immigrant languages.

1
Other children receive so-called Gypsy cultural education where the language of instruction is entirely Hungarian. Nemzeti és
Etnikai Jogok Országgyűlési Biztosa, Jelentés a nemzeti és etnikai kisebbségi óvodai nevelés helyzetéről. Budapest, 2011,
pp. 23–42. [Link]/data/files/[Link]

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LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Languages in primary education (No provision of immigrant languages)

organisation
Extra support for diagnostic testing on Monitoring of language
Curriculum newcomers entry skills

NL support coherent and explicit before mainstream immigrants only national standardised

start of Minimum Monitoring of

target language group size language Level to be state funding
groups Curriculum CLiL education scheduling requirements skills achieved available

r/ML all coherent localised from year 1 partly in 5–10 school-based national or full
and explicit school regional
hours norms

fL all coherent localised from mid- in school none school-based national or full
and explicit phase hours school norms

teaching
Pre-service teacher in-service teacher
teacher qualifications training training Mobility

NL support language teachers subject-specific subject-specific N/A

r/ML language teachers subject-specific subject-specific N/A

fL language teachers subject-specific subject-specific informal financial support

Languages offered in primary education

r/ML bulgarian, Croatian, German, Greek, Polish, Romani/

boyash, Romanian, Rusyn, Serbian, Slovak, Slovene

fL Compulsory: One language from English, German,

french, Italian, Russian
Optional: Latin

There are 608 institutions with an R/M language education programme (26.5% of all primary
schools). More than 100,000 children (14% of all students in primary schools) are enrolled in R/M
language education. The Armenian, Ukrainian and Polish communities do not have minority
language education within the public education system and 92% of Roma children are not taught
in Romani/Boyash at all.1 More than half of the children receive German minority education, as
parents’ positive attitudes and decisions are influenced by a perceived international market value
of the standard variety of German. One foreign language is compulsory from the fourth grade of
primary schooling. Provision in immigrant languages is not common practice in primary
education, except in a Chinese-Hungarian primary school in Budapest.

1
Nemzeti és Etnikai Jogok Országgyűlési Biztosa, Jelentés a nemzeti és etnikai kisebbségi általános iskolai nevelés-oktatás
helyzetéről, Budapest, 2011, pp. 33–42. [Link]/data/files/[Link]

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Languages in secondary education (No provision of immigrant languages)

organisation
Extra support for diagnostic testing on Monitoring of language
Curriculum newcomers entry skills

NL support coherent and explicit before mainstream immigrants only national standardised

Minimum Monitoring state

target group size of language Level to be funding
groups Curriculum CLiL scheduling requirements skills achieved available

r/ML all coherent and widespread in school none school-based national or full
explicit hours regional
norms

fL all coherent and localised in school none school-based linked to CEFR full
explicit hours

teaching
teacher Pre-service teacher in-service teacher Language level
qualifications training training required Mobility

NL support language teachers subject-specific subject-specific national or school- N/A

based norms

r/ML language teachers subject-specific subject-specific N/A N/A

fL language teachers subject-specific subject-specific linked to CEFR informal financial

support

Languages offered in secondary education

r/ML Romani, boyash

fL Compulsory: English, German, french, Italian,

Russian, Spanish
Optional: Chinese, Latin

In principle, students are free to choose which foreign language they wish to study. In practice,
the foreign languages available in lower secondary education are English, French, German,
Spanish, Italian and Russian. In upper secondary education other languages (for example, Boyash,
Chinese, Romani) are also offered. Still, Hungary ranks unfortunately high in the number of
students learning only one foreign language (57.2%; EU average: 33.4%).1

1
Eurostat (2009): European day of languages. Eurostat News Release, Stat 09/137.
[Link]

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LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Languages in further and higher education

further education (in three VEt institutions) (No provision of immigrant languages)
range of language state funding
programmes Curriculum Level to be achieved available

r/ML institution A wide variety coherent and explicit N/A full

institution B no specifications general N/A full

institution C wide variety general N/A partial

fL institution A wide variety coherent and explicit linked to CEFR full

institution B no specifications general none full

institution C wide variety coherent and explicit national partial

higher education (in three universities)

target groups Level to be
for additional achieved in recruitment
support in the foreign of non- Mobility for Mobility for
Language(s) Languages on national language national language non-language
of instruction website language instruction students students students

university A national, foreign national and restricted national or only optional optional
and R/M foreign institution-based international

university B national, foreign national and restricted none only optional optional
and R/M foreign international

university C national and national and restricted linked to CEFR international optional optional
foreign foreign and immigrant

Education of national and R/M languages does not play an important role in either VET or
university education. Every university surveyed offers courses where the language of instruction
is a foreign language (mainly English, German and French). Certain universities provide their
whole (fee-paying) tuition period in a foreign language, thus trying to attract foreign students.
There are six higher education institutions which train minority language teachers. Teacher-
training for Armenian and Rusyn is completely missing. Six higher education institutions provide
training for lower elementary teachers of Croatian, German, Romani/Boyash, Serbian, Slovak and
Romanian. Seven institutions provide minority nursery teacher-training programmes in Croatian,
German, Romani/Boyash, Serbian, Slovak, Slovene and Romanian. Due to the decreasing number
of students opting for minority teacher training, the continuing operation of a minority public
education system – except for German – is already under threat.1

1
Nemzeti és Etnikai Jogok Országgyűlési Biztosa, Jelentés a nemzetiségi felsőoktatás helyzetéről, Budapest, 2011, pp. 4–7.
[Link]/data/files/[Link]

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 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Languages in audiovisual media and press

Non-national language Non-national language r/ML programmes Availability of sign

tV productions films in cinema outside of region language on tV

dubbed dubbed Regularly in Budapest sometimes

Never in Pécs and
Debrecen

The media in Hungary are dominated by Hungarian. However, radio and television programmes
are offered in R/M languages in public channels, and there are a few radio stations broadcasting
entirely in R/M languages (for example MR4, Radio C). Television programmes in languages other
than Hungarian are generally dubbed in Hungarian. Sign language interpretation is offered in
important media events. According to the Hungarian Sign Language Act, the public television
broadcaster shall ensure that in the course of its broadcasting service all announcements and
newscasts of public interest, motion pictures and public service programmes are available with
Hungarian subtitling or sign language interpreting for a fixed number of hours from 2010, and in
entirety from 2015.

Languages in public services and spaces

institutionalised language strategies at city level
Language recruitment of Language record of
Website use of competencies in speakers of training offered language skills
N languages presence interpreters job descriptions languages to employees of employees

>4 Debrecen Debrecen Debrecen

3–4 Budapest Budapest

Pécs Pécs

1–2 Debrecen Budapest Pécs Budapest

Debrecen Pécs
Debrecen

Communication facilities
top five oral communication facilities top five written communication facilities

Educational Social
Social Legal
Emergency Immigration and integration
Legal Tourism
Immigration and integration Emergency

The public administration of the three Hungarian cities surveyed are characterised by a moderate
multilingual profile. Most cities provide services in oral and/or written form in foreign and,
occasionally, R/M languages, but institutionalised language strategies are absent. Interpreters are
used, although not employed permanently. The repertoire of languages other than Hungarian is
dominated by English and to a lesser extent, German. In areas with minority communities, their
language may also appear in public services.

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LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Languages in business (out of 21 companies)

GENErAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs

mobility provision
language skills in

Awareness of Eu
use of networks
staff records of
use of external

language skills

programmes/

programmes/
Availability of

international

for language
Emphasis on

interpreters
recruitment

translators/

use of Eu
language
strategy

training

funding

funding
Widely practised 3 5 11 6 0 3 1 0

iNtErNAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs EXtErNAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs

documents/intranet
reward/promotion

Language used for

Language used for

Language used for

Language used for

Language used for

schemes based on

Language training

Language used for

Partnerships with

branding/identity
web programmes
education sector

annual/business
language skills

use of CEfr

marketing
workplace

software,
provision

website
reports
NL widely 2 0 2 1 18 17 17 16 16 18
practised

Business widely 2 0 3 3 12 11 9 6 14 13
English practised

Additional widely 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 5
languages practised

Businesses surveyed generally have a low language profile. One-third have some form of
language policy, but investment in language skills for their employees is not high. Most of the time
language skills are acquired prior to employment. Approximately half of the companies provide
limited business English training for employees, while very few provide support in Hungarian for
non-native speakers. The national language and English are the main languages used, followed by
French and German.

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 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Key findings overall Promising initiatives and pilots

Hungary is known as a monolingual country; however, the reality There are many promising initiatives and innovative
is very different. It is impossible to give an exact answer to the developments in the provision of Hungarian Sign language for
question of whether plurilingualism in the classroom and the Deaf as well as in the provision of Romani and Boyash
multilingualism in society at large are acknowledged in Hungary languages in Hungary. These include: the implementation of the
as there are several educational forms and different types of new Sign Language Law; two new programmes at Eötvös Loránd
schools. Even within the same type of schools, there are huge University – HSL BA and Teaching English as a Foreign Language
differences in terms of the efficiency of education. There are to Deaf Learners; The Kedves Ház (Nice House) in Nyírtelek; the
three main and two additional types of educational programmes ‘Pedellus programme’ in Ózd; the Dr. Ámbédkar School project in
for minorities: the three main types are mother tongue, bilingual Sajókaza; and the Gandhi Public Foundation and High School in
and language teaching, with the additional types being Pécs.1 In the field of foreign language education, the World
academic improvement education for Gypsy minorities and Language Project must be mentioned, which operated from
supplementary minority education. 2003 to 2007 and took the form of several sub-programmes.2

There are public schools which specialise in supporting foreign Although linguistic assimilation has been taking place within
language teaching and bilingual education. In these institutions minority communities, one can experience positive attitudes
support for and education in languages other than Hungarian towards multilingual skills, where younger generations are highly
usually takes place at a high level, whereas general education is motivated in learning different foreign languages. The Russian
characterised by a lower level in this respect. language also has a growing market value, which is strong
evidence for the fact that Hungary succeeded in overcoming
Most Roma and Deaf people in Hungary share a number of the ideological bias towards past practices of foreign language
common features. Coupled with a long tradition of being education.
evaluated in terms of the degree of recognition of their language
(Romani and Sign Language respectively), these features include
a lower or higher degree of social separation, which is linked to a
low employment rate, poor social context, few labour market
opportunities, and deep poverty. All of these are closely related to
the low level of education and the high drop-out rate from public
education of a significant part of the Roma and Deaf youth.

The lack of immigrant languages in education, business and public

administration is mainly due to the relatively low number of
immigrants. Most are ethnic Hungarians, speaking Hungarian as
their mother tongue, coming from neighbouring countries. The
proportion of foreign students in public education is also low.1

Although the legal framework of support for minority languages

and foreign language education is well-established, much
remains to be done in the field of practical implementation of
multilingualism.2 Statistics provided by the Special
Eurobarometer 243 in 2006 indicate that only 42% of the
population can actually carry out a conversation in at least one
foreign language as opposed to the EU average of 56%.3

1
Illés Katalin – Medgyesi Anna (2009): Migráns gyermekek oktatása. Menedék – 1
Bartha Csilla – Hámori Ágnes (2011): Cigány közösségek, nyelvi sokszínűség és az
Migránsokat Segítő egyesület. Az Európai Unió Európai Integráció Alapjának oktatás nyelvi kihívásai – magyarországi helyzetkép. In: Európai Tükör, XI. évfolyam,
támogatásával megvalósuló program kiadványa. [Link]/ 3. szám, pp. 107–131. [Link]/download/7/1b/20000/europai_
files/20090831konyv_belso.pdf tukor_2011_03.pdf
2
Edit H. Kontra – Csilla Bartha (2010): Foreign language education in Hungary: 2
Fischer Márta – Öveges Enikő (2008): A Világ–Nyelv pályázati csomag háttere és
Concerns and controversies. In: Sociolinguistica 24/2010. pp. 61–84. at p. 68. megvalósítása (2003-2006). Áttekintő tanulmány. [Link]/letolt/
3
European Commission (2006): Europeans and their languages 2005. [Link]. vilagnyelv/vny_fischer_oveges_090115.pdf
eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_243_en.pdf

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LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

10 iTaLy
Monica Barni

Country context Languages in official

Italian is used and spoken as the main language by around documents and databases
90% of the Italian population (ISTAT, 2007). This is a radical
change from the centuries old idiomatic Italian tradition,
The national language, foreign languages and a range
characterised by a prevalence of local languages.
of R/M languages are dealt with in language legislation
Before the Unification of Italy (1861), Italian was the language and/or language policy documents. The learning and
used for centuries as the literary language, but it was only teaching of the national language abroad for children
spoken in the Florentine-Tuscan and Roman areas (De Mauro, and/or adults originating from Italy is (co-)funded in more
1963, 1979, 1994). After 1861, the political unification of the than 30 countries in Europe and abroad. The European
country determined a need for linguistic unification and the use Charter for Regional or Minority Languages has been
of a standard language. As a consequence, in the last 150 years signed by government but has not been ratified by
there has been a noticeable decrease in the use of dialects. parliament in Italy. At the national level, however, the
Approximately 6.4% of the population nowadays speak only a following 12 R/M languages are recognised, protected
dialect inside and outside the home, whereas more than 40% and/or promoted in official country documents or
of Italians report the use of both standard Italian and an Italian legislation: Albanian, Catalan, Croatian, franco-Provençal,
dialect, depending on the context. Similarly, some R/M french, friulian, German, Greek, Ladin, Occitan, Sardinian
languages have, over time, resisted forces of unification and Slovene. Official provision in education is commonly
and are spoken by 3.9% of the population (ISTAT, 2007). available in regions where these languages are spoken.

Despite the general diffusion of standard Italian, used by the Official nationwide data collection mechanisms on
vast majority of Italian society nowadays, Italy still presents a language diversity in Italy exist in terms of periodically
linguistic identity characterised by a wide range of dialects, updated survey data. In these data collection
varieties and registers ([Link]/ethno_docs/ mechanisms, national and R/M language varieties are
[Link]?by=country). To this complex panorama, addressed, based on a home language question.
a new factor has been added in recent years: immigration
of people from abroad. Immigrants in Italy today total more than
5,000,000 – one immigrant for every 12 residents (Caritas, 2011). Although in the Constitution (1946) no reference is made to
A census regarding immigrant languages does not exist, but Italian as the official language of the Republic, minorities are
research carried out in various areas of Italy estimates that mentioned and claimed to be protected. However, it was only
approximately 200 new languages are present in the country more than fifty years later that R/M languages were recognised
(Bagna, Barni, Vedovelli, 2006; Barni, 2008). Immigration in and protected by law (482/1999).
Italy is characterised by a polycentricity of the place of origin
and by various modalities of settlement in the territory from a In 2010 an Italian test programme for immigrants requiring long
quantitative and qualitative point of view (such as, length of time term residency was introduced (D.M. 4/06/2010) and in 2011
and type of permanence). Nowadays there is no area in Italy competence in the Italian language became one of the key
where immigrants are not present and cannot act like a force of issues for the integration agreement between an immigrant and
language change from the bottom up (Vedovelli, 2010). the State (D.P.R. 14/09/ 2011, n. 179).

The configuration of the Italian linguistic space, between the With regard to documentation on languages, Italy falls behind
extreme of seeking a monolingual state and that of present some other European countries, with not even the most recent
and renewed plurilingualism, is reflected in the results of the census (2011) including a question regarding languages or
LRE research. dialects. One positive step is reflected in the Multiscopo surveys,
among which the most recent one, carried out in 2006, has
shown the plurality of languages present today and used on a
daily basis by Italians (ISTAT, 2007). Comprehensive research on
immigrant languages still has to be carried out, apart from data
collection in individual local situations.

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 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

NL=National Language(s)
fL=foreign Languages
r/ML=regional or Minority Languages
iL=immigrant Languages

Languages in pre-primary education

(No provision of foreign languages, immigrant languages and additional national language support)

Minimum Pre-service in-service

group size teacher teacher state funding
target groups duration requirements days per week training training available

r/ML all ≥2 years none >1 day none general full

Languages offered in pre-primary education

r/ML Albanian, Croatian, franco-Provençal, french, friulian,

Occitan, German, Greek, Ladin, Sardinian, Slovene

In general, the modest results achieved in the pre-primary, primary and secondary education
domains show that little attention is given to languages other than Italian, whether foreign or
immigrant. The results in these domains can be related to the weakness of competence in foreign
languages by many Italians, documented in studies such as Eurobarometer (2006) and Eurydice/
Eurostat (2008).
The general results bring to light that, from pre-primary to upper-secondary school, there is room
for improvement with regard to the range of languages offered, the organisation of learning and
the training of language teachers. Furthermore, it should be noted that English is the language
which is taught and encouraged the most among all foreign languages at all school levels.
In pre-primary education, the only languages offered apart from Italian are R/M languages, and
only in those areas where they are spoken, thanks to the protection in the law. No offer is
provided in any foreign or immigrant language.

Languages in primary education (No provision of immigrant languages)

organisation
Extra support for diagnostic testing Monitoring of
Curriculum newcomers on entry language skills

NL support general absent absent school-based

start of Minimum Monitoring

target language group size of language Level to be state funding
groups Curriculum CLiL education scheduling requirements skills achieved available

r/ML all coherent widespread from year 1 in school none absent not specified full
and explicit hours

fL all general absent from year 1 in school none school-based national or full
hours school norms

teaching
Pre-service in-service teacher
teacher qualifications teacher training training Mobility

NL support language teachers subject-specific general N/A

r/ML general teachers general general N/A

fL general teachers none general none

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LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Languages offered in primary education

r/ML Albanian, Catalan, Croatian, franco-Provençal,

french, friulian, Occitan, German, Greek, Ladin,
Sardinian, Slovene

fL English: compulsory

In primary education, English is the only language other than Italian offered. Its strong support at
all school levels is justified by the fact that English will predominantly be used by pupils in the
future, in spite of surveys and studies such as ELAN (2006) which highlight that other languages
are also important in the work arena. Other languages which are spoken at home by pupils with
an immigrant background have entered into approximately 90% of state schools, but the
development of such languages is not part of the educational objectives. The same is true
regarding structured support for the learning of Italian as a second language, although this may
be introduced into pilot projects by individual schools. Otherwise, the recognition and protection
of R/M languages has positive effects on education, in terms of organisation and teacher training,
in those areas where R/M languages are spoken.
In primary education, Italy’s profile is weaker than that of many other countries in terms of both
foreign language organisation and teaching. These results are due to the lack of a coherent
curriculum and the absence of regular monitoring and explicit requirements as to the proficiency
level to be achieved. This is linked to other issues that have direct effects on the linguistic offer
throughout education: lack of pre- and in-service training for primary teachers of foreign
languages; and an absence of a culture of language assessment in Italy (Machetti, 2010), both
at the research level and in teacher training. This has a direct impact on schools’ and teachers’
attitudes towards language testing and assessment (Barni and Machetti, 2005). This holds also
for other school levels.

Languages in secondary education (No provision of immigrant languages)

organisation
Extra support for diagnostic testing Monitoring of
Curriculum newcomers on entry language skills

NL support general absent absent school-based

Minimum Monitoring state

target group size of language Level to be funding
groups Curriculum CLiL scheduling requirements skills achieved available

r/ML all coherent and localised in school none absent school norms full
explicit hours

fL all general localised in school none school-based national or full

hours school-based

teaching
teacher Pre-service teacher in-service teacher Language level
qualifications training training required Mobility

NL support language teachers general general linked to CEFR N/A

r/ML language teachers subject-specific subject-specific N/A N/A

fL language teachers general general national or regionwide none

standards

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 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Languages offered in secondary education

r/ML Albanian, Catalan, Croatian, franco-Provençal,

french, friulian, Occitan, German, Greek, Ladin,
Sardinian, Slovene

fL English and another foreign language: compulsory

in lower secondary. English: compulsory in higher
secondary (with the exception of schools with
programmes related to language learning)

Secondary schools show relatively better results. The presence of a second foreign language
in lower secondary schools and the offer of R/M languages are factors which contribute to
increasing language richness. In higher secondary education, however, English dominates once
again. More languages (mainly French, German and Spanish) are offered only in education
institutions where the main objective is language learning.
The effects of the recent introduction of legislation regarding Content and Language Integrated
Learning (CLIL) methodology (2010) in the last year of higher secondary education (starting in
language schools from the third year) are not yet possible to predict: teacher training for this
objective has not yet been activated and CLIL is only supported by a limited budget. The same
is true for the recent introduction of MA degrees and pre-service training courses (TFA) for
teachers in secondary schools.
As holds for other school levels, recognition and support of immigrant languages in secondary
schools is completely absent.

Languages in further and higher education

further education (in three VEt institutions)
range of language state funding
programmes Curriculum Level to be achieved available

r/ML institution A

institution B limited coherent and explicit N/A partial

institution C

fL institution A wide variety coherent and explicit linked to CEFR partial

institution B wide variety coherent and explicit linked to CEFR partial

institution C limited general none partial

iL institution A limited general N/A none

institution B

institution C

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LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

higher education (in three universities)

target groups Level to be
for additional achieved in recruitment
support in the foreign of non- Mobility for Mobility for
Language(s) Languages on national language national language non-language
of instruction website language instruction students students students

university A national and national and restricted none international optional optional
foreign foreign and immigrant

university B national and national and restricted none international optional optional
foreign foreign and immigrant

university C national and national and restricted linked to CEFR international optional optional
foreign foreign and immigrant

As in other educational domains, the overall VET offer in our three sample cities – Rome, Milan
and Trieste – remains more or less linked to European languages, with English well above the
others. Teaching of Italian stands out in VET, due to the number of foreign adults for whom public
adult education is the only means of learning the language of the society in which they live and
work. We know that immigrants who invest in language training are low in number compared to
the actual number living in Italy. The effects of the Ministerial Decree of 4 June 2010, which has
made it compulsory to pass an exam in Italian at level A2 in order to obtain a long-term EU
residence permit, and the recent integration agreement, which introduces competence in Italian
as a requisite for living and working in Italy, cannot yet be calculated.
In the three universities surveyed, the range of languages is wide, but the languages on offer are
mainly present in Faculties of Arts.

Languages in audiovisual media and press

Non-national language Non-national language r/ML programmes Availability of sign

tV productions films in cinema outside of region language on tV

dubbed dubbed never in Milan or Rome never

sometimes subtitled regularly in Trieste
in Trieste

The choice of languages in audiovisual media is quantitatively and qualitatively scarce. The
practice of dubbing films and television programmes produced abroad does not help in making
contact with other languages in Italy. The only language occasionally available is English, but in a
very limited way. The other languages offered on radio are the languages used in programmes
produced by immigrant communities. Slovene, as an R/M language, has a certain presence in
Trieste.
Better results are obtained with regards to newspapers. The languages available reflect both the
presence of immigrant communities, and also of tourists, with the majority of newspapers being in
European languages. Italy is a destination for millions of tourists every year. In 2010 there were
44 million visitors, of which one fifth were from Germany alone. The top countries after Germany
are France, Austria, Switzerland and the UK, representing almost 60% of the yearly visitors
(RTBicocca, 2011). The availability of newspapers on sale in these languages seems to be
motivated by the need to satisfy demand from these visitors rather than from Italians approaching
these languages. The average of Italian readers of books and newspapers is well below the
European average (ISTAT, 2011; De Mauro, 2011). Newspapers in Slovene, Croatian and Albanian in
Trieste represent the geographical and cultural proximity of the countries in which such
languages are spoken and the historical opening of this city towards the Balkans.

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 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Languages in public services and spaces

institutionalised language strategies at city level
Language recruitment of Language record of
Website use of competencies in speakers of training offered language skills
N languages presence interpreters job descriptions languages to employees of employees

>4 Milan Rome Milan Milan

Milan Trieste
Trieste

3–4 Milan

1–2 Rome Rome Rome Rome

Trieste Trieste Trieste

Communication facilities
top five oral communication facilities top five written communication facilities

Health Tourism
Tourism Emergency
Emergency Health
Legal Immigration
Transport Transport

None of the three cities chosen for the research have significant institutional strategies regarding
the promotion of multilingualism. Linguistic competencies are generally not considered an
important requirement for employees when being hired, as a career strategy or as a form of
training on site. In public services in Trieste, Slovene is present, both in written and oral
communication facilities.
In these last two contexts the general profile of Italy has improved because in city council
institutions, especially in services for residents, more attention is being paid to languages other
than Italian due to an increasing demand from immigrants. This is proven by the informative
publicity and mediation services which are mostly in languages such as Chinese, Arabic,
Romanian, Russian and Albanian – the languages of immigrant communities present in Italy.
However, even in these services, European languages are more prevalent, both for their use
in tourism as well as their wide use among immigrants (in particular French and Spanish).

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LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Languages in business (out of 24 companies)

GENErAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs

mobility provision
language skills in

Awareness of Eu
use of networks
staff records of
use of external

language skills

programmes/

programmes/
Availability of

international

for language
Emphasis on

interpreters
recruitment

translators/

use of Eu
language
strategy

training

funding

funding
Widely practised 7 10 6 2 0 3 5 0

iNtErNAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs EXtErNAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs

documents/intranet
reward/promotion

Language used for

Language used for

Language used for

Language used for

Language used for

schemes based on

Language training

Language used for

Partnerships with

branding/identity
education sector

annual/business
language skills

software, web
programmes
use of CEfr

marketing
workplace
provision

website
reports
NL widely 2 2 3 4 24 21 24 21 24 20
practised

Business widely 4 2 6 5 5 5 5 6 10 10
English practised

Additional widely 2 1 3 2 2 1 2 2 2 3
languages practised

In the domain of business, Italy has obtained comparatively low results, confirming what has
already come to light in other research (ELAN, 2006). There is a lack of awareness on the
part of businesses (especially in small- and medium-sized companies, which are key to the
Italian economy) of the fact that weak foreign language competences limit the possibility of
internationalisation in an ever more global market. The low consideration of the importance
of even English is also surprising, when seen as being important for only certain categories of
employees. The majority of companies surveyed provide branding and marketing, work place
documents, the intranet, and their website only in Italian. This decreases the potential of reaching
international markets, in particular for medium- and large-sized companies. An effect of this is the
declaration by the businesses surveyed that they do not make much use of internal and external
translators. Can we consider this as a sign of the reluctant attitude of Italian business towards
foreign markets and consequently by foreign business to make investments in Italy? The presence
and use of different languages plays a key role in persuading companies to consider a place as
business location (Land, 2000).

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Key findings overall References

In conclusion, the LRE research confirms that Italian society Bagna C., Barni M., Vedovelli M., 2007, Italiano in contatto
is going through a general ‘question of languages’, and that con lingue immigrate: nuove vie del plurilinguismo in Italia.
there is a dominant fear of linguistic diversity (Vedovelli, 2010). In C. Consani, P. Desideri (a cura di), Minoranze linguistiche.
As a consequence, competence in foreign languages is weak, Prospettive, strumenti, territori. Roma, Carocci: 270–290.
from the most widely spoken to those which are less known,
but equally important to the people who speak them, as they Barni M., 2008, Mapping immigrant languages in Italy.
provide a link with Italy and support business in new markets. In M. Barni, G. Extra (eds.), Mapping linguistic diversity in
multicultural contexts, Berlin, Mouton de Gruyter: 217–242.
The cause can be found primarily in the monolingualism which
has been the key distinctive feature of educational policy since Barni M., Machetti S., 2005, The (lack of) professionalism in
the Unification of Italy in 1861, enforced by a general societal language assessment in Italy, poster abstract presented at
refusal of the languages of others. Secondly, it is a result of the 2nd EALTA Conference, Voss, Norway, June 2–5, 2005.
the inefficiency of institutional actions carried out by our state,
Caritas/Migrantes, Immigrazione. Dossier statistico 20011,
characterised by the inadequacy of resources, organisation
Roma, Idos.
and training for teachers, and a resulting lack of systematic
liaison with the business world. In schools, apart from Italian, De Mauro T., 1963, Storia linguistica dell’Italia unita, Bari, Laterza.
the focus is exclusively on English, which – above all – is taught
with limited resources which often make the effort of individual De Mauro T.,1979, L’Italia delle Italie, Firenze, Nuova Guaraldi.
teachers or schools ineffective. Even today, young people who
have reached the end of their schooling are characterised by De Mauro T. (a cura di), 1994, Come parlano gli italiani,
a large number of cases of ‘scholastic competence’ in a foreign Fondazione IBM Italia, Firenze, La Nuova Italia.
language: a euphemism alluding directly to lack of real world
De Mauro T., 2011, Per la storia linguistica dell’Italia
competence.
contemporanea, ‘Italica’, 88, 1: 40-58.
The immigrant languages present nowadays in Italy constitute a
ISTAT, 2007, La lingua italiana, i dialetti e le lingue straniere,
factor of neoplurilingualism. These languages can contribute to
Anno 2006, [Link]
making our country less afraid of linguistic diversity but this
dialetti_e_lingue_straniere_in_Italia.pdf
opportunity is still ignored.
ISTAT, 2011, La lettura dei libri in Italia, Anno 2010,
[Link]/it/archivio/27201
Promising initiatives and pilots
Land A. (2000), Languages speak volumes for global businesses.
The effects of the introduction of CLIL methodology in In P. Baker, J. Eversley (eds.), Multilingual Capital, London,
upper-secondary education and of MA and pre-service training Battlebrige Publications.
courses for teachers may be promising initiatives but this is not
yet possible to determine. The recent introduction of a year of Machetti S., 2010, Valutazione linguistica e formazione
training (TFA, DM 249/2010 and Ministerial Decree 31/2012) professionale. Un dibattito aperto. In M. Mezzadri (a cura di),
for new teachers in secondary schools plans to open courses Le lingue dell’educazione in un mondo senza frontier,
for teachers of Chinese, Arabic, Japanese, Modern Greek and Perugia, Guerra Edizioni: 293-302.
Slovene, in addition to English, French, German, Spanish and
Russian, which are traditionally offered. This may become an RTBicocca, 2011, Turismo Internazionale, Anno 2010,
important initiative for the promotion of multilingualism and the [Link]/studi/category/5-turismo
recognition of R/M and immigrant languages.
Vedovelli M., 2010, Prima persona plurale futuro indicativo:
There are some promising initiatives and pilots being carried noi saremo, Roma, Edup.
out by individual schools or teachers and they bear testimony
to teachers’ capacity for creative responses, for instance when
pupils who do not speak Italian join their class. In some cases
they are linked and documented at a regional level, in particular
by those regional authorities (such as Toscana, Lombardia, Emilia
Romagna and Trentino Alto-Adige) which provide more support
to languages other than Italian. However, in many cases these
initiatives are teacher- or school-specific. They are not continued
throughout a child’s school career, and they are also not aimed
at being reproduced in different contexts.

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11 LiThuania
Irena Smetonienė and Julija Moskvina

Country context Languages in official

According to the preliminary data of the population and housing documents and databases
census on 1 March 2011, there were 3.054 million people
ordinarily resident in Lithuania. Compared to the data from 2001
The national language, foreign languages and R/M
(3.484 million), the number of Lithuanian residents has
languages are dealt with in language legislation and/or
decreased by 12% (430,200 people). The major cause of this
language policy documents. The learning and teaching of
decline is emigration (76%): 328,300 citizens left and only
the national language abroad for children and/or adults
64,200 arrived. Negative natural change has also had a
originating from Lithuania is (co-)funded in belarus,
significant impact on the decline of the population (24%, or
Georgia, Latvia, Moldova, Poland, Russia and Ukraine. The
101,900 people).
European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages has
Lithuanian citizens are of various ethnic origins. The data not been signed/ratified by Lithuania. At the national level,
collected during the 2001 census shows that there were however, three R/M languages are recognised, protected
115 ethnic minority groups living in Lithuania, but only 29 had and promoted in official country documents or legislation:
100 or more representatives. Russian, Polish and belarusan. These three languages plus
Hebrew are also officially provided in education.
Lithuanians constitute the absolute majority of residents of
Lithuania (83.5% in 2001). The latest censuses suggest that the Official nationwide data collection mechanisms on
population in Lithuania is becoming more and more language diversity in Lithuania exist in terms of
homogeneous. periodically updated census data. In these data collection
mechanisms, national, R/M and immigrant language
The most variegated ethnic composition is in Vilnius: in 2001 varieties are addressed, based on a native language
Lithuanians totalled 57.8%; Poles 18.7%; and Russians 14% of the question.
total population of the city. The second city in terms of ethnic
composition is Klaipėda which has 71.3% Lithuanians, 21.3%
Russians, and approximately 2% Ukrainians and Belarusans. Lithuania particularly cares about the status and use of its state
language. In 1995, the Law on the State Language of the
The incoming flow of people into Lithuania is relatively small, and
Republic of Lithuania was adopted and a revision of this
due to the recent economic downturn it has decreased even
document has recently been submitted to the Seimas
further. According to the Department of Statistics, in 2010
(parliament). The purpose of the law is to determine the domains
Lithuania received 5,231 people from abroad, the number of
of protection and use of the state language; the duties of public
immigrants per 1,000 citizens being 1.6 (compared with 2.8 in
authorities and institutions with respect to the state language;
2008). Most newcomers were citizens of the Republic of
the right of citizens to use the state language in various domains;
Lithuania returning to live in their homeland.
and the national guarantees to the support and protection of the
In 2001, the census reported that 40% of the overall population state language. The law allows for a more transparent and
know one language besides their native language, a quarter of rational language policy. It helps to ensure the functioning of
the population know two languages, and about 6% know three Lithuanian in various spheres of life and promotes the further
or more languages besides their native language (the level of consolidation of the civil society of Lithuania. The new law will
proficiency was not surveyed). further contribute to the protection and enhancement of the
uniqueness, richness and vitality of the Lithuanian language –
the greatest common asset of the people of Lithuania – in the
context of a multicultural and multilingual European community
of nations.

As for the rights of ethnic minorities, including their right to

preserve their own languages and cultures, Lithuania has taken
on board many responsibilities in terms of the protection of
minority rights. Article 29 in the Lithuanian Constitution states
that a person may not have his or her rights restricted on the
basis of his or her nationality or language. The Article follows the
classical tradition of the concept of human rights that puts
discrimination based on language on the same level as that
which is based on race or gender. In comparison, the Maastricht
Treaty on the European Union does not mention discrimination
on the basis of language at all. From 1989–2009 the use of

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other languages was regulated by the Law on Ethnic Minorities. Member States a state language finds itself in the position of a
At present, multilingualism in education is governed by specific language spoken by a minority of the population rather than
laws and the Council of Europe’s Framework Convention for the the majority.
Protection of National Minorities (ratified on 8 March 2000).
Lithuania, like eight other EU Member States, has not ratified the The Lithuanian approach to multilingualism is also reflected in its
Council of Europe’s European Charter for Regional or Minority population census. In all the censuses, citizens have been asked
Languages. EU authorities should review the concepts of about the languages they know, but in 2011, the census
regional and ethnic minorities and formulate a new approach to questionnaire was improved. In order to collect data on
the fostering of linguistic and cultural diversity in Europe. This bilingualism/multilingualism, citizens had the option to declare
approach should also reflect the new reality that in some two or more native languages instead of one.

NL=National Language(s)
fL=foreign Languages
r/ML=regional or Minority Languages
iL=immigrant Languages

Languages in pre-primary education

(No provision of foreign languages and immigrant languages)

Minimum Pre-service in-service

group size teacher teacher state funding
target groups duration requirements days per week training training available

r/ML all ≥2 years none <0.5 day subject-specific subject-specific full

Additional NL all ≥2 years none 0.5–1 day subject-specific general full

support

Languages offered in pre-primary education

r/ML belarusan, Hebrew, Polish, Russian

According to the Ministry of Education, there are around 700 pre-school institutions in Lithuania.
In most of them, the language of education is Lithuanian, but there are some institutions in which
children are taught in Russian, Polish, Hebrew, French or Belarusan. In 1995 the government
officially recognised sign language as a native language of deaf people. The majority of children
of pre-school age begin to learn a foreign language one to two years prior to primary school, but
there are also many pre-primary schools where upon parents’ request, children start being taught
other languages (usually English) from the age of three.

Languages in primary education (No provision of immigrant languages)

organisation
Extra support for diagnostic testing on Monitoring of language
Curriculum newcomers entry skills

NL support coherent and explicit before mainstream all national standardised

start of Minimum Monitoring of

target language group size language Level to be state funding
groups Curriculum CLiL education scheduling requirements skills achieved available

r/ML all coherent widespread from year 1 in school none school-based national or full
and explicit hours regional
norms

fL all coherent localised from year 1 in school none school-based national or full
and explicit hours school norms

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teaching (No provision of immigrant languages)

Pre-service teacher in-service teacher
teacher qualifications training training Mobility

NL support language teachers subject-specific subject-specific N/A

r/ML language teachers subject-specific subject-specific N/A

fL language teachers subject-specific subject-specific informal financial support

Languages offered in primary education

r/ML belarusan, Hebrew, Polish, Russian

fL One language from English, french and German is

compulsory

Primary education is carried out in native languages (Lithuanian, Russian, Polish, Hebrew, and
Belarusan) in accordance with the programme adopted by the Ministry of Education. However,
upon the request of parents or guardians, some selected curriculum subjects may be taught in
the official state language. A foreign language (English, French or German) is compulsory from
the second year at school. Immigrant languages in (pre) primary education are neither practised
nor governed by any legislation. In Lithuania great attention is paid to teacher training. Only
individuals who have obtained the qualification of primary school teacher can work in primary
schools and only those who have a certain degree of competence in the particular language
can teach a foreign language. There is no special training for teachers who work with ethnic
minorities, but it is assumed that the necessary methodological skills teachers receive during
their higher education are common to all languages.

Languages in secondary education

organisation (No provision of immigrant languages)
Extra support for diagnostic testing on Monitoring of language
Curriculum newcomers entry skills

NL support coherent and explicit before mainstream immigrants only national standardised

Minimum Monitoring state

target group size of language Level to be funding
groups Curriculum CLiL scheduling requirements skills achieved available

r/ML all coherent and widespread in school none national national or full
explicit hours standardised regional
norms

fL all coherent and localised in school >10 school-based linked to CEFR full
explicit hours

teaching (No provision of immigrant languages)

teacher Pre-service teacher in-service teacher Language level
qualifications training training required Mobility

NL support language teachers subject-specific subject-specific national or school- N/A

based norms

r/ML language teachers subject-specific subject-specific linked to CEFR N/A

fL language teachers subject-specific subject-specific none informal financial

support

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Languages offered in secondary education

r/ML belarusan, Hebrew, Polish, Russian

fL One language from English, french and German is

compulsory. Other languages are optional

Article 30 of the Law on Education proclaims that every citizen of the Republic of Lithuania and
foreigners with the right to permanent or temporary residence shall be guaranteed instruction in
the state language so as to provide the opportunity for smooth integration into public life. Some
schools of general or non-formal education support educational provision in the languages of
ethnic minorities and seek to maintain their culture. In accordance with these regulations and
parents’ requests, the overall curriculum or certain subjects may be taught in one of the
languages of ethnic minorities. In such schools, the subject of the Lithuanian language is an
integral part of the curriculum and its teaching receives no less time than the teaching of native
languages. If there is a real need for additional training in the native language and a specialist of
the required language is available, the state, municipal pre-primary schools and schools of
general education usually enable ethnic minority students to learn it along with the main
language of education provision.
There is one compulsory foreign language in secondary education. Usually pupils continue to
learn the same language they have chosen during primary school (English, German or French)
but they can also choose from other foreign languages. According to the general education
plans for primary and secondary education (2011–2013), pupils can choose their second foreign
language from English, Latvian, Polish, French, Russian, German and other languages. The school
should make it possible to choose a second foreign language from at least two additional foreign
languages and to provide the necessary conditions to learn the chosen language.
There is no educational provision of immigrant languages because there is no specific demand
for it. However, there are some legal presumptions – the Law on Education states that the children
of a person with the right to permanent or temporary residence in the Republic of Lithuania shall
be provided with the opportunity to learn the state language, receive instruction in the state
language and, where possible, to also learn their native language.
Article 48 of the Law on Education determines who has a right to work as a teacher, namely,
a person who has attained a higher or post-secondary education level and has a pedagogical
qualification. A wide range of specialities is provided in the Lithuanian University of Educational
Sciences. This institution prepares teachers of Lithuanian, Russian, Polish and Belarusan as native
languages and teachers of English, German and French as foreign languages.

Languages in further and higher education

further education (in three VEt institutions) (No provision of immigrant languages)
range of language state funding
programmes Curriculum Level to be achieved available

r/ML institution A

institution B wide variety coherent and explicit N/A full

institution C

fL institution A wide variety coherent and explicit national full

institution B wide variety coherent and explicit national full

institution C

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higher education (in three universities)

target groups Level to be
for additional achieved in recruitment
support in the foreign of non- Mobility for Mobility for
Language(s) Languages on national language national language non-language
of instruction website language instruction students students students

university A national and national and none linked to CEFR only optional optional
foreign foreign international

university B national and national and restricted none international optional optional
foreign foreign and immigrant

university C national, foreign national and restricted linked to CEFR international optional optional
and R/M foreign and immigrant

As vocational schools primarily focus on vocational subjects, languages actually receive less
attention. In vocational schools that also provide the certificate of secondary education, foreign
languages must be taught according to the programmes and standards approved by the Ministry
of Education. Students of this level tend more often to choose Russian as their first foreign
language perhaps as a result of their chosen speciality.
Universities have their own language policy. For example, at Vilnius University, Latin is compulsory
for all students of the Faculty of Philology. In addition to the subject of Lithuanian philology, the
Faculty provides study programmes in Russian, Polish, English, German, French and Scandinavian
philology. Double specialities combining Lithuanian studies with studies of languages like Polish,
German, Spanish, Italian, Estonian, Latvian, Turkish, Slovenian or Czech are particularly popular
among students of the faculty. In the first years of the undergraduate programme, students
throughout the whole university receive some training in foreign languages. In general, most
undergraduates continue the advanced studies of the first or second foreign language they
chose at school; however, recently there has been a tendency to study languages that were not
taught at school (for example Portuguese or Polish). Lithuanian philology students are also
required to attend language courses in Latvian, Polish and Latin. Other universities choose foreign
languages with respect to their specific needs; English being a preferred language. Universities
also provide an increasing number of study programmes taught in English (especially at graduate
level); by doing so they hope to attract students from other countries. Lithuanian citizens of Polish
background can study in Polish at all education levels.

Languages in audiovisual media and press

Non-national language Non-national language r/ML programmes Availability of sign

tV productions films in cinema outside of region language on tV

dubbed subtitled always sometimes

Besides the audio-visual content available in Lithuanian, listeners of Lithuanian radio and
audiences of television and cinema are able to select from broadcasts and films mostly in Russian
and English. On national television programmes, productions in languages other than Lithuanian
are usually dubbed. In cinemas, films are subtitled except for works aimed at children, which are
usually dubbed in Lithuanian. The deaf and hearing-impaired are poorly catered for by television,
which results from the lack of subtitling of television programmes, as well as of translating
television production into sign language, and finally from the poor quality of translation when it is
present. With regard to the Lithuanian press, books, as well as newspapers, magazines and other
periodicals are declining in number as well as in size of circulation.

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Languages in public services and spaces

institutionalised language strategies at city level
Language recruitment of Language record of
Website use of competencies in speakers of training offered language skills
N languages presence interpreters job descriptions languages to employees of employees

>4 Vilnius

3–4 Klaipėda Vilnius Vilnius

Kaunas

1–2 Vilnius Kaunas Klaipėda Vilnius

Kaunas Klaipėda

Communication facilities
top five oral communication facilities top five written communication facilities

Tourism Education
Education Tourism
Emergency Theatre
Health Transport
= Social = Emergency
= Transport = Social
= Immigration and integration = Immigration and integration

The examination of the use of non-state languages in the public service sector in three cities in
Lithuania shows that the choice of language depends on the ethnic composition of the population
in different regions of the country. Municipalities provide citizens of various ethnic backgrounds
with educational services in their native language. There is good provision of public services
in Russian in major Lithuanian cities. Recently, there is growing attention from local authorities
towards newcomers from the EU or other countries. People who have insufficient knowledge of
the state language can receive municipal services orally and/or in writing in both English and
Russian. In the tourist sector, the range of services is just slightly wider. Despite the relatively
widespread use of foreign languages in various spheres of municipal activities, the attention
paid by local governmental institutions to the promotion of the language skills of their staff is
restricted, although greater than in the private sector.

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Languages in business (out of 24 companies)

GENErAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs

mobility provision
language skills in

Awareness of Eu
use of networks
staff records of
use of external

language skills

programmes/

programmes/
Availability of

international

for language
Emphasis on

interpreters
recruitment

translators/

use of Eu
language
strategy

training

funding

funding
Widely practised 4 17 3 13 1 3 3 1

iNtErNAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs EXtErNAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs

documents/intranet
reward/promotion

Language used for

Language used for

Language used for

Language used for

Language used for

schemes based on

Language training

Language used for

Partnerships with

branding/identity
education sector

annual/business
language skills

software, web
programmes
use of CEfr

marketing
workplace
provision

website
reports
NL widely 0 0 2 1 24 21 24 23 23 23
practised

Business widely 3 0 8 0 12 12 10 14 15 21
English practised

Additional widely 0 0 1 0 3 3 3 12 12 17
languages practised

There is a relatively wide spectrum of languages used by and within the companies surveyed in
Lithuania. The most common business language is English, but quite often advertising and
marketing make use of Russian and German too. The use of foreign languages in business
corresponds in principle to the major trends of the country’s foreign trade. Depending on the
objectives and nature of a company’s activities, languages like Latvian, Polish, Estonian, Danish,
French and Bulgarian are being used for internal and external communication in some of the
hotels, supermarkets and banks focused upon. The results of the survey suggest that only a small
proportion of companies operating in the country recognise language strategies as a significant
element of the company’s development although more research on this topic is required. Despite
the variety of languages used in Lithuanian business, companies pay insufficient attention to
encouraging staff to learn or improve their language skills. The main and most plausible causes of
the current situation are the following – the employees’ proficiency of foreign languages is often
regarded as sufficient by their employers or the costs of employees’ training seems too high to
the owners of the companies (especially in small- and medium-sized enterprises). On the other
hand, entrepreneurs exploit the opportunities provided by their networks operating in Lithuania
and in foreign countries to improve the language competencies of their staff.

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Key findings overall References

The Lithuanian law allows and promotes plurilingualism Lietuvos ekonomikos perspektyvos, 2009. DnB NORD bankas,
(individual multilingualism). Still, the efficient implementation of 2009.
the EC’s European Strategy for Multilingualism is a challenge
which lacks institutional co-ordination and co-operation and a LR Visuomenės informavimo įstatymas, 1996 m. liepos 2 d.,
well-defined distribution of responsibilities. Nr. I-1418. Valstybės žinios, 2006-07-27, Nr. 82-3254.

Markevičienė R., Tamulynienė L., Lietuvos spaudos statistika

2010. Lietuvos Martyno Mažvydo biblioteka. Bibliografijos ir
Promising initiatives and pilots knygotyros centras. Vilnius, 2011.
Since 2010, the Languages Ambassador’s Awards initiative has
Pedagogų rengimo programos. Prieiga per internetą:
been promoting multilingualism in Lithuania. This annual initiative
[Link]/[Link]?pageID=2722
is co-ordinated by the Education Exchanges Support Foundation
in partnership with other institutions (including the British Teisės aktų bazė. Prieiga per internetą:
Council) as part of the European Label programme. The title of [Link]/pls/inter/w5_show?p_r=3984&p_k=1
Languages Ambassador of the Year has already been awarded to
an individual (2010), a business enterprise (2011), and a school Informacinės visuomenės plėtros komitetas. Prieiga per
(2012). The organisers of the Languages Ambassador’s Awards internetą:
seek to contribute to the understanding that investment in [Link]/pls/inter/w5_show?p_r=6141&p_k=1
language learning pays off at both the individual and business
level, and to encourage the strategic planning at state level of Lietuvos statistikos departamentas. Prieiga per internetą:
the investment in language teaching. [Link]

Švietimo ir mokslo ministerija. Prieiga per internetą:

[Link]

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12 neTherLanDS
12.1 netherlands at large
Saskia Benedictus-van den Berg

Country context Languages in official

This profile describes the situation in the Netherlands as a whole; documents and databases
the specific situation in the Province of Friesland is described in
the profile on Friesland.
The national language, foreign languages and R/M
The Kingdom of the Netherlands has a population of 16.6 million languages are dealt with in language legislation and/or
people. Approximately 1.9 million (or 11.4%) are of non-Western language policy documents. The learning and teaching of
origin (first or second generation immigrants). Two-thirds of the the national language abroad for children and/or adults
immigrants have a Turkish, Moroccan, Antillean or Surinamese originating from the Netherlands is (co-)funded in more
background (CBS, 2011a). They can be divided into an than 80 countries, in particular in the neighbouring
ex-colonial group, the Antillean and Surinamese immigrants that countries Germany, belgium and france. The European
come from Caribbean areas where Dutch is the official language, Charter for Regional or Minority Languages has been
and a non-colonial group, Turkish and Moroccan immigrants that ratified by the Netherlands. The following 5 R/M
have had no previous contact with Dutch language and culture. languages are recognised in the Charter: frisian,
Limburgish, Low Saxon, Romani, and yiddish. There is
Dutch is the official language of the Netherlands. This was only official provision in regionwide education, supported by
incorporated in the law in 1995 (Nederlandse Taalunie, 2011). In the Charter, for frisian only.
the same law (Algemene Wet Bestuursrecht) the Frisian language
was given official status within the province of Friesland. Official data collection mechanisms on language diversity
in the Netherlands only exist for frisian, in terms of
In the Netherlands, non-Dutch nationals, and in particular non- periodically updated survey data. In these data collection
Western immigrants, are required to pass an exam on knowledge mechanisms, frisian is addressed based on a home
of the Dutch language and culture/history to show that they are language question plus a language proficiency question
sufficiently integrated into Dutch society. The government in terms of whether (and how well) the language can be
emphasises the citizens’ own responsibility and attaches great spoken/understood/read/written.
importance to the Dutch language. This is reflected in the
outcomes of this study.
Nationwide data collection on language diversity does not take
place, although regularly updated databases on language
diversity would provide crucial input for policy development,
as they do in other countries.

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NL=National Language(s)
fL=foreign Languages
r/ML=regional or Minority Languages
iL=immigrant Languages

Languages in pre-primary education

(No provision of foreign languages and immigrant languages)

Minimum Pre-service in-service

group size teacher teacher state funding
target groups duration requirements days per week training training available

r/ML all ≥2 years none >1 day general general full

Additional NL all ≥2 years none >1 day general general full

support

Languages offered in pre-primary education

r/ML frisian in friesland only

Attending pre-primary education is optional but widespread. The importance attached to the
Dutch language by the Ministry of Education is illustrated by programmes that are offered for
children at pre-primary school ‘to combat (Dutch) language deficiencies and delays in (Dutch)
language development’ (Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap, 2011b). This is in line
with a European Parliament resolution of 2009 which says that the national language in particular
needs to be addressed at pre-school level.

Languages in primary education (No provision of immigrant languages)

organisation
Extra support for diagnostic testing on Monitoring of language
Curriculum newcomers entry skills

NL support general before mainstream absent national standardised

start of Minimum Monitoring of

target language group size language Level to be state funding
groups Curriculum CLiL education scheduling requirements skills achieved available

r/ML all general localised from year 1 in school none absent national or full
hours regional
norms

fL all general localised end-phase in school none school-based national or full

only hours school norms

teaching
Pre-service teacher in-service teacher
teacher qualifications training training Mobility

NL support general teachers subject-specific general N/A

r/ML language teachers subject-specific general N/A

fL general teachers general subject-specific none

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Languages offered in primary education

r/ML frisian in friesland only

fL English is compulsory; french, German and Spanish

are optional

Education is compulsory for children aged five to 16. However, over 95% of children start primary
school at the age of four. As in pre-primary education, within primary education there are
programmes to ‘combat (Dutch) language delays and deficiencies’ (Ministerie van Onderwijs,
Cultuur en Wetenschap, 2011b). The Dutch government stresses the importance of Dutch
language and arithmetic throughout education. Frameworks have been developed for language
and for arithmetic. These frameworks specify levels of proficiency that are linked to different
milestones in pupils’ educational careers, such as the end of primary education. The frameworks
have been incorporated in a law that came into force in 2010, but the practical implementation
of the framework levels in educational contents and exams will take place gradually in the coming
years (Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap, 2011a).
English is compulsory in the two final years of primary education. Education in immigrant
languages used to be provided for by law. From 1974–2004, extra-curricular education in
immigrant languages was provided at primary school level and funded by government. Funding
was terminated on the grounds that education in immigrant languages ‘was in contradiction with
the policy of integration of immigrant minority children’ (Extra & Yaǧmur, 2006: 55). Mastery of
Dutch is seen by government as the basis for integration (Eerste Kamer, 2004). Nevertheless, the
law still permits the auxiliary use of languages in addition to Dutch for children from non-Dutch
backgrounds if that supports their start in and transition to Dutch education.
In response to the lack of public provision of immigrant languages at (pre-)primary education
level, private initiatives have been taken. For example, Chinese, Japanese, Polish and Russian
schools have been established that provide complementary education in the languages and
cultures referred to. Those initiatives are found all over the country and are mostly community-
based. In addition, a mixed Dutch-Turkish foundation has been set up to develop the provision
of (extra-curricular) Turkish language education (Stichting TON). These private initiatives put into
practice the recommendations made by the Education Council of the Netherlands to the Dutch
government in 2001, regarding education of immigrant languages (Onderwijsraad, 2001). These
proposals were not taken up by government.

Languages in secondary education

organisation
Extra support for diagnostic testing on Monitoring of language
Curriculum newcomers entry skills

NL support general before mainstream absent school-based

Minimum Monitoring state

target group size of language Level to be funding
groups Curriculum CLiL scheduling requirements skills achieved available

r/ML all general localised in school none school-based national or full

hours regional
norms

fL all general localised in school none school-based linked to CEFR full

hours

iL all general absent in school none school-based national or full

hours regional
norms

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teaching
teacher Pre-service in-service teacher Language level
qualifications teacher training training required Mobility

NL support language teachers subject-specific subject-specific national or school- N/A

based norms

r/ML language teachers subject-specific general N/A N/A

fL language teachers subject-specific subject-specific national or regionwide informal financial

standards support

iL language teachers subject-specific general N/A N/A

Languages offered in secondary education

r/ML frisian in friesland only

fL Compulsory: English plus one other language at the

(languages in italics at upper secondary only) highest level of secondary.
Optional: Ancient Greek, Chinese, french, German,
Italian, Latin, Russian, Spanish

iL Arabic, Turkish

The framework for language in the primary education domain is also used in secondary
education. Proficiency in Dutch is compulsory at all levels of secondary education and is also
part of all exams, as is English. Newcomers to the Netherlands first attend separate education
for, on average, two years, which focuses on Dutch language skills and other essential skills. After
that they enter mainstream education. Apart from English, a second foreign language is only
compulsory at the highest level of secondary education; this is usually German or French and
sometimes Spanish. Schools are free to offer additional foreign languages.
Turkish and Arabic can be offered as subjects and taken as an exam subject. However, schools
decide if they want to offer these languages and not many do so. Moreover, the proportion of
pupils taking exams in either Turkish or Arabic is low and dropped from approximately 0.28% in
2002 to 0.08% in 2003. It has now slightly risen again to 0.13% in 2011, but is still not at the level
of 2002 (Alberts & Erens, 2011). A possible explanation for this decrease is the abolition of
government funding for education in immigrant languages mentioned above. This low uptake of
Turkish and Arabic is all the more noteworthy given the increase in the number of Turkish-Dutch
and Moroccan-Dutch children in primary schools in urban areas. The answers given above
pertain to those schools that do offer Arabic and/or Turkish.
A recent phenomenon is the increase in secondary schools offering a bilingual programme
through Dutch and English (usually referred to as Content and Language Integrated Learning –
CLIL). In most cases this concerns the highest level of secondary education which prepares for
university, but more recently it has also been implemented at lower levels (Europees Platform,
2011a). In addition, at pre-primary and primary school level more and more schools increase
the time they spend on English language education (early foreign language learning) (Europees
Platform, 2011b). These developments have raised the question as to the bilingual qualifications
teachers at bilingual schools should have.

Languages in further and higher education

further education (in three VEt institutions) (No provision of immigrant and r/M languages)
range of language state funding
programmes Curriculum Level to be achieved available

fL institution A limited general linked to CEFR partial

institution B wide variety coherent and explicit linked to CEFR partial

institution C wide variety general linked to CEFR partial

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LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

higher education (in two universities)

target groups Level to be
for additional achieved in recruitment
support in the foreign of non- Mobility for Mobility for
Language(s) Languages on national language national language non-language
of instruction website language instruction students students students

university A national and national and all linked to CEFR only optional optional
foreign foreign international

university B national and national and all linked to CEFR only optional optional
foreign foreign international

The framework for language in primary and secondary education is also used in Vocational
Education and Training (VET).
In university education the Anglo-Saxon education system (Bachelor-Master) was introduced from
2002 onwards. It was part of the process to create a European Higher Education Area (Bologna
process). As a result of these changes as well as an increased focus on internationalisation in
general to attract international students, Dutch university education is now increasingly offering
many Master’s courses in English. This has fuelled a discussion about the use of English versus
Dutch in university education and about the quality of education in terms of proficiency in English
of both university teachers and students.

Languages in audiovisual media and press

Non-national language Non-national language r/ML programmes Availability of sign

tV productions films in cinema outside of region language on tV

subtitled subtitled sometimes sometimes

The common practice of subtitling television programmes in languages other than Dutch means
that from an early age children are exposed to a range of different languages. This is in line with
the European Parliament Resolution on Multilingualism (2009). However, the large majority of
foreign programmes offered on Dutch television are in English, so viewers are mainly exposed to
British and American English language and culture. Children’s programmes, cartoons in particular,
are often dubbed.
In Friesland, the main regional radio and television broadcaster uses Frisian most of the time and
some Dutch. Thus, Frisian audiovisual media in particular are in line with CoE and EU
recommendations in that they show the language variation in the province.
The range of languages other than Dutch offered on Dutch television is limited.

Languages in public services and spaces

institutionalised language strategies at city level
Language recruitment of Language record of
Website use of competencies in speakers of training offered language skills
N languages presence interpreters job descriptions languages to employees of employees

>4 Amsterdam Amsterdam Amsterdam Amsterdam

Leeuwarden

3–4

1–2 Rotterdam Leeuwarden Leeuwarden Leeuwarden

Leeuwarden

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 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Communication facilities
top five oral communication facilities top five written communication facilities

Health Tourism
Legal Health
Social Social
Tourism Transport
Transport Legal

The range of languages that are used in public services and spaces (in the cities studied) is
limited. Dutch is the standard. Only occasionally are Turkish and Arabic used, but the most offered
language is English. In Friesland, people are allowed to use Frisian for communication with public
services. However, written information from those services is often available in Dutch only.
A service that can be used for all kinds of public affairs is a phone interpreter service
(tolkentelefoon). The service has been offered most often in healthcare. It used to be paid for by
government, but its funding ended on 1 January 2012. It is now considered to be the patients’
own responsibility to be able to speak Dutch or to arrange and pay for their own interpreter
(Rijksoverheid, 2011).

Languages in business (out of 24 companies)

GENErAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs

mobility provision
language skills in

Awareness of Eu
use of networks
staff records of
use of external

language skills

programmes/

programmes/
Availability of

international

for language
Emphasis on

interpreters
recruitment

translators/

use of Eu
language
strategy

training

funding

funding
Widely practised 2 14 4 1 1 0 1 0

iNtErNAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs EXtErNAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs

documents/intranet
reward/promotion

Language used for

Language used for

Language used for

Language used for

Language used for

schemes based on

Language training

Language used for

Partnerships with

branding/identity
education sector

annual/business
language skills

software, web
programmes
use of CEfr

marketing
workplace
provision

website
reports

NL widely 1 0 0 0 22 20 20 23 20 23
practised

Business widely 2 0 3 0 9 11 11 7 10 13
English practised

Additional widely 1 0 2 0 3 3 2 3 4 5
languages practised

Export accounts for over 70% of the GDP (CBS, 2011b). This importance is not reflected in the
Netherlands’ profile of languages in business, although not all four company types investigated
(banks, hotels, supermarkets, and construction companies) are necessarily company types that
focus on international business. In particular, local and regional companies will not be
internationally oriented. Overall, the role of language in businesses is not explicit. Businesses
could be made more aware of the economic benefits of multilingualism.
In Frisian companies, Frisian is mostly used informally and written Frisian does not play a role at all.

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LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Key findings overall Eerste Kamer der Staten-Generaal (2004). Beeïndiging

bekostiging onderwijs in allochtone levende talen. Available at:
At a time of increasing language diversity and globalisation, [Link]/wetsvoorstel/29019_beeindiging_
the Dutch government places emphasis on the Dutch bekostiging Accessed 7 October 2011.
language. This is in line with EC and CoE policy. On the other
hand, EC/CoE policy also stresses the inclusion of minority, European Parliament (2009). EP Resolution on Multilingualism: an
foreign and immigrant languages within education and in other asset for Europe and a shared commitment. Brussels: European
sectors of society. Especially with regard to immigrant Parliament.
languages, Dutch policy could be aligned better with
Europees Platform (2011a). Tto. Tweetalig onderwijs - Content and
European policy.
Language Integrated Learning. Available at:
Nevertheless, there are various initiatives that recognise the [Link] Accessed 16 December 2011.
value and benefits of multilingualism. For example, there are
Europees Platform (2011b). Vroeg vreemde talen onderwijs.
several private schools that provide additional education in
Available at:
immigrant languages. Within secondary education, teaching
[Link] Accessed 16 December 2011.
subjects through English (CLIL) is becoming more widespread.
The mother tongue + 2 objective is not fully met, but English Extra, G. and D. Gorter (eds.) (2001). The other languages of
being compulsory at secondary school means that most pupils Europe: Demographic, sociolinguistic and educational
will learn at least one foreign language. perspectives. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

Extra, G. and K. Yaǧmur (2006). ‘Immigrant Minority Languages

Promising initiatives and pilots ad Home and at School. A Case Study of the Netherlands.’
European Education 38.2, pp. 50–63.
An interesting innovative project as an example of good practice
is carried out in the city of Utrecht, the fourth largest city in the Martinovic, B. (2011). The Dutch City of Utrecht as a European
Netherlands. Utrecht describes itself as a multilingual hotspot Hotspot and Laboratory for Multilingualism. Utrecht: Utrecht
(City of Utrecht, 2009: 1). A large part of the population is able to University. Available at:
speak three or more languages; the link with European policy is [Link]
explicitly made in the project, and the goal of mother tongue + 2 images/Secretarie/Internationaal/pdf/
is promoted. Furthermore, the city hosts many international Multilingualism%[Link]&embedded=true&chrome=true
companies and Utrecht’s university attracts many foreign Accessed 19 December 2011.
students. The city wants to take this characteristic as a starting
Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap (2011a).
point towards the development of Utrecht as a laboratory for
Doorlopende leerlijnen taal en rekenen. Available at:
multilingualism (ibidem: 1). Various studies around multilingualism
[Link]/ Accessed 14 October 2011.
have been launched, and multilingual projects set up (ibidem). In
2011 a report was published as part of the project: ‘The Dutch Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap (2011b).
City of Utrecht as a European Hotspot and Laboratory for Leerachterstand. Taalachterstand bij peuters. Available at:
Multilingualism’ (Martinovic, 2011). [Link]/onderwerpen/leerachterstand/
taalachterstand-bij-peuters Accessed 16 December 2011.

References Mortier, J. (2009). Nederland meertalenland. Feiten,

perspectieven en meningen over meertaligheid. Amsterdam:
Alberts, R.V.J. and B.J.M. Erens (2011). Verslag van de Aksant.
examencampagne 2011 voortgezet onderwijs. Arnhem: Stichting
Cito Instituut voor Toetsontwikkeling. Nederlandse Taalunie, 2011. Het Nederlandse taalgebied.
Available at:
Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek (2011a). ‘Bevolking; leeftijd, [Link]
herkomstgroepering, geslacht en regio, 1 januari.’ Available at: [Link] Accessed October 2011.
[Link]
Accessed 9 December 2011. Onderwijsraad, 2001. Samen naar de taalschool. Nieuwe
moderne vreemde talen in perspectief. Den Haag. Available at:
Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek, 2011b. De Nederlandse [Link]/upload/publicaties/423/documenten/
economie 2010. Den Haag/Heerlen: Centraal Bureau voor de advies_taalschool.pdf Accessed 27 October 2011.
Statistiek. Available at:
[Link]/NR/rdonlyres/03E81D9F-8714-4AEA-B0F7- Rijksoverheid (2011). Tolk- en vertaaldiensten in de zorg.
8EC72111EA56/0/[Link] Accessed: 28 October 2011. Available at:
[Link]/onderwerpen/kwaliteit-van-de-zorg/tolk-
City of Utrecht, Dept. Public, Internal, Subsidy Affairs (2009). en-vertaaldiensten-in-de-zorg Accessed 13 October 2011.
Utrecht: Multilingual hotspot and laboratory in Europe.
Available at:
[Link]
hotspot-and-laboratory-in-europe_en.pdf Accessed 13 October
2011.

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 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

12 neTherLanDS
12.2 Friesland
Saskia Benedictus-van den Berg

Regional context Languages in official

This profile pertains to the situation in the province of Friesland documents and databases
and focuses on the particularities of that province across the
following domains: Languages in official documents and
The national language, foreign languages and frisian are
databases, pre-primary education, primary education and
dealt with in language legislation and language policy
secondary education. It is recommended that this profile is
documents. Next to Dutch, frisian enjoys the status of
read together with the profile on the Netherlands.
being a co-official language of the Netherlands.
Friesland is a province in the north of the Netherlands. It is a
Official data collection mechanisms on language diversity
largely agricultural province (Provinsje Friesland, 2010) and is
in the Netherlands only exist for frisian, in terms of
not as densely populated as the country as a whole: 193
periodically updated survey data. In these data collection
people/km2 compared to 491 nationwide (CBS, 2012). Friesland’s
mechanisms, frisian is addressed, based on a home
nearly 650,000 inhabitants constitute about 4% of the total
language question plus a language proficiency question
population of the Netherlands. The proportion of non-Western
in terms of whether (and how well) the language can be
immigrants is 3.7%; this is considerably less than the proportion
spoken/understood/read/written.
of 11.4% for the Netherlands as a whole. People with an Iraqi,
Moroccan, Surinamese or Antillean background make up 39%
of the non-western immigrants in Friesland (CBS, 2011).
Frisian is the only minority language for which the Dutch
Frisian is the official language of the province, next to Dutch, government has ratified Part III of the European Charter for
making Friesland the only officially bilingual province of the Regional or Minority Languages (ECRML); other regional
Netherlands. Slightly more than half of the population of languages are only recognised under Part II. The ratification led
Friesland has Frisian as their mother tongue. The large majority to the setting up of the Advisory Body for the Frisian Language
of the inhabitants can understand the language either well (20%) (‘Consultatief orgaan Fries’) in 1998, an advisory body to the
or very well (65%). Three quarters of the population are able to Minister of Internal Affairs (Ministerie van Binnenlandse Zaken en
speak Frisian at a reasonable to high level. Again three-quarters Koninkrijksrelaties, 2011). The Dutch Parliament also ratified the
of the population report to read Frisian reasonably, well, or very Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities,
well. However, only 12% report to write well in Frisian (Provinsje in 2005, thereby recognising Frisians as a national minority
Friesland, 2011a). (Riemersma & De Jong, 2007).

The legal position of Frisian was arranged in 1995 in the

Algemene Wet Bestuursrecht. In 2011, the Dutch government
proposed a new bill on the use of Frisian. The aim of the bill is
to guarantee everybody the right to use Dutch or Frisian in
dealings with the judiciary and administration within the Province
of Friesland and thus to strengthen the possibilities of using
Frisian. Furthermore, the bill foresees the institution of a Frisian
Language Council. In practice, this means that the remit of the
aforementioned Advisory Body is enlarged (Ministerie van
Binnenlandse Zaken en Koninkrijksrelaties, 2011). Most of the
27 municipalities in Friesland have a specific language policy
(Provinsje Friesland, 2011a).

Within Friesland there are two mechanisms for data collection on

language diversity. First of all, extensive language surveys have
been carried out in 1967, 1980, and 1994; the next survey
round is being planned for the near future. Apart from that,
every four years the Provincial authorities carry out a basic
survey into Frisian language proficiency and use in the province
(De Fryske taalatlas). The first edition of this survey appeared in
2007; it provides the authorities in Friesland with basic
information to develop their language policy (Provinsje Fryslân,
2011a). These surveys do not provide information on immigrant
languages; the focus is on Frisian.

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LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

NL=National Language(s)
fL=foreign Languages
r/ML=regional or Minority Languages
iL=immigrant Languages

Languages in pre-primary education

(No provision of foreign languages and immigrant languages)

Minimum Pre-service in-service

group size teacher teacher state funding
target groups duration requirements days per week training training available

r/ML all ≥2 years none >1 day general general full

Additional NL all ≥2 years none >1 day general general full

support

Languages offered in pre-primary education

r/ML frisian

There are over sixty bilingual (Dutch-Frisian) or Frisian playgroups in Friesland (Sintrum Frysktalige
Berne-opfang, 2011). The Centre for Frisian-language Day Care (Sintrum Frysktalige Berne-opfang)
is responsible for running these playgroups (Riemersma & De Jong, 2007).
In teacher training for pre-primary education only general attention is paid to multilingualism in
the province; teaching Frisian is not part of formal training.
Within pre-primary education, attention is paid to multilingualism, as well as learning Dutch and
Frisian, but there is no provision for foreign and immigrant languages. EU recommendations are
thus followed to a certain extent, but this could be enlarged even further.

Languages in primary education (No provision of immigrant languages)

organisation
Extra support for diagnostic testing on Monitoring of language
Curriculum newcomers entry skills

NL support general before mainstream absent national standardised

start of Minimum Monitoring of

target language group size language Level to be state funding
groups Curriculum CLiL education scheduling requirements skills achieved available

r/ML all general localised from year 1 in school none absent national or full
hours regional
norms

fL all general localised end-phase in school none school-based national or full

only hours school norms

teaching
Pre-service teacher in-service teacher
teacher qualifications training training Mobility

NL support general teachers subject-specific general N/A

r/ML language teachers subject-specific general N/A

fL general teachers general subject-specific none

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 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Languages offered in primary education

r/ML frisian

fL Compulsory: English
Optional: french, German, Spanish

Frisian is a compulsory subject in primary education in Friesland. In many cases, however, the
amount of time spent on Frisian is less than one hour per week (Inspectie van het Onderwijs,
2010); this was deemed insufficient by the Committee of Experts of the ECRML, given the signed
and ratified undertakings in Part III of the ECRML (Council of Europe, 2008).
National education laws permit the use of Frisian as language of instruction, and many schools do
so. However, more time is spent on Frisian in lower than in higher grades. A quarter of all primary
schools do not use Frisian as language of instruction at all (Inspectie van het Onderwijs, 2010).
The Education Inspectorate found that around 20% of the teachers are not formally qualified to
teach Frisian (ibidem). Within primary education in Friesland, there is no specific attention paid
to immigrant languages.

Languages in secondary education (No provision of immigrant languages)

organisation
Extra support for diagnostic testing on Monitoring of language
Curriculum newcomers entry skills

NL support general before mainstream absent school-based

Minimum Monitoring state

group size of language Level to be funding
target groups Curriculum CLiL scheduling requirements skills achieved available

r/ML all general localised in school none school-based national or full

hours regional
norms

fL all general localised in school none national national or full

hours standardised school-based
norms

teaching
teacher Pre-service in-service teacher Language level
qualifications teacher training training required Mobility

NL support language teachers subject-specific subject-specific national or school- N/A

based norms

r/ML general teachers subject-specific general N/A N/A

fL language teachers subject-specific subject-specific national or regionwide informal financial

standards support

Languages offered in secondary education

r/ML frisian

fL English is compulsory plus one other language at

(languages in italics offered in upper highest level of secondary.
secondary only) Ancient Greek, Chinese, French, German, Italian, Latin,
Russian, Spanish are optional.

Frisian as a subject is compulsory in the first two grades of secondary education. It can be taken
as an exam subject but not all secondary schools offer it (Inspectie van het Onderwijs, 2010), nor
do many pupils take the exam: in 2011, only 47 pupils took exams in Frisian (Alberts & Erens,
2011). There is no specific attention paid to immigrant languages within secondary education.

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LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Key findings overall References

Friesland is a province with two official languages, which is Alberts, R.V.J. and B.J.M. Erens (2011). Verslag van de
visible in the results of the study. Especially within education, examencampagne 2011 voortgezet onderwijs. Arnhem: Stichting
there is structural attention paid to Frisian, although the signed Cito Instituut voor Toetsontwikkeling. Available at:
and ratified undertakings of the European Charter for Regional [Link]/~/media/cito_nl/Files/Voortgezet%20onderwijs/
or Minority Languages (ECRML) are not all fulfilled completely. Cito_verslag_examencampagne_2011.ashx
On the continuum of education, from pre-primary education,
via primary and secondary education to further and higher Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek (2011). Bevolking; leeftijd,
education, the status of Frisian becomes less and herkomstgroepering, geslacht en regio, 1 januari. Available at:
less prominent. [Link]
Accessed 9 December 2011.
The situation with regard to foreign and immigrant languages is
Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek (2012). Regionale kerncijfers
the same as in the Netherlands at large. Immigrant languages
Nederland. Available at:
get less attention in education in Friesland, which can be
[Link]
accounted for by the low proportion of immigrants in the
ned&D1=0,56,78-79,81&D2=0,6&D3=15-16&HDR=T&STB=G1,
province.
G2&VW=T Accessed 3 January 2012.

Council of Europe (2008). European Charter for Regional of

Promising initiatives and pilots Minority Languages. Application of the charter in the Netherlands.
3rd monitoring cycle. Strasbourg: Council of Europe. Available at:
Language pack [Link]/t/dg4/education/minlang/Report/EvaluationReports/
Upon registering the birth of their child, parents in Friesland are NetherlandsECRML3_en.pdf Accessed: 8 December 2011.
presented with a language pack (Taaltaske). This language pack
is offered by the province of Friesland. The aim is to point out Inspectie van het Onderwijs (2010). Tussen wens en werkelijkheid.
the advantages of plurilingualism. The materials in the pack De kwaliteit van het vak Fries in het basisonderwijs en het
include a brochure about plurilingualism, a Frisian children’s voortgezet onderwijs in Friesland. Utrecht. Available at:
book, and a CD with children’s songs (Provinsje Fryslân, 2011b). [Link]/actueel/publicaties/
Tussen+wens+en+[Link] Accessed 8 December 2011.
Trilingual education
Within the province there are several trilingual primary schools. Ministerie van Binnenlandse Zaken en Koninkrijksrelaties (2011).
These schools use Dutch, Frisian and English as languages of Wet gebruik Friese taal – Memorie van Toelichting. Available at:
instruction, starting with a 50–50 division between Dutch and [Link]/wetfriesetaal Accessed 8
Frisian as languages of instruction in the first six grades (children December 2011.
aged four to ten) and ending with 40% Dutch, 40% Frisian, and Provinsje Fryslân (2010). De staat van Fryslân. Beleids- en
20% English in the last two grades (children aged 11–12). This geo-informatie, november 2010. Available at:
trilingual model yields positive results: the pupils’ level of Dutch [Link]/[Link]?objectID=33162&link=De+staat+va
at the end of primary school is not negatively affected by the n+Fryslan%2Epdf Accessed: 9 December 2011.
time spent on English and Frisian and it is comparable to national
levels; the pupils’ Frisian reading and writing skills improve; and Provinsje Fryslân (2011a). De Fryske taalatlas: Friese taal in
the pupils are more at ease in using English (Taalsintrum Frysk/ beeld 2011. Leeuwarden. Available at:
Cedin, 2011b). In 2011 the network of trilingual schools had [Link]/taalatlas Accessed: 9 December 2011.
grown to 41 members (Taalsintrum Frysk/Cedin, 2011a).
Provinsje Fryslân (2011b). Taaltasje. Taaltaske. Available at:
[Link] Accessed: 9 December 2011.

Riemersma, A. & S. de Jong (2007). Frisian: The Frisian language

in education in the Netherlands, 4th edition. Ljouwert/
Leeuwarden: Mercator Research Centre. Available at:
[Link]/fileadmin/mercator/dossiers_pdf/
frisian_in_netherlands4th_072010.pdf Accessed: 3 January 2012.

Sintrum Frysktalige Berne-opfang (2011). Sintrum Frysktalige

Berne-opfang.
[Link]/engels/ Accessed 6 December 2011.

Taalsintrum Frysk/Cedin (2011). De Trijetalige skoalle. Available at:

[Link]/[Link] Accessed:
9 December 2011.

Taalsintrum Frysk/Cedin (2011). De Trijetalige Skoalle. Drachten:

Taalsintrum Frysk/Cedin. Available at:
[Link]/images/[Link] Accessed:
9 December 2011.

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13 poLanD
Liliana Szczuka-Dorna

Country context Languages in official

The Republic of Poland is situated in the central part of Europe, documents and databases
bordered by Kaliningrad, Oblast, Lithuania, Belarus, Ukraine,
Slovakia, Czech Republic, Germany and the Baltic Sea. It is a
The national language, and a whole range of R/M
country with a population of over 38 million people living on
languages are dealt with in language legislation and/or
312,679 square kilometres (National Statistics Office).
language policy documents. The learning and teaching
The official language is Polish which is a Lechitic language of the national language abroad for children and/or
spoken by native speakers in Poland as well as abroad. A adults originating from Poland is (co-)funded in more
regional language in Poland is Kashubian used by a particular than 25 countries in Europe and abroad. The European
indigenous ethnic group. Minority languages in Poland are Charter for Regional or Minority Languages has been
Belarusan, Czech, Lithuanian, German, Slovak, Russian, Ukrainian signed and ratified by Poland. The following 15 R/M
and Yiddish. There are also diaspora languages used by ethnic languages are recognised in the Charter: Armenian,
groups not possessing their territory in Europe, such as Yiddish, belarusan, Czech, German, Hebrew, Karaim, Kashubian,
Romani, Karaim, Grabar (Old Armenian) and Tatar. The main Lemko, Lithuanian, Romani, Russian, Slovak, Tatar,
immigrant languages include Czech, Eastern Yiddish, Greek, Ukrainian and yiddish. There is official provision in
Lithuanian, Russian and Slovak. The main foreign languages regionwide education, supported by the Charter,
spoken by Poles are English, Russian and German. for these.

Official nationwide data collection mechanisms

on language diversity in Poland exist in terms of
periodically updated census data. In these data
collection mechanisms, national, R/M and immigrant
language varieties are addressed, based on a home
language question.

For many years there has been a tendency to start a dialogue

among many stakeholders concerning R/M languages. Poland
signed the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages
on 12 May 2003. The Charter entered into force in Poland on 1
June 2009. Poland declared that it would apply Parts II and III of
the Charter to Armenian, Belarusan, Czech, German, Hebrew,
Karaim, Kashubian, Lemko-Rusyn, Lithuanian, Romani, Russian,
Slovak, Tatar, Ukrainian and Yiddish.

Official information about language policy can be obtained from

the National Statistics Institute, the Ministry of Education, the
Ministry of Science and Higher Education, as well as many web
pages of international projects. The official publication Education
in the School Year 2009/2010 presents information about all
aspects of education including R/M and foreign languages.

Changes within the educational system regulated by the Act of

8 January 1999, Regulations for Implementing the Reform of the
Educational System, are the best evidence that the system of
education in Poland has undergone fundamental changes in
order to equip contemporary children, pupils and adults with
necessary knowledge and skills.

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LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

NL=National Language(s)
fL=foreign Languages
r/ML=regional or Minority Languages
iL=immigrant Languages

Languages in pre-primary education (No provision)

There is no obligation to learn foreign languages at pre-primary level. They are not included in the
curriculum. However, most children start learning foreign languages in pre-primary education.
The courses are usually paid by parents or sponsors who understand the global need for
speaking foreign languages. These are tailor-made courses which suit the needs of young
learners. The courses combine ‘playing’ with a given language, using new methodology and
techniques appropriate for children. The most popular foreign languages are English, German and
French. Although foreign language education has been developing rapidly at pre-primary level, it
is necessary to introduce similar ways of organising courses with/by highly qualified teachers as
for primary and secondary education. A public debate should be started with representatives of
local governments, the ministry, as well as parents.

Languages in primary education (No provision of immigrant languages)

organisation
Extra support for diagnostic testing on Monitoring of language
Curriculum newcomers entry skills

NL support coherent and explicit before mainstream absent school-based

start of Minimum Monitoring of

target language group size language Level to be state funding
groups Curriculum CLiL education scheduling requirements skills achieved available

r/ML all coherent absent from mid- partly in 5–10 school-based school full
and explicit phase school norms
hours

fL all coherent localised from year 1 in school none school-based national or full
and explicit hours school norms

teaching
Pre-service teacher in-service teacher
teacher qualifications training training Mobility

NL support language teachers subject-specific subject-specific N/A

r/ML general teachers general general N/A

fL language teachers subject-specific subject-specific informal financial support

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 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Languages offered in primary education

r/ML Kashubian

fL One language from English, German or french is

compulsory

Compulsory education in Poland starts at the age of seven at primary school and ends at the age
of 16 (but no later than 18) at lower secondary school. Since 2004/2005, children in Poland are
obliged to attend a so-called ‘0’ grade either in nursery or primary school.
Regional or minority languages
Children can take courses in R/M languages. According to the Polish Statistical Office, in the
2010/2011 school year there were 46,500 children attending R/M language courses, with
German – the language of the largest national minority in Poland – being predominantly learnt.
Foreign languages
In primary education one foreign language is mandatory from the first grade at the age of seven.
This situation can change for the better after 2014 when a new education reform will be fully
implemented. The most popular foreign languages taught are English, German and French.
The situation in primary education is positive. Recently developed programmes introduced
compulsory language classes for children at the age of seven in 2009/10: one compulsory
foreign language taught from the first grade and a second compulsory foreign language taught
in lower secondary schools. Teachers are professional and highly qualified, being graduates
of different philology departments, developing their skills doing different courses, receiving
scholarships and participating in workshops and conferences.
Primary education pupils take a so-called ‘competence test’ and one of the competences is a
written foreign language test.

Languages in secondary education (No provision of R/M and immigrant languages)

organisation
Extra support for diagnostic testing on Monitoring of language
Curriculum newcomers entry skills

NL support coherent and explicit before mainstream all school-based

Minimum Monitoring state

target group size of language Level to be funding
groups Curriculum CLiL scheduling requirements skills achieved available

fL all coherent and localised in school none school-based national or full

explicit hours school-based
norms

teaching
teacher Pre-service in-service teacher Language level
qualifications teacher training training required Mobility

NL support language teachers subject-specific subject-specific not specified N/A

fL language teachers subject-specific subject-specific national or informal financial

regionwide support
standards

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LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Languages offered in secondary education

fL Two languages are compulsory from English, french,

German, Italian, Russian and Spanish

During secondary education pupils continue the study of the foreign language chosen in primary
school. They also start a second foreign language in the first year of secondary level. Two foreign
languages are compulsory and students choose from English, French, German, Italian, Russian
and Spanish. In some schools students are taught Chinese. There are secondary schools with an
international baccalaureate (CIB) and the curriculum is based on content as well as language
learning. Some secondary schools provide intensive language programmes. Students take their
final exams (Matura) which are run by the Central Examination Board (along with its regional
branches) in co-operation with the Ministry of Education and other R&D and professional bodies.
One of the subjects is a foreign language exam.
As far as the Kashubian language is concerned, there is no secondary level teaching. Most
students chose elementary level tests in R/M languages at the matriculation exam (Matura) in
2010, according to the Statistical Office.
Teachers are professionally qualified and all those working in secondary education have a
university degree (Master of Arts or Master of Science). They are given clear instructions from
the Ministry of Education on curricula and teaching requirements.

Languages in further and higher education

further education (in three VEt institutions) (No provision of r/M languages and immigrant languages)
range of language state funding
programmes Curriculum Level to be achieved available

fL institution A limited coherent and explicit national full

institution B limited coherent and explicit national full

institution C limited coherent and explicit national full

higher education (in three universities)

target groups Level to be
for additional achieved in recruitment
support in the foreign of non- Mobility for Mobility for
Language(s) Languages on national language national language non-language
of instruction website language instruction students students students

university A national and national and restricted linked to CEFR only optional optional
foreign foreign international

university B national and national and all linked to CEFR only optional optional
foreign foreign international

university C national and national and all linked to CEFR international optional optional
foreign foreign and immigrant

At the vocational training level, the teaching of foreign languages faces certain difficulties: the
programme and syllabus is created locally. Vocational schools are autonomous in constructing
their final language requirements; however, there is linkage to the CEFR. The quality assurance
and procedures connected with final assessment are not popular. One of potential changes could
be the introduction of a common platform for a dialogue between vocational authorities in order
to create common foreign language requirements including a syllabus and final exam.
Universities have compulsory foreign language courses in their programmes. The universities in
Poland are autonomous and the programme of a given field of study should be approved by the
Faculty Board. It is very difficult to standardise foreign language courses at universities. Students
take final exams at B1 or B2 levels (first cycle) or B2 and C1 levels (second cycle). For doctoral
students, courses such as English for Academic Purposes, ESP and soft skills are provided. The
languages taught are English, German, French, Italian, Spanish, Chinese, Norwegian, Arabic,
Japanese and Lithuanian. Polish is introduced as a foreign language to international students
who come to Poland as Erasmus students or on private exchanges.

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 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

There are many Polish universities where the language of instruction is English or French.
Students, both Polish and international, take their degrees in a language which is not their native
one. For more standardisation and better quality in teaching, universities may join SERMO
(Association of Academic Foreign Languages Centres).

Languages in audiovisual media and press

Non-national language Non-national language r/ML programmes Availability of sign

tV productions films in cinema outside of region language on tV

dubbed subtitled sometimes never

Polish television offers many international films which are dubbed. A similar situation occurs in the
cinema where one mostly watches a dubbed version without subtitles. There are some satellite
programmes where subtitles are added to the original version of films.
There are a few good examples of regional television broadcasting (for example, Silesia television)
where local programmes are shown.
Newspapers are mainly in Polish. There are some international English, French, German or Italian
newspapers available in some bookstores and shops. Some Polish newspapers publish abstracts
of their articles and news on web pages in English.

Languages in public services and spaces

institutionalised language strategies at city level
Language recruitment of Language record of
Website use of competencies in speakers of training offered language skills
N languages presence interpreters job descriptions languages to employees of employees

>4 Gdańsk Gdańsk Gdańsk

Kraków
Warsaw

3–4 Kraków

1–2 Warsaw Gdańsk Gdańsk Kraków

Kraków Kraków
Warsaw

Communications facilities
top five oral communication facilities top five written communication facilities

Immigration and integration Immigration and integration

Theatre Transport
Tourism Tourism
Political debates and decision making Political debates and decision making
Emergency Theatre

In Poland there are some public institutions which supply information in foreign languages; for
example, websites are available in English as well as in Polish. Basic information is given in English
in many cities. Minority languages are used and authorities guarantee that public administration
and public service institutions support the use of minority languages.
Language competence is part of job descriptions in certain institutions. However, there are no
consistent language policy plans developing language skills as well as appraisal on the basis of
foreign language knowledge.

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LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Languages in business (out of 24 companies)

GENErAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs

mobility provision
language skills in

Awareness of Eu
use of networks
staff records of
use of external

language skills

programmes/

programmes/
Availability of

international

for language
Emphasis on

interpreters
recruitment

translators/

use of Eu
language
strategy

training

funding

funding
Widely practised 8 14 6 5 0 1 0 0

iNtErNAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs EXtErNAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs

documents/intranet
reward/promotion

Language used for

Language used for

Language used for

Language used for

Language used for

schemes based on

Language training

Language used for

Partnerships with

branding/identity
education sector

annual/business
language skills

software, web
programmes
use of CEfr

marketing
workplace
provision

website
reports
NL widely 1 2 4 0 21 17 15 22 20 20
practised

Business widely 0 3 9 2 11 12 9 12 12 16
English practised

Additional widely 0 1 1 0 2 1 0 1 1 3
languages practised

Poland is a country which pays attention to the level of foreign languages in business. Human
Resources departments hire staff with knowledge of at least two foreign languages. In companies,
the possibility of developing language skills is created by the managers. Employees can take
language courses paid or supported by the company. Although European project funding of such
courses and seminars is well developed in Poland, companies participating in our research did
not seem to use this form of upgrading their staff knowledge. Further investigation should be
carried out to resolve this issue.
Managers are given opportunities to study a foreign language. The data shows that such
possibilities should be created for all employees including so-called first contact staff, for
example, receptionists, clerks or bus drivers.
Companies use foreign languages not only for advertising and promotional purposes in leaflets
and folders, but also for websites of their institutions. The main languages used apart from English
are German, Russian, French, Hungarian, Spanish, Japanese, Italian, Chinese, Czech, Dutch, and
Slovak. Ukrainian, Arabic, Belarusan, and Korean are the native languages of partner
organisations.

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 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Key findings overall 3. FRSE – Foundation for the Development of the Education
System is one of the leading organisations on the Polish market
Poland has undergone substantial changes in the domain of dealing with activities such as study abroad (the Lifelong
education. A variety of European documents have created a Learning Programme, Erasmus Mundus, Eurodesk), conferences,
common ground for making Poles more aware of being events (eTwinning) and competitions (European Language
European citizens. The number of pupils learning foreign Label). Moreover, FRSE publishes Jêzyki Obce w szkole, European
languages at schools is constantly rising, with a predominance Language Label, Europa dla aktywnych.
of English taught to 89% of all pupils at primary, lower, and upper
secondary schools in the 2010/2011 school year. Other 4. Publications
languages commonly taught included German (36.4% of
There are articles and papers published in Polish and foreign
students), Russian (4.8%) and French (2.9%). The popularity of
journals which present the contemporary state of the art of
particular foreign languages taught at schools is regionally
Polish education. The book Internalisation of higher education
diversified. 46.8% of all pupils attending schools learnt one
edited by Waldemar Martyniuk was published by FRSE in 2011.
foreign language only; two languages were learnt by nearly
every second pupil. Teachers’ qualifications are commonly very 5. SERMO – Association of Academic Foreign Languages Centres
good. Apart from university education, one in three teachers was founded in 2006. Its members are the heads and deputy
had the status of appointed teacher, and chartered teachers – heads of language centres of Polish universities. There are
the highest rank in professional development – constituted different targets and aims of SERMO activities; for example, to
nearly half of pedagogical school personnel. The remaining standardise content as well as final targets of language exams at
school personnel (23%) were contractual teachers. Pupils and universities in line with CEFR. The members of SERMO meet at
students are given the opportunity to attend various least twice a year during conferences organised by language
extracurricular courses, classes and research groups organised centres. Co-operation with the Ministry of Education, the Ministry
in clubs and schools. Moreover, European funds are used for of Science and Education, KRASP, other associations, the British
extra language courses in many Polish primary and secondary Council, as well as international organisations is among SERMO’s
schools. ambitions (see [Link])

There are, however, a number of points which need more 6. There are many local and national initiatives which promote
clarification, such as the status of teaching foreign languages at the learning and teaching of national, R/M and foreign
pre-primary level; the status of foreign languages in higher languages. Just to mention some of them:
institutions; the use of subtitles in television and cinema to
promote multilingualism in media; and radio broadcasting, as – Study in Poland – a programme addressed to international
well some television channels which broadcast programmes in students who study at Polish universities (promoting
foreign or minority languages. Last but not least, more attention Polish language and culture)
should be paid to languages in business, providing more help,
instructions and initiatives for this sector. Language and cultural – CLIL – developed in primary, secondary and higher
awareness are key to success in the global and international education
business market.
– the European Day of Languages organised every year in
September across Poland in all types of schools.

Promising initiatives and pilots These and other initiatives are good evidence that language and
cultural awareness form a basis for education in Poland. This
The language situation in Poland is moving in a positive process needs time and the empathy of all interested parties,
direction. There are many new initiatives taken by different including government, education authorities, local businesses,
groups of people for whom language education is a priority as as well as students and their parents. Polish cities should
well as an obligation. The following initiatives are just some of become more user-friendly, promoting tolerance and
the examples influencing language policy in Poland. multilingualism as well as Polish hospitality to both Polish citizens
and international visitors.
1. Conferences, workshops and seminars

Many conferences on the topic of multilingualism and

plurilingualism have been organised in Poland. An important References
recent initiative was the conference under the Polish presidency,
Multilingual Competences for Professional and Social Success in Central Statistical Office, [Link]
Europe, organised in September 2011. The aim of the conference
Council of Europe, [Link]
was to launch an official debate on language education and its
importance for better employability and career opportunities. Foundation Institute for Quality In Education, [Link]

2. FIJED – Foundation Institute for Quality in Education was Foundation for the Development of the Education System,
founded in 2010 as an umbrella organisation and meeting point [Link]
for different associations, societies and organisations operating
in the field of education. The aim of FIJED is to promote Internacjonalizacja studiów Wyższych, red. Waldemar Martyniuk,
plurilingualism by organising events, conferences and meetings Fundacja Rozwoju Systemu Edukacji, 2011.
in co-operation with associations, publishing houses and the
Ministry of Education and Higher Education (see [Link]). Association of Academic Foreign Languages Centres,
[Link]

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LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

14 porTugaL
J. Lachlan Mackenzie

Country context Languages in official

The Portuguese Republic has, according to the provisional documents and databases
results of the 2011 census, a population of 10,561,614. The
primary language of the country is Portuguese, which originated
The national language, foreign languages, and one R/M
in a territory corresponding to Galicia (N-W Spain) and the north
language (Mirandese) are dealt with in language
of present-day Portugal. The Galician/Portuguese language
legislation and/or language policy documents. The
remained in use during the period of Arabic predominance and
learning and teaching of the national language abroad for
re-established itself as the principal language as its speakers
children and/or adults originating from Portugal is (co-)
moved southwards. Portuguese was instituted as the language
funded in 13 countries in Europe and abroad. The
of the court by King Dinis in 1297.
European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages has
Portuguese is now used as an official language in eight not been signed/ratified. At the national level, Mirandese
countries (Portugal, Angola, Brazil, Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau, is the only recognised R/M language for which also
Mozambique, São Tomé and Príncipe and East Timor; the educational provision is available.
so-called CPLP countries) and a territory, Macau (Macau Special
Official nationwide data collection mechanisms on
Administrative Region of the P.R. of China). The total number of
language diversity in Portugal exist in terms of
speakers is estimated at around 240 million. There are sizable
periodically updated census data. However, in these data
groups of expatriate Portuguese speakers in various countries
collection mechanisms, only the national language is
around the world, notably in France, Luxemburg, Andorra, the
addressed, based on a mother tongue question.
UK, Switzerland, US, Canada, Venezuela and South Africa.

4.1% of the population of Portugal has non-Portuguese

nationality (2006; OCDE). The major nationalities of the Portugal, whose current borders were essentially determined
immigrants are, according to 2006 figures supplied by the in 1249, shows a relatively high degree of demographic and
Portuguese immigration service, (in descending order) Cape linguistic stability as a fundamentally monolingual country.
Verdean, Brazilian, Angolan, Guinea-Bissauan and Ukrainian (and Nevertheless, its history has brought it into regular contact with
various other East European nationalities), as well as Indian and other languages, both in Europe (chiefly Spanish, English and
Chinese. In addition there are expatriate communities from the French) and across the world as a consequence of its colonial
UK and other European countries. The labour force of Portugal past (languages of South America, Africa and Asia). As a result,
comes to 5,580,700 persons (2010; Pordata). the Portuguese have gained awareness of the advantages of
multilingualism and successive governments have enshrined
Portugal has one minority language, Mirandese, spoken and to both support for the national language and enablement of the
some extent written in the north-eastern border town of Miranda teaching of foreign languages in their policies and legislation,
do Douro (population of around 2,000) and in surrounding areas in addition to funding education in the Portuguese language
within Portugal by at most 10,000 persons; (almost) all of them abroad. The regional language Mirandese has been recognised,
being bilingual. Mirandese was recognised in 1999 as co-official but the languages of immigrants have received no recognition
with Portuguese for local matters. The Mirandese language in law nor in censuses.
belongs linguistically to the Asturian/Leonese group.

Portugal also recognises Portuguese Sign Language as an

official language, having stated that it is incumbent upon the
state to protect and give value to it as a cultural expression and
as an instrument for access to education and for equality of
opportunities.

Education is obligatory for 12 years from the age of six: it is

divided into nine years of primary education, followed by three
years of either secondary or vocational education.

Portuguese is established as the official language of Portugal

in the Constitution of the Portuguese Republic, paragraph 3,
article 11. Mirandese is recognised as an official language in the
council of Miranda do Douro in Law 7/99, of 29 January 1999.
Portuguese Sign Language is recognised in the 1997 revision of
the Constitution of the Portuguese Republic, art. 74, para. 2h.

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 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

NL=National Language(s)
fL=foreign Languages
r/ML=regional or Minority Languages
iL=immigrant Languages

Languages in pre-primary education (No provision of additional national language support,

foreign languages and immigrant languages)

Minimum Pre-service in-service

group size teacher teacher state funding
target groups duration requirements days per week training training available

r/ML all ≥2 years none <0.5 day subject-specific general full

Languages offered in pre-primary education

r/ML Mirandese

Pre-primary education is optional in Portugal, but as of 2009 the provision of nursery schooling
for children of five has become an obligation of the state. For the great majority of pupils,
Portuguese is the sole language of instruction in pre-school. However, since around 1990 there
has been a gradually growing awareness of the difficulties faced by pre-schoolers whose native
language is not Portuguese (Litwinoff 1992), namely, speakers of – predominantly – Cape Verdean
Creole, Kriol (Guinea-Bissau Creole), one of the Creole languages of São Tomé and Príncipe,
Ukrainian or Chinese (see Mateus et al. 2008). Measures have been proposed to raise educators’
consciousness of the bilingual situation of immigrant pre-schoolers. Pre-service training is
available for pre-school teachers in the area where Mirandese is spoken.

Languages in primary education (No provision of immigrant languages)

organisation
Extra support for diagnostic testing on Monitoring of language
Curriculum newcomers entry skills

NL support coherent and explicit before mainstream immigrants only national standardised

start of Minimum Monitoring of

target language group size language Level to be state funding
groups Curriculum CLiL education scheduling requirements skills achieved available

r/ML all general widespread from year 1 in school none national national or full
hours standardised regional
norms

fL all coherent absent from year 1 outside none national national or full
and explicit school standardised school norms
hours

teaching
Pre-service teacher in-service teacher
teacher qualifications training training Mobility

NL support language teachers subject-specific subject-specific N/A

r/ML language teachers subject-specific general N/A

fL language teachers subject-specific subject-specific none

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LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Languages offered in primary education

r/ML Mirandese

fL English, french: one of these languages is

compulsory

Portuguese is the language of transmission in all schools, although in certain private schools
other languages (such as English, French and German) may be used, and is a subject throughout
primary education. There is no obligatory foreign language instruction in the first cycle (years
one to four). However, in recent years the Ministry of Education has strongly recommended
(and provided funds for) schools to offer lessons in English from year three in the framework of
‘curricular enrichment’. By 2008, over 99% of schools had implemented this recommendation;
over 50% had English from year one. In the second cycle (years five to six), a foreign language
becomes part of the obligatory curriculum; the current government is proposing to require that
the second-cycle foreign language be English.
Primary school teachers, especially those working in multilingual areas, are aware of and trained
to deal with the plurilingualism of the children entrusted to their care. However, immigrant
languages are not treated as an object of study, although Ukrainian and Chinese communities
have organised extramural classes in their respective languages. In the Mirandese-speaking area,
teachers have been permitted since 1985 to devote explicit attention to the Mirandese language
and use it as a medium of instruction.

Languages in secondary education (No provision of immigrant languages)

organisation
Extra support for diagnostic testing on Monitoring of language
Curriculum newcomers entry skills

NL support coherent and explicit before mainstream all national standardised

Minimum Monitoring state

target group size of language Level to be funding
groups Curriculum CLiL scheduling requirements skills achieved available

r/ML all coherent and widespread in school none national national or full
explicit hours standardised regional
norms

fL all coherent and absent in school none national linked to CEFR full
explicit hours standardised

teaching
teacher Pre-service in-service teacher Language level
qualifications teacher training training required Mobility

NL support language teachers subject-specific subject-specific national or school- N/A

based norms

r/ML language teachers subject-specific subject-specific N/A N/A

fL language teachers subject-specific subject-specific national or none

regionwide
standards

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 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Languages offered in secondary education

r/ML Mirandese

fL (languages in italics offered in upper 2 from English, french, German, Spanish, Latin, Greek
secondary only) are compulsory.

In secondary education (commencing in the third cycle of primary education), the study of two
foreign languages is obligatory; the government has proposed that English must be one of these.
In current practice, the great majority of pupils combine English with one of French, German,
Spanish, Latin and Classical Greek (all organised in keeping with the Common European Frame
of Reference). In years 10 to 12, education in Portuguese continues, with classes in one foreign
language for science pupils and in two for humanities’ pupils. Immigrant languages are neither
studied nor are they a medium of instruction in Portuguese schools; it should be borne in mind
that some 50% of immigrants are from countries where Portuguese is an official language. The
regional language Mirandese can be studied in the Mirandese-speaking area.

Languages in further and higher education (No provision of immigrant languages)

further education (in three VEt institutions)
range of language state funding
programmes Curriculum Level to be achieved available

r/ML institution A

institution B

institution C limited general N/A full

fL institution A wide variety coherent and explicit linked to CEFR full

institution B wide variety coherent and explicit linked to CEFR full

institution C limited coherent and explicit national full

higher education (in three universities)

target groups Level to be
for additional achieved in recruitment
support in the foreign of non- Mobility for Mobility for
Language(s) Languages on national language national language non-language
of instruction website language instruction students students students

university A national and national and restricted linked to CEFR international optional optional
foreign foreign and immigrant

university B national and national and restricted linked to CEFR international optional optional
foreign foreign and immigrant

university C national and national and restricted linked to CEFR international optional optional
foreign foreign and immigrant

In higher education, Portuguese is almost always the medium of instruction. However, the
internationalisation of education flowing from the Bologna Process has led to selected faculties
offering courses in English attended by visiting and Portuguese students alike. Portugal’s
universities are generally aware of the value of language competence, providing training in
Portuguese for non-native speakers wishing to secure admission to their programmes and in a
wide range of languages for voluntary take-up by all students. No explicit attention is devoted to
regional or immigrant languages.
Establishments offering vocational training ensure that their students receive instruction in
Portuguese to develop skills in linguistic accuracy and effective communication. They also
generally devote attention to a foreign language; the orientation is towards job-related
proficiencies.

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LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Languages in audiovisual media and press

Non-national language Non-national language r/ML programmes Availability of sign

tV productions films in cinema outside of region language on tV

subtitled subtitled always regularly

Television material and films in cinemas are shown in the original language with Portuguese
subtitles – with the exception of some productions aimed at children, which are dubbed. Selected
television programmes include an inserted window with an interpreter communicating in
Portuguese Sign Language. Newspapers and magazines in foreign languages are available,
primarily to serve the needs of tourists; but there are also publications for immigrants, like the
Russian-language newspaper Slovo.

Languages in public services and spaces

institutionalised language strategies at city level
Language recruitment of Language record of
Website use of competencies in speakers of training offered language skills
N languages presence interpreters job descriptions languages to employees of employees

>4 Lisbon
Oporto
Miranda do Douro

3–4 Miranda do Douro Lisbon Miranda do Douro

1–2 Oporto Lisbon Oporto Lisbon

Oporto Oporto
Miranda do Douro

Communication facilities
top five oral communication facilities top five written communication facilities

Education Immigration and integration

Legal Political debates and decision making
Tourism Education
Transport Emergency
Immigration and integration Transport

City councils have some awareness of multilingualism in their communities and make certain
services available in English and Spanish; interpreters can be called up through a national facility
for as many as 60 languages. Written material produced by councils is typically only in
Portuguese, although immigration and tourism services are multilingual. The city council of
Miranda do Douro provides many written services in Mirandese and Spanish as well as
Portuguese.

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 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Languages in business (out of 20 companies)

GENErAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs

mobility provision
language skills in

Awareness of Eu
use of networks
staff records of
use of external

language skills

programmes/

programmes/
Availability of

international

for language
Emphasis on

interpreters
recruitment

translators/

use of Eu
language
strategy

training

funding

funding
Widely practised 5 8 3 0 0 1 0 0

iNtErNAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs EXtErNAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs

documents/intranet
reward/promotion

Language used for

Language used for

Language used for

Language used for

Language used for

schemes based on

Language training

Language used for

Partnerships with

branding/identity
education sector

annual/business
language skills

software, web
programmes
use of CEfr

marketing
workplace
provision

website
reports
NL widely 1 0 1 0 20 18 20 20 17 19
practised

Business widely 1 3 3 1 5 7 5 8 9 14
English practised

Additional widely 1 2 1 1 1 1 0 0 3 2
languages practised

The companies surveyed reflected a general tendency to favour the use of Portuguese but also
to recognise the importance of business English for interaction with foreign customers and
companies abroad. Other languages tend not to figure prominently, except for businesses with
specific interests in particular foreign countries. The promotion of employees’ language
competencies in the national language, in English as a lingua franca, or in other languages is
generally not a priority. Multilingualism is not high on the agenda of the Portuguese enterprises
that completed the questionnaire.

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LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Key findings overall References

Portugal emerges as a country that is profoundly aware of the Litwinoff, Raja (1992). Projecto piloto de educação bilingue
status of its national tongue as the fifth most spoken language e bicultural no ensino pré-primário e primário Documentos
on earth, while also recognising the importance of (business) do Encontro a Comunidade Africana em Portugal. Lisbon:
English for Portugal’s role in a globalised world. It promotes the Colibri, 71–73.
regional language Mirandese, spoken by 0.1% of the national
population, and has given constitutional protection to Mateus, Maria Helena Mira et al. (2008). Diversidade Linguística
Portuguese Sign Language (LGP). Schooling is provided in na Escola Portuguesa. Lisbon: Fundação Gulbenkian.
Portuguese, but also in English from primary school upwards
Salomão, Ricardo (2011). Comunicação e exportação. Lisbon:
and in a second foreign language. The media have a positive
Nova Vega.
influence on the public’s attitudes to and skills in foreign
languages, but this is not reflected in a strong orientation
of public services or in business to valorise the language
competencies of their personnel.

Promising initiatives and pilots

A prominent contribution to raising awareness of linguistic
minorities was the Linguistic Diversity in Portuguese Schools
project (2003–2007), funded by the Gulbenkian Foundation
and carried out by the Instituto de Linguística Teórica e
Computacional (ILTEC) in collaboration with various schools. The
output included not only the realisation of (still ongoing) bilingual
education in selected schools but also the development of
materials, recommendations to the Ministry of Education and
various publications (see Mateus et al. 2008).

The British Council is working in partnership with the Ministry of

Education on a four-year pilot project (2011–2015) to introduce
bilingual education into eight state primary schools across the
country from year one onwards. Some five hours per week are
given in English and the British Council provides training and
support.

In addition, there have been efforts to promote multilingualism

in international business, for example by Three Linguistic Spaces
([Link] referring to the French-, Spanish- and Portuguese-
speaking areas of the world), a pressure group stressing the
intercomprehensibility of the Romance languages.

The REFLECT Project (2000–2002), the PROTOCOL II project

(2002–2004) and the ECLAT project (2006–2008; the website
[Link] is still active) established a language and
culture auditing scheme for export-oriented SMEs, providing real
data about business needs and trends in the area of linguistic
and cultural skills and fostering the development of language
planning (Salomão 2011).

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 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

15 roMania
Alexandru Cernat, Anca Nedelcu, Stefan Colibaba, Călin Rus, Ruxandra Popovici

Country context Languages in official

Romania has a population of 21,462,186 (National Statistics documents and databases
Institute, 20101) according to the latest census report of 2002.
An estimated 2.8 million people have left the country for work,
The national language, foreign languages, and a range of
with Italy and Spain as the main targets (Sandu, 2010). There are
R/M languages are dealt with in language legislation and/
20 national minorities officially recognised (or with official
or language policy documents. The learning and teaching
political representation) in Romania, representing more than 11%
of the national language abroad for children and/or adults
of the population. The largest ones are Hungarians (6.6% of the
originating from Romania is (co-)funded in 18 countries in
population) and Roma (2.5% of the population), according to the
Europe and abroad. The European Charter for Regional or
2002 census. The Hungarians are mainly located in the central
Minority Languages has been ratified by Romania. The
and western part of the country and have important political and
following 20 R/M languages are recognised in the Charter:
mass media representation. Hungarian is widely used in
Albanian, Armenian, bulgarian, Czech, Croatian, German,
education, local administration and the justice system where
Greek, Hungarian, Italian, Macedonian, Polish, Romani,
Hungarians represent over 20% of the local population. The
Russian, Rusyn, Serbian, Slovak, Tatar, Turkish, Ukrainian
Roma minority is still underrepresented in positions of power.
and yiddish. There is official provision in nation- or region-
The Romani language is also underrepresented in mass media
wide education, supported by the Charter for 15 of these
and education. Approximately 11% of the pre-university
languages, which do not include Albanian, Armenian,
educational institutions in Romania have a minority language as
Macedonian, Rusyn and yiddish.
medium of instruction in at least one section, 90% of these
being in the Hungarian language.2 Official nationwide data collection mechanisms on
language diversity in Romanian exist in terms of
Immigration is a growing phenomenon with an estimation of
periodically updated census data. In these data collection
57,211 third-country nationals where the three main groups are
mechanisms, national, R/M and immigrant language
from the Republic of Moldova (28%), Turkey (17%) and China
varieties are addressed, based on a mother tongue
(14%)3 (European Commission; Statistical Office of the European
question.
Communities, 2010: 194). This does not include European Union
citizens. The Eurostat estimation for 2008–2060 for Romania is
an immigration rate of 18.4 to 1,000 inhabitants (Alexe &
Păunescu, 2010, p. 22). In 1995 Romania signed the Council of Europe’s Framework
Convention for the Protection of National Minorities, and in 2007
The statistical data about the size and the structure of the the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages was
population will be updated in 2012 when the final results of the ratified. While Romanian is the official language, there are ten
2011 census will be made public. minority languages that have general protection: Albanian,
Armenian, Greek, Italian, Macedonian, Polish, Romani, Rusyn,
Tatar and Yiddish and ten languages with enhanced protection:
Bulgarian, Croatian, Czech, German, Hungarian, Russian, Serbian,
Slovak, Turkish and Ukrainian.

Although topics related to these languages appear sometimes in

mass media, empirical data regarding the topic is still scarce. At
a national level, information can only be found in the national
census with a question regarding the mother tongue. In addition,
Romania was included in Eurobarometer 63.4 from 2005
(Europeans and their languages) where respondents were asked
about their mother language, other languages known and their
language competence level. Data about the use of minority
languages in education is also available from the National
Statistics Institute and the Ministry of Education.1

1
[Link]
2
2002 census.
3
[Link] -Strategii/Instructiuni, IF 1101
10012012. 1
[Link]

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LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

NL=National Language(s)
fL=foreign Languages
r/ML=regional or Minority Languages
iL=immigrant Languages

Languages in pre-primary education (No provision of foreign and immigrant languages)

Minimum Pre-service in-service

group size teacher teacher state funding
target groups duration requirements days per week training training available

r/ML native speakers ≥2 years none >1 day subject-specific subject-specific full
only

Additional NL all ≥2 years none 0.5–1 day subject-specific subject-specific full

support

Languages offered in pre-primary education

r/ML bulgarian, Croatian, Czech, German, Greek,

Hungarian, Polish, Serbian, Slovak, Turkish, Ukrainian

Foreign languages at pre-primary level are optional. However, most nurseries include a foreign
language in their curriculum. The fact that a year of nursery is mandatory ensures that most
children are acquainted with a foreign language before beginning primary education. Also
noteworthy is that, legally, all children of a recognised minority have the right to education in their
own language. While this is an important positive aspect, there are still differences in the
implementation of this law within different minority groups.
The migration history of the country, with an emigration rate higher than that of immigration, is
one of the main causes for the absence of an important educational offer for immigrants. The
most important immigrant group comes from the Republic of Moldova but language education
is not an issue as they have the same language and a very similar culture to Romanians.

Languages in primary education (No provision of immigrant languages)

organisation
Extra support for diagnostic testing on Monitoring of language
Curriculum newcomers entry skills

NL support coherent and explicit before mainstream immigrants only national standardised

start of Minimum Monitoring of

target language group size language Level to be state funding
groups Curriculum CLiL education scheduling requirements skills achieved available

r/ML all coherent widespread from year 1 in school none national national or full
and explicit hours standardised regional
norms

fL all coherent absent from mid- in school none school-based linked to full
and explicit phase hours CEFR

188
 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

teaching
Pre-service teacher in-service teacher
teacher qualifications training training Mobility

NL support language teachers subject-specific subject-specific N/A

r/ML language teachers subject-specific subject-specific N/A

fL language teachers subject-specific subject-specific none

Languages offered in primary education

r/ML bulgarian, Croatian, German, Hungarian, Italian,

Polish, Romani, Russian-Lipovan, Serbian, Slovak,
Turkish, Ukrainian

fL English, french, German, Italian, Russian, Spanish:

one of these languages is compulsory

A similar situation can be found in primary education. Here one foreign language is mandatory, with
the school deciding what this should be, although some schools also give children and their parents
the opportunity to choose which language to learn. Furthermore, some schools provide instruction
fully or partially in minority languages, mostly in Hungarian. Here all classes can be taught in the
minority language with the exception of Romanian language and literature classes. There are no
provisions on the use of immigrant languages in primary schools.
The new education law gives more autonomy to the schools and increases the competitiveness
between them. It can be expected that this process will enhance the quality of the foreign
languages taught as it is an important factor in the choice of school. The recent provisions based
on the new law will also encourage schools to offer Romani language and Roma culture classes at
the parents’ request.

Languages in secondary education (No provision of immigrant languages)

organisation
Extra support for diagnostic testing on Monitoring of language
Curriculum newcomers entry skills

NL support coherent and explicit before mainstream absent national standardised

Minimum Monitoring state

target group size of language Level to be funding
groups Curriculum CLiL scheduling requirements skills achieved available

r/ML all coherent and widespread in school >10 national national or full
explicit hours standardised regional
norms

fL all coherent and localised in school >10 school-based linked to CEFR full
explicit hours

teaching
teacher Pre-service in-service teacher Language level
qualifications teacher training training required Mobility

NL support language teachers subject-specific subject-specific national or school- N/A

based norms

r/ML language teachers subject-specific subject-specific N/A N/A

fL language teachers subject-specific subject-specific linked to CEFR none

189
LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Languages offered in secondary education

r/ML bulgarian, Croatian, Hungarian, Italian, Polish, Romani,

Russian-Lipovan, Slovak, Serbian, Turkish, Ukrainian

fL English, french, German, Italian, Portuguese, Russian,

Spanish: two of these languages are compulsory
depending on school’s offer

Secondary education has similar characteristics to primary. In most cases, pupils continue
the study of the foreign language started in primary school. They also start a second foreign
language in the first year of secondary level. At the national level, there are schools with intensive
study programmes in foreign languages and also specialised high schools where the medium of
instruction is in a specific foreign language such as English, German, French, Italian or Spanish.
Education in minority languages at secondary school level exists in specific regions of the
country. The main minority language with the necessary institutions and staffing is Hungarian,
followed by German, Ukrainian, Serbian and Slovak. Pupils have the opportunity to take their final
national exams in the minority language with an adapted Romanian language test.

Languages in further and higher education (No provision of immigrant languages)

further education (in three VEt institutions)
range of language state funding
programmes Curriculum Level to be achieved available

r/ML institution A

institution B

institution C wide variety coherent and explicit N/A full

fL institution A wide variety coherent and explicit linked to CEFR full

institution B wide variety coherent and explicit linked to CEFR full

institution C wide variety coherent and explicit linked to CEFR full

higher education (in three universities)

target groups Level to be
for additional achieved in recruitment
support in the foreign of non- Mobility for Mobility for
Language(s) Languages on national language national language non-language
of instruction website language instruction students students students

university A national, foreign national and restricted linked to CEFR only optional no offer
and R/M foreign international

university B national and national and restricted national or only optional no offer
foreign foreign institution- international
based

university C national, foreign national, foreign restricted linked to CEFR only optional no offer
and R/M and R/M international

At the vocational training level the language profile taken as a whole is somewhat moderate with
a strong national and foreign languages representation but just a few Hungarian and Romani
courses offered in Cluj. However, Hungarian and German, as the main minority languages, are
well represented at the tertiary level in regions where the minority population is significant. The
national and foreign languages are strongly represented. Here English and French come first
with specialised sections in foreign languages or even postgraduate levels such as Master or
PhD programmes taught partially or entirely in these languages.
Recent developments have seen more and more investment in courses taught in foreign
languages, mainly English and French, with some universities also maintaining sections for
Hungarian and German. Romani as well as other national minority languages are also studied in
several language/pedagogical higher education units as they prepare future teachers to teach
(in) these languages. Here, again, there is no provision for immigrant languages.

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 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Languages in audiovisual media and press

Non-national language Non-national language r/ML programmes Availability of sign

tV productions films in cinema outside of region language on tV

subtitled subtitled regularly in Bucharest sometimes in Bucharest

never in Iaşi never in Iaşi and Cluj
always in Cluj

Traditionally, mass media in Romania are in national and minority languages. Most of the films and
foreign television programmes are subtitled while the rest of the broadcasts are in the national
language. There is some space for Hungarian and German programmes on the public national
television channels and some specialised local television programmes that are entirely in these
minority languages. Television channels in Hungarian, German, Serbian and other minority
languages are widely available through cable operators. Relatively recently, cartoons have begun
to be dubbed while the language of some programmes can be changed by the viewer’s choice.
Newspapers are mainly in Romanian. There are some international English, French or German
newspapers available in some bookstores and shops. In the central and western part of the
country there are also Hungarian and German newspapers and magazines. Online media is also
available in national and minority languages, as well as in some immigrant languages such as
Arabic and Chinese.

Languages in public services and spaces

institutionalised language strategies at city level
Language recruitment of Language record of
Website use of competencies in speakers of training offered language skills
N languages presence interpreters job descriptions languages to employees of employees

>4 Cluj Cluj Bucharest

Iaşi
Cluj

3–4 Cluj Cluj

1–2 Bucharest Bucharest Iaşi Bucharest

Iaşi Iaşi

Communication facilities
top five oral communication facilities top five written communication facilities

Legal Tourism
Immigration and integration Immigration and integration
Tourism Political debates and decision making
Emergency Emergency
= Transport Transport
= Social

Some public institutions supply information in several languages; for example, websites are
available in English or French as well as the national language. Hungarian is also available in the
central and western part of the country, be it through online material or for some of the services
that are available to the public. Minority language use is associated with the population structure.
In areas where a certain minority population represents at least 20% of the local population,
public administration and public services institutions will ensure there is communication in the
minority language, as stipulated in the Constitution, and in accordance with international treaties
that Romania has adhered to.
Investment in language skills inside public institutions is not consistent. However, some institutions
seem to have adapted to the local situation. In areas with large minority groups the services are
provided by personnel who can usually speak the correspondent minority language. In the case
of the Roma minority, mediators are hired to help in the communication between the ethnic
groups.

191
LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Languages in business (out of 24 companies)

GENErAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs

mobility provision
language skills in

Awareness of Eu
use of networks
staff records of
use of external

language skills

programmes/

programmes/
Availability of

international

for language
Emphasis on

interpreters
recruitment

translators/

use of Eu
language
strategy

training

funding

funding
Widely practised 3 17 4 3 0 0 0 0

iNtErNAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs EXtErNAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs

documents/intranet
reward/promotion

Language used for

Language used for

Language used for

Language used for

Language used for

schemes based on

Language training

Language used for

Partnerships with

branding/identity
education sector

annual/business
language skills

software, web
programmes
use of CEfr

marketing
workplace
provision

website
reports
NL widely 1 0 1 0 22 17 19 19 20 23
practised

Business widely 2 3 3 0 9 15 8 9 14 18
English practised

Additional widely 0 0 0 0 3 3 1 1 3 6
languages practised

The businesses surveyed show a medium to low language profile. While some have a language
strategy and practice, the investment in language skills for their employees is very low. Most of
the time it looks like the skills were acquired prior to employment. The national language and
English seem to emerge as the main languages used, followed by French and German. Policies
highlighting the importance of languages and the necessity of private investment in these skills
are recommended to increase the multilingual practices in businesses.

192
 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Key findings overall languages.

Romania presents a situation where national, minority and The recent initiative of the National Association for Community
foreign languages seem to be well promoted especially in the Programmes, the Representation of the European Commission to
education system. The businesses researched here appear to Romania and the Department for Interethnic Relations to
use foreign languages adequately, but do not invest significantly organise the event MALLtilingualism – Voices and Colour at a
in language skills for employees. shopping mall in Bucharest is an example of innovative ways of
reaching wider audiences in a non-formal environment. The
Minority languages are supported legally both through the celebration of the European Day of Languages 2011 by the
European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages and Romanian Cultural Institute and EUNIC Romania within the format
through the new education law. But this reality does not lead of a cultural activities ‘swap-shop’ is part of the same effort to
necessarily to equal results for all minorities. While some convey the cultural diversity message to the public.
minority languages, for example, Hungarian, are represented in
educational and cultural activities, others such as Romani are Another example of collaboration between governmental bodies
not. While investments have been made to help the access of and civil society is the project Learn Romanian carried out by
Roma to administration, schools and other public services West University of Timisoara, the Intercultural Institute of
through mediators, there is still much more to be done in order Timisoara and the Romanian Ministry of Education. Together with
to ensure real opportunities for using Romani in education and the project Migrant in Romania2, also funded by the European
in the public space. While these necessities are known and legal Fund for Integration and implemented in partnership by the
statements have been made regarding Roma language and Intercultural Institute of Timisoara and the Association of
culture (Ministry of Education Notification 29323/20.04.2004), Refugee Women in Romania, the aforementioned initiative is
more practical measures are still required. aiming to support the learning of basic Romanian.

Another aspect that needs attention is the immigrant population, The increased awareness of the importance of multilingualism is
and language issues that are related to them, for example, evident by numerous research projects and scientific debates at
access to education. Long-term immigration is most likely to university level that have been recently organised by both
increase and policies to meet immigrant needs should be language and non-language faculties. These initiatives are in line
discussed and implemented. Another point of improvement with a suggestion from Leonard Orban, European Commissioner
could be the offer of universities regarding Romanian as a for Multilingualism between 2007 and 2010, to set up
foreign language; this would be useful for foreign students that multilingualism chairs within universities.3 One example is the
want to study in Romania. The development of language skills conference organised by the Faculty of Sociology and Social
among workers in public institutions and the improvement of Work at Babes‚-Bolyai University, Cluj called From Immigration to
communication strategies, especially disseminating information Integration through Multilingualism.4
in more languages, would be of great social and economic
importance for both immigrant population and foreign
entrepreneurs. References
Alexe, I. and Păunescu, B. (ed.) (2011). Studiua asupra
fenomenului imigrat,ie în România.
Promising initiatives and pilots
Integrarea străinilor în societatea românească. Bucures,ti:
The linguistic landscape of present-day Romania is diverse and Fundat,ia Soros.
there is a growing tendency to recognise and promote
multilingualism as a societal resource and value. Some of the European Commission; Statistical Office of the European
propitious initiatives in this field are briefly described below. Communities. (2010). Europe in figures – Eurostat yearbook 2010.
Luxembourg: European Commission.
At the governmental level, one example is the Department for
Interethnic Relations study on Multilingualism and minority Sandu, D. (2010). Lumile sociale ale migrat,iei. Ias,i: Polirom.
languages in Romania1, developed together with the Romanian
Academy. The programmes of the Romanian Immigration Office
or Romanian Institute for Research on National Minorities from
Cluj Napoca are also worth mentioning (for example, the project
on Bilingual Forum). The Romanian Ministry of Education’s recent
policy options and projects are relevant as well. For example,
the new education law, issued in January 2011 and the new
draft of the curriculum framework highlight the importance of
developing students’ communicative competence in several

1
[Link], [Link], [Link]
2
[Link]
3
[Link]/tv/ - interview, 23 November 2009.
4
[Link]/2011/05/29/conferinta-%E2%80%9Cde-la-imigrare-la-integrare-prin-multilingvism%E2%80%9D/

193
LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

16 Spain
16.1 Madrid, Valencia, Sevilla
Marta Genís

which the autonomous communities could select the contents

Country context of their curricula.
Multilingualism is not a new issue for Spanish people as four out
of every ten Spaniards live in communities with more than one The current law, approved in 2002, is the LOE (Ley Orgánica de
official language. Considering that Spain has a population of 47.1 Educación) in which the teaching of foreign languages begins in
million people (2011 census), it implies that 34% of the primary school (from five years old) and introduces an elective
population are at least bilingual, so multilingualism is an essential third FL from nine years old.
characteristic of Spanish culture.

The Spanish Constitution of 1978 recognises the richness of Languages in official

language diversity as a cultural heritage which must be
respected and protected, and declares that other languages documents and databases
apart from the national one, Castilian, ‘shall also be official in
their respective communities’. Thus, we can say that Spain is a The national language, foreign languages, R/M
multilingual country with the Castilian variety, usually called languages and immigrant languages are dealt with in
Spanish, as the official language. Other languages, Galician, language legislation and/or language policy documents.
Catalan and Basque, are also official in their respective The learning and teaching of Spanish abroad for children
communities and in some other territories that historically were and/or adults originating from Spain is (co-)funded in
part of their linguistic continuum, such as Valencia and Islas 13 countries in Europe and abroad, in particular in Latin
Baleares in the case of Catalan, and the north of Navarra in the America. The European Charter for Regional or Minority
case of Basque. These three languages together amount to Languages has been signed and ratified by Spain.
more or less 16 million speakers. The following 12 R/M languages are recognised in the
Charter: Aranese, Asturian/bable, basque, Catalan, fable
Additionally, there are a great variety of dialects, such as
Aragonese, Galician, valencian, Portuguese, Arabic,
Andalusian, Canario, Extremeño or Murciano; and others
berber languages, Caló, and Romani. There is official
recognised as territorial languages in the European Charter for
provision in regionwide education, supported by the
Regional or Minority Languages (ECRML) such as Fablas
Charter, for basque, Catalan, Galician and valencian.
Aragonesas in Aragón, Bable or Asturian in Asturias, Valenciano
in Valencia, and Aranés, the official language in la Vall d’Arán. Official nationwide data collection mechanisms on
The Charter also protects languages such as Berber in Melilla, language diversity in Spain exist in terms of periodically
Caló, a non-territorial language used by Gypsies, and updated census data and survey data. In these data
Portuguese, used in Extremadura and other places situated on collection mechanisms, national, R/M and immigrant
the border with Portugal. All of these languages represent only language varieties are addressed, based on a home
some of the linguistic varieties spoken at local level. language question plus a language proficiency question
in terms of whether (and how well) the language can be
Immigration has also brought other languages to Spain.
spoken/understood/read/written.
According to the 2011 census there are 5.7 million people of
foreign origin (12.2%), many from South America, where different
varieties of Spanish are spoken. The most important immigrant
languages in Spain are Arabic, Bulgarian, Chinese, English, National, R/M, foreign and immigrant languages are dealt with in
German, Portuguese and Romanian. various Spanish legislation and policy documents, mainly the
Spanish Constitution passed by Cortes Generales and ratified by
With regard to education, languages were never considered as the Spanish people in 1978, and the European Charter for
being an essential issue in Spain. The first sign of concern about Regional or Minority Languages, ratified in 2001. The Common
foreign languages (FL) can be traced to the Royal Decree of European Framework of Reference for Languages has also had a
20 July 1900 with the recommendation that French should be very deep influence on the Spanish educational system.
studied first, followed by English or German in order to break
through the isolation in which Spain had lived until then. Several reports presented to the European Commission explain
what has been done regarding R/M languages in Spain after the
The General Law of Education in 1970 represents a significant different statutes of autonomy of the regions were signed in the
advancement of languages in education as it introduced FL 1980s, establishing the official languages of the different
teaching in the third cycle of basic education, and, most communities: Aranés as co-official language was introduced in
significantly, included regional languages and literature in the the new text of the Statute of Cataluña enacted in July 2006;
educational system of the corresponding communities from Fablas, spoken in Aragon, was set out in Law 3/1999 of 10 March;
basic education onwards. and the General Plan of Normalisation of Galician was passed by
the parliament on 22 September 2004. However, regional
In 1990 the LOGSE (Ley Orgánica General del Sistema languages are not promoted or taught in other regions, leaving
Educativo) established a decentralised educational system in the initiative to regional clubs or academies.

194
 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

NL=National Language(s)
fL=foreign Languages
r/ML=regional or Minority Languages
iL=immigrant Languages

Languages in pre-primary education

Minimum Pre-service in-service

group size teacher teacher state funding
target groups duration requirements days per week training training available

r/ML all ≥2 years none >1 day subject-specific subject-specific full

fL all ≥2 years none <0.5 day subject-specific subject-specific full

iL all ≥2 years none <0.5 day general subject-specific partial

Additional NL all ≥2 years 5–10 0.5–1 day subject-specific subject-specific full

support

Languages offered in pre-primary education

r/ML valencian in valencia only

fL English in the communities of Madrid and valencia,

and English, french and German in Andalusia

iL Portuguese in valencia, Portuguese and Moroccan

Arabic in Madrid, and Portuguese, Moroccan Arabic,
and Romanian in Andalusia

It is in pre-primary education where Spain stands out with regard to multilingualism, with high
scores for both foreign and R/M languages as the Strategic Plan for Citizenship and Integration
2007–2010 included among its lines of action the preservation of languages and cultures of
origin of immigrant children, and provided for their promotion within the education system via
bilateral agreements.
Depending on particular communities, the foreign languages offered comprise English, French,
German, Portuguese, Arabic and Romanian. Normally either English or French is compulsory, the
rest being optional.

Languages in primary education

organisation
Extra support for diagnostic testing on Monitoring of language
Curriculum newcomers entry skills

NL support coherent and explicit before mainstream immigrants only national standardised

start of Minimum Monitoring of

target language group size language Level to be state funding
groups Curriculum CLiL education scheduling requirements skills achieved available

r/ML all coherent widespread from year 1 in school none national national or full
and explicit hours standardised regional
norms

fL all coherent widespread from year 1 in school none national national or full
and explicit hours standardised school
norms

iL native coherent localised from year 1 partly in none school-based school partial
speakers and explicit school norms
only hours

195
LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

teaching
Pre-service teacher in-service teacher
teacher qualifications training training Mobility

NL support language teachers subject-specific subject-specific N/A

r/ML language teachers subject-specific subject-specific N/A

fL language teachers subject-specific subject-specific informal financial support

iL language teachers general subject-specific N/A

Languages offered in primary education

r/ML valencian in valencia only

fL English and french in Madrid; English, french and

German in valencia and Andalusia: one of these
languages is compulsory

iL Moroccan Arabic and Portuguese in Madrid and

Andalusia

Languages in secondary education (No provision of immigrant languages)

organisation
Extra support for diagnostic testing on Monitoring of language
Curriculum newcomers entry skills

NL support coherent and explicit before mainstream immigrants only national standardised

Minimum Monitoring state

target group size of language Level to be funding
groups Curriculum CLiL scheduling requirements skills achieved available

r/ML all coherent and widespread in school none national national or full
explicit hours standardised regional
norms

fL all coherent and localised in school none school-based not specified full
explicit hours

teaching
teacher Pre-service in-service teacher Language level
qualifications teacher training training required Mobility

NL support language teachers subject-specific subject-specific not specified N/A

r/ML language teachers subject-specific subject-specific N/A N/A

fL language teachers subject-specific subject-specific none informal financial

support

196
 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Languages offered in secondary education

r/ML valencian in valencia only

fL English, french, German: one of these languages is

compulsory

In secondary education the profile is not as outstanding because the new multilingual trend has
not yet reached this level, meaning that only some secondary schools are bilingual. Nevertheless,
the range of languages offered, the organisation of tuition and teacher training and qualifications
are impressive.
Immigrant languages are not widely taught in secondary education although some action plans
have been put in place regarding their promotion. The integration of immigrants into Spanish
culture through the acquisition of the Spanish language has also been promoted.

Languages in further and higher education

further education (in three VEt institutions) (No provision of r/M languages and
immigrant languages)
range of language state funding
programmes Curriculum Level to be achieved available

fL institution A no specifications coherent and explicit none full

institution B limited coherent and explicit none full

institution C limited coherent and explicit none full

higher education (in three universities)

target groups Level to be
for additional achieved in recruitment
support in the foreign of non- Mobility for Mobility for
Language(s) Languages on national language national language non-language
of instruction website language instruction students students students

university A national and national and all linked to CEFR international optional optional
foreign foreign and immigrant

university B national and national and restricted linked to CEFR international optional optional
foreign foreign and immigrant

university C national and national and restricted linked to CEFR international optional optional
foreign foreign and immigrant

In Vocational Training (VET) only French and English are offered and not as compulsory subjects,
hence the results are low. Attention from educational authorities is needed in this area, given the
fact that VET is aimed at acquiring education with professional objectives.
In university education, English and French lead the foreign language offer followed by German
and Italian.

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Languages in audiovisual media and press

Non-national language Non-national language r/ML programmes Availability of sign

tV productions films in cinema outside of region language on tV

dubbed dubbed sometimes regularly

As all television broadcasts are digital, the original language of production is also transmitted.
Most dubbed programmes are also available in the original version, as are those in the regional
languages of Catalan, Galician or Basque. However, this fact is not always known to the general
public and perhaps this is the reason for the low values obtained in this domain.
In press and print, six different languages were identified in newspapers. The dominance of
English, however, is remarkable.

Languages in public services and spaces

institutionalised language strategies at city level
Language recruitment of Language record of
Website use of competencies in speakers of training offered language skills
N languages presence interpreters job descriptions languages to employees of employees

>4 Sevilla Madrid Madrid

Valencia
Sevilla

3–4

1–2 Valencia Valencia Valencia

Sevilla Sevilla

Communication facilities
top five oral communication facilities top five written communication facilities

Education Health
Emergency Social
Health Immigration and integration
Social Tourism
Legal Emergency

Even though ten languages are mentioned, English dominates the scene in the cities surveyed.
There seems to be a growing interest in multilingualism and a greater need of more languages
in public services at the local, regional and national level.
Oral communication facilities are far less significant than institutionalised strategies or written
communication facilities.

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Languages in business (out of 24 companies)

GENErAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs

mobility provision
language skills in

Awareness of Eu
use of networks
staff records of
use of external

language skills

programmes/

programmes/
Availability of

international

for language
Emphasis on

interpreters
recruitment

translators/

use of Eu
language
strategy

training

funding

funding
Widely practised 5 11 4 10 0 0 3 0

iNtErNAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs EXtErNAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs

documents/intranet
reward/promotion

Language used for

Language used for

Language used for

Language used for

Language used for

schemes based on

Language training

Language used for

Partnerships with

branding/identity
education sector

annual/business
language skills

software, web
programmes
use of CEfr

marketing
workplace
provision

website
reports
NL widely 2 3 6 1 23 22 23 24 20 22
practised

Business widely 2 9 8 0 9 9 11 11 7 14
English practised

Additional widely 2 2 4 0 3 0 4 11 7 11
languages practised

Management practices, even if subjugated by the national language, seem to have become more
sensitive to multilingualism but figures are still low. There is room for future improvement,
especially in the areas of language strategies and employees’ language competence.
Multinational firms have a more global perspective in such matters, knowing that multilingualism
greatly improves the competitiveness of companies.

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Key findings overall References

Recent improvements towards multilingualism are in the domains Avance Censo 2001, INE. In [Link]/prensa/[Link]
of pre-primary and primary education and immigrant languages,
with the shift being progressive and regular. Constitución española (1978). In
[Link]/aeboe/consultas/enlaces/documentos/
It is also important to stress the change attempted in the domain [Link]
of public services and spaces, given the fact that a decade ago
one could hardly expect to find any language other than Spanish. Common European Framework of Reference for Languages. In
[Link]/t/dg4/linguistic/Source/Framework_EN.pdf
The same can be said for newspapers and books where the
multilingual offer is now huge compared with only a few years ago. Council of Europe (2001), The European Framework of Reference
for the Teaching of Languages. Strasbourg: Council of Europe.
It is in particular in the domains of audiovisual media and
business where habit or traditional practice persists. European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In
[Link]/t/dg4/education/minlang/textcharter/default_en.asp

REAL DECRETO 831/2003, de 27 de junio, por el que se

Promising initiatives and pilots establece la ordenación general y las enseñanzas comunes de
The document entitled Action Plan for 2010–2020 signed in la Educación Secundaria Obligatoria.
2010 by the government, lists 12 objectives to improve language
Ley 10/2009 de 22 de diciembre de uso, protección y
learning and multilingualism, teacher education being one of the
promoción de las lenguas propias de Aragón. In
most important ones. Some of these objectives have already
[Link]
been reached by most autonomous communities but the current
financial crisis has slowed down the first initiatives. Ley 14/1970, de 4 de agosto, General de Educación y
Financiamiento de la Reforma Educativa. In
[Link]/aeboe/consultas/bases_datos/doc.
php?id=BOE-A-1970-852

Morales, C. et al. (2000) La enseñanza de lenguas extranjeras en

España. Madrid: [Link].

Plan de Acción 2010–2020. In [Link]/dctm/

ministerio/horizontales/prensa/documentos/2010/plan-de-
accion-2010-2011vdefinitivafinal.
pdf?documentId=0901e72b801b3cad

Plan estratégico de ciudadanía e Integración 2007–2010. In

[Link]
estrategico/pdf/[Link]

Plan General de Normalización de la Lengua Gallega (2004). In

[Link]/linguagalega/arquivos/PNL22x24_textointegro).pdf

Programa de Lengua y cultura Portuguesa. In

[Link]/educacion/sistema-educativo/educacion-
inclusiva/programas-educativos/[Link]

Real decreto de 20 de julio de 1900, Colección Legislativa de

España, vol. 2° de 1900, art. 3, p. 533–534.

Estatuto de Cataluña Julio 2006. In

[Link]/generalitat/cas/estatut/index_2006.htm

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16 Spain
16.2 catalonia
F. Xavier Vila i Moreno

Regional context Languages in official

Explicit recognition of Spain’s historical multilingual reality was a documents and databases
key priority after the introduction of democracy. Consequently, it
was granted a prominent place in Spain’s Constitution (article 3)
The national language, foreign languages, R/M
in 1978 and in the subsequent Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia
languages and immigrant languages are dealt with in
(article 3) in 1979. According to both texts, Catalan and Castilian
language legislation and/or language policy documents.
(the term officially used in the Constitution to refer to Spanish)
The learning and teaching of Catalan abroad for children
became official languages in Catalonia.
and/or adults originating from Catalonia is (co-)funded in
This recognition has been understood in different ways, and Argentina, Ecuador, Portugal, Switzerland and US. The
debates about language policies have retained a visible position European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages has
since then. Debates focus on how to implement this ‘official been signed and ratified by Spain. There is official
status’. Differentiating between Castilian as a ‘national’ and provision in education, supported by the Charter, for
Catalan as a ‘regional’ language made little empirical sense in Catalan and Aranese in Catalonia.
Catalonia, for both are widely present in all areas: in future
Official regionwide data collection mechanisms on
research, both should be subsumed under a common, more
language diversity in Catalonia exist in terms of census
adequate label, be it national, official, or another.
data, continuously updated municipal register data and
Some other factors have more recently promoted the relevance periodical survey data. In these data collection
of multilingualism in Catalonia: (1) the significance of the tourism mechanisms, national and regional language varieties
industry; (2) the process of European integration; (3) the rapid are addressed, based on a home language question, a
process of internationalisation in the Catalonian economy; and main language question, and a mother tongue question.
(4) the arrival, during the first decade of the 21st century, of Additionally, a language proficiency question is included
more than 1.3 million immigrants from Spanish-speaking America in terms of whether (and how well) this language can be
and the rest of the world (alloglots). This alloglot population is spoken/understood/read/written.
extremely fragmented and scattered across the country:
according to the Survey on the linguistic practices of Catalonia’s
population (EULP 2008) the largest group was that of Arabic Since the new Statute of Autonomy was voted for in 2006,
speakers (2.6% of the total population over 15 years – a figure Catalonia gained a third official language – Occitan, the
which also includes many Tamazight L1 speakers). No other first autochthonous language of Val d’Aran, a small territory in the
language (L1) group reached 1%: Romanian totalled 0.9%; Catalan Pyrenees. The official status of Occitan was regulated
Galician, 0.6%; French, 0.5%; Portuguese and English, 0.4%; and by law by the Parliament of Catalonia in September 2010, but
Russian, 0.3% were the most prominent among more than 400 temporally suspended by the Spanish Constitutional Court at the
different L1 groups. demand of the Spanish government.

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LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

osL=official state Language

fL=foreign Languages
ooL=official other Languages
iL=immigrant Languages

Languages in pre-primary education

(No provision of immigrant languages and no support for official state language - Spanish)

Minimum Pre-service in-service

group size teacher teacher state funding
target groups duration requirements days per week training training available

ooL all ≥2 years none >1 day subject-specific subject-specific partial

fL all ≥2 years none <0.5 day subject-specific subject-specific partial

Languages offered in pre-primary education

ooL Catalan everywhere and Aranese Occitan in val

d’Aran

fL English

Languages in primary education (No provision of immigrant languages)

organisation
Extra support for diagnostic testing on Monitoring of language
Curriculum newcomers entry skills

osL support coherent and explicit during mainstream immigrants only national standardised

start of Minimum Monitoring of

target language group size language Level to be state funding
groups Curriculum CLiL education scheduling requirements skills achieved available

ooL all coherent widespread from year 1 in school none national national or full
and explicit hours standardised regional
norms

fL all coherent widespread from year 1 in school none national national or full
and explicit hours standardised school norms

teaching
Pre-service teacher in-service teacher
teacher qualifications training training Mobility

osL support language teachers subject-specific subject-specific N/A

ooL language teachers subject-specific subject-specific N/A

fL language teachers subject-specific subject-specific incorporated into training

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 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Languages offered in primary education

ooL Catalan everywhere and Aranese Occitan in val

d’Aran

fL English: compulsory

During the last two decades, education in Catalonia has been based on the ‘conjunction model’,
which establishes that children shall not be separated according to first language; Catalan is the
main language of education (children are, however, entitled to be taught in Castilian in their first
years of education if their parents ask for it); and all children shall be bilingual and biliterate in
these two languages by the end of compulsory education. Comparative results show that this
model results in bilingualism of most children, although Castilian is still better known (see Vila
2008, 2010). The reason for such results is to be found in a mixture of demolinguistic and
sociolinguistic factors: Castilian is the main lingua franca between Catalan, Castilian and alloglot
speakers, and given its powerful status and ubiquity in society, it is rapidly picked up by non-
native speakers. It should also be remembered that while the data used in the Language Rich
Europe research is declared by official sources, both observational and self-declared data by
children show that Castilian is quite often used in interaction with teachers in classes especially
where Castilian speakers and alloglots are in the majority. In 2010, a much debated ruling on
Catalonia’s new Statute of Autonomy (2006) from the Constitutional Court required that Castilian
should have a wider presence as a vehicular language in Catalonian schools, and thus opened
the door to a major legal and political conflict which is still ongoing.

Languages in secondary education (No provision of immigrant languages)

organisation
Extra support for diagnostic testing on Monitoring of language
Curriculum newcomers entry skills

osL support coherent and explicit during mainstream all national standardised

Minimum Monitoring state

target group size of language Level to be funding
groups Curriculum CLiL scheduling requirements skills achieved available

ooL all coherent and widespread in school none national national or full
explicit hours standardised regional
norms

fL all coherent and localised in school none national national or full

explicit hours standardised school-based
norms

teaching
teacher Pre-service in-service teacher Language level
qualifications teacher training training required Mobility

osL support language teachers subject-specific subject-specific linked to CEFR N/A

ooL language teachers subject-specific subject-specific N/A N/A

fL language teachers subject-specific subject-specific linked to CEFR incorporated into

training

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LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Languages offered in secondary education

ooL Catalan everywhere, and Aranese Occitan in val

d’Aran

fL Compulsory: One from English, french, occasionally

(languages in italics offered in upper German and Italian
secondary only) Optional: Ancient Greek, Latin and others

The research is quite accurate in depicting the position of most languages. The distinction
between ‘foreign’ and ‘immigrant’ languages obscures the fact that two of the main L1 foreign
groups – namely French and English speakers – find it relatively easy to get tuition in their L1
within the educational system. A number of private foreign schools – American, French, Italian,
and ‘international’ – also cater for relatively well-off foreign residents and locals wishing their
children to be plurilingual.

Languages in further and higher education

further education (in three VEt institutions) (No provision of immigrant languages)
range of language state funding
programmes Curriculum Level to be achieved available

ooL institution A wide variety no guidelines N/A full

institution B limited coherent and explicit N/A full

institution C wide variety general N/A full

fL institution A wide variety coherent and explicit linked to CEFR full

institution B limited coherent and explicit linked to CEFR full

institution C wide variety coherent and explicit none partial

higher education (in three universities)

target groups Level to be
for additional achieved in recruitment
support in the foreign of non- Mobility for Mobility for
Language(s) Languages on national language national language non-language
of instruction website language instruction students students students

university A official state official state none linked to CEFR international optional optional
language, language, and immigrant
foreign and OOL foreign and OOL

university B official state official state restricted linked to CEFR international optional optional
language, language, and immigrant
foreign and OOL foreign and OOL

university C official state official state restricted linked to CEFR only optional optional
language, language, international
foreign and OOL foreign and OOL

The research captures the general environment for language learning in Vocational Education
and Training (VET) but the higher institutions looked at in the study do not highlight the wide
range of language learning possibilities at many universities in Catalonia, which, beyond the big
international languages, include regional languages like Occitan; widely spoken immigrant
languages such as Tamazight/Berber; several medium-sized European languages such as Dutch
or Swedish; and Asian languages such as Japanese, Chinese, Farsi or Turkish.

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Languages in audiovisual media and press

Non-national language Non-national language ooL programmes Availability of sign

tV productions films in cinema outside of region language on tV

subtitled dubbed sometimes sometimes

The research detects the predominance of Castilian as the language most in supply in mass
media, followed by Catalan, and English with other languages only at a distance. Castilian is vastly
predominant in television, thanks to the existence of many Spain-wide channels, and in cinema,
where Castilian-dubbed products are still predominant. In comparison, the Catalan/Castilian ratio
was much closer in radio and newspapers.
The position of other languages was more difficult to spot. Since digital television replaced
analogue, the question of dubbing and subtitling lost importance, because most television
stations broadcast the original version of foreign products, usually with subtitles, as well as a
dubbed version. Listening to the original versions is popular among certain social sectors,
including some groups of immigrants, but no research is available to date in this particular
domain. The use of satellite television was also relatively widespread among immigrant
communities, but the small absolute numbers of each language group makes this consumption
unnoticed.
By the end of 2011, the economic crisis was reducing the supply in all fields and languages.
In December 2011, for instance, the free, Castilian-language newspaper ADN, was closed down.
The crisis has especially affected local and public initiatives, such as local television stations,
which were a stronghold for Catalan. Much more importantly, in late 2011 the government of
Catalonia announced severe cuts to public television, which would probably imply that two public
channels – both in Catalan – would stop broadcasting.

Languages in public services and spaces

institutionalised language strategies at city level
Language recruitment of Language record of
Website use of competencies in speakers of training offered language skills
N languages presence interpreters job descriptions languages to employees of employees

>4 Barcelona Barcelona Barcelona

Tarragona
L’Hospitalet de
Llobregat

3–4 Barcelona Barcelona Barcelona

1–2 Tarragona Tarragona Tarragona Tarragona

L’Hospitalet de L’Hospitalet de L’Hospitalet de L’Hospitalet de
Llobregat Llobregat Llobregat Llobregat

Communication facilities
top five oral communication facilities top five written communication facilities

Health Emergency
Social Health
Immigration and integration Tourism
Education Social
Emergency Immigration and integration

The strong multilingual profile shown by the data for local public services and spaces clearly
reflects the multifaceted nature of this domain, which deals simultaneously with all sorts of
customers, for example locals, immigrants, and tourists. It is therefore not surprising that
languages from different families and continents, from Catalan to Japanese and Finnish to Swahili,
are mentioned as being present.

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Languages in business (out of 23 companies)

GENErAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs

mobility provision
language skills in

Awareness of Eu
use of networks
staff records of
use of external

language skills

programmes/

programmes/
Availability of

international

for language
Emphasis on

interpreters
recruitment

translators/

use of Eu
language
strategy

training

funding

funding
Widely practised 9 14 5 8 0 5 4 0

iNtErNAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs EXtErNAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs

documents/intranet
reward/promotion

Language used for

Language used for

Language used for

Language used for

Language used for

schemes based on

Language training

Language used for

Partnerships with

branding/identity
education sector

annual/business
language skills

software, web
programmes
use of CEfr

marketing
workplace
provision

website
reports
osL widely 0 2 2 2 21 23 18 21 20 21
practised

Business widely 3 4 10 5 7 11 10 12 13 14
English practised

Additional widely 3 4 6 5 11 7 10 15 14 15
languages practised

The data collected suggests that, in general terms, the private sector lags behind local public
institutions in adopting multilingual strategies in their daily routine. In the business sector, Catalan
moves to third position, behind Castilian and business English, and is followed at a considerable
distance by other European languages, mostly those of tourists and European residents, or other
languages in Spain. Non-European languages play a negligible role in this sector, suggesting that
African and Asian immigrants and the markets in these regions are not being taken into account
by the firms consulted, or alternatively, they are served via business English.
These conclusions should nevertheless be taken with caution: not only was the sample of firms
analysed small, it was also internally heterogeneous, including firms from different sectors, some
of them being international, some working throughout Spain, and others only working in Catalonia.
Comparison between the public services and spaces domain, where only local institutions were
analysed, and the business domain, is less than straightforward.

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Key findings overall References

1 Differentiating between Castilian as a ‘national’ and Catalan Boix-Fuster, Emili, Joan Melià, and Brauli Montoya. 2011. ‘Policies
as a ‘regional’ language made little empirical sense in promoting the use of Catalan in oral communications and to
Catalonia, for both were widely present in all areas: in future improve attitudes towards the language.’ Pp. 150–181 in
research, both should be subsumed under a common, more Democratic Policies for Language Revitalisation: The Case of
adequate label, be it national, official, or another. Catalan, edited by M. Strubell i Trueta and E. Boix-Fuster.
Basingstoke, England: Palgrave.
2 The Language Rich Europe project is focussed on language
policies on supply, but supply can only be duly analysed Vila i Moreno, F. Xavier. 2008. ‘Catalan in Spain.’ Pp. 157-183 in
when demand and results are taken into consideration. In its Multilingual Europe: Facts and Policies edited by G. Extra and
current linguistic ecosystem, a comparatively small supply of D. Gorter. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Castilian at school produces high results in language
proficiency, while a small supply of English produces low Vila i Moreno, F. Xavier. 2010. ‘Making choices for sustainable
results in this language. The ways that lead to plurilingualism social plurilingualism: some reflexions from the Catalan language
may be different for each language in each situation, and the area.’ Pp. 131–154 in International Perspectives on Bilingual
whole linguistic ecosystem has to be taken into account. In Education: Policy, Practice, and Controversy edited by J. Petrovic.
this sense there is certainly room for development in foreign Charlotte, N Carolina: Information Age Publishing series.
language learning in the Catalonian linguistic ecosystem.

3 As a whole, the questionnaire adequately reflects the weak

position of ‘immigrant languages’ in Catalonia, a position
consistent with both their recency and their heterogeneity.
In its current design, the questionnaire is conceived to
detect only initiatives which affect large tracts of society. In
the future, the methodology could be developed to
incorporate community initiatives more available to new, less
established immigrant groups — such as extra-school
language courses, community libraries and bookshops,
satellite television or television consumption via the Internet.
In any case, pedagogic attention to these languages should
increase if the immigrant children’s linguistic heritage is to be
preserved for their benefit and that of Catalonian society.

Promising initiatives and pilots

1 Several programmes of Language volunteers, sponsored by
both public and private initiatives, have resulted in the
creation of ‘linguistic couples’ which have made it possible
for thousands of Catalan-language learners to practice the
language with fluent speakers all over Catalonia (cf. Boix-
Fuster, Melià and Montoya 2011).

2 Vila (2010) describes a number of activities addressed at

raising awareness of minority languages developed in
Catalonia such as the Language Gymkhana or the Amazigh
Spring.

3 Proxecto Galauda ([Link] [in

Galician]) is a project which has taught Galician in Catalonia
and Catalan in Galicia in several secondary education
centres as a way to enlarge the linguistic repertoire and raise
awareness about the value of linguistic diversity.

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LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

16 Spain
16.3 Basque country
Iván Igartua

From the beginning of the normalisation process it was clear to

Regional context politicians and to Basque society as a whole that Basque would
The Autonomous Community of the Basque Country (Euskadi) be official in the whole territory, even in places where it had not
has two official languages: Basque and Spanish. According to been spoken for centuries. In fact, in the case of Basque, it
the latest estimates, around 37% of the Basque population is would be more accurate to speak about a recovery or revival of
bilingual (near 800,000 people). There are other territories in the language rather than about a classic process of language
which Basque is spoken. In the French Basque Country, where normalisation and standardisation. This means that language
Basque has no kind of administrative recognition at all, Basque transmission within the family was not enough. School education
speakers constitute about one-third of the population (some has become the key to recovery of the language and this
80,000 people). In Navarre, where it is only official in the recovery is being achieved through social consensus and
northern part of the territory, it is spoken by one-tenth of the individual freedom. It is parents, not the Basque government,
population (some 50,000 people). who choose the language of instruction for their children.

Nowadays, there are practically no monolingual Basque A special aspect of education in Basque Country is the linguistic
speakers. Basques who do not know either Spanish or French Basquisation of adults. For centuries, the relationship between
make up less than 1% of the population. In the light of the Basque and Spanish or French was one-way. Many Basque
current sociolinguistic situation, the primary goal of the Basque speakers abandoned their language. Either voluntarily or forced
government is to promote a feasible bilingualism, based on three by circumstances, they adopted one of the official languages.
principles: consensus of the political forces represented in the Since the 1960s, the relationship between Basque and Spanish
Basque Parliament; acceptance of the plurality of Basque or French has been reciprocal. Basque continues to lose
society; and respect for citizens’ own language choices. This is speakers in the French Basque Country but, at the same time,
exactly the spirit of the Normalisation Law, passed in 1982. many Basques whose native language is French or Spanish are
learning Basque. Some people who have learned Basque in
Since then, the status of Basque has greatly improved and the adulthood have obtained such a command of the language that
status of Spanish has not worsened at all. In Euskadi, language they have become famous writers in Basque or even members
normalisation has always been understood as a plus. The of the Academy of the Basque Language. Currently, as many as
people of Euskadi and their government have pledged their 40,000 people are learning Basque or improving their level in
commitment to bilingualism, not to a monolingualism of one kind the so-called euskaltegis, centres for adult learning and for
or another. The idea of linguistic rights is basic in both legislation perfecting of Basque. Without euskaltegis and the enlargement
and political praxis of Basque Country, the rights of both Basque of the Basque-speaking community, the revival of the language
and Spanish speakers. would have been almost impossible.

During the last thirty years, Basque language policy has been As regards administration, public institutions have forced
based on two priority areas: education and administration. The themselves to respect each citizen’s linguistic choice, instead of
third priority area in any normalisation process (media, especially forcing them to use one language or another. Many civil servants
television) has had a comparatively smaller impact on the have to speak the two official languages of the autonomous
acquisition of the Basque language but has been crucial in community. At the moment, 44% of the workers in Basque public
the development of a standard language variety. When the institutions possess a Basque language certificate. Actually, it
Normalisation Law was passed, it was understood that the is possible to be a Basque civil servant – even at a high level
distinction between priority and non-priority areas (such as the post – without knowing a single word of Basque, especially in the
police-force, the public health system, the justice system and non-priority areas mentioned before. On the other hand, data on
private sector companies) would only last for a few years. citizens’ requests reveals that only 14–15% of them use Basque
Although we are already in the fourth decade of the process, when addressing public institutions.
that distinction is still in force, as the status of Basque in some
of the areas mentioned above continues to be weak.

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Languages in official
documents and databases
Within the last twenty years, the government of Basque Country
Spanish, basque and foreign languages are dealt with in has produced many texts on language planning and language
language legislation and/or language policy documents. policy. Some of the most noteworthy documents are the General
The learning and teaching of basque abroad is (co-) Plan for Promoting Basque (EBPN, 1999) and the brief essay
funded at more than 30 universities in Europe and the Towards a Renewed Agreement (2009), which set the basis for
Americas. The European Charter for Regional or Minority language policy at the beginning of the 21st century. After the
Languages has been signed by Spanish government and Normalisation Law (1982), legislation on several aspects of
ratified by Spanish Parliament. There is official provision bilingualism has been further developed, including the private
in education, supported by the Charter, for basque in business sector. Since 1991 Sociolinguistic Surveys have been
basque Country. carried out every five years in order to determine the level of
linguistic competence and use of languages in Basque Country.
Official regionwide data collection mechanisms on
Basic information about the first language of citizens is also
language diversity exist in terms of periodically updated
included in this survey. In 2011 the Basque government
census data and survey data in basque Country. In these
completed an indicators-based study on the current status
data collection mechanisms, national and regional
and evolution of Basque.
language varieties are addressed, based on a home
language question, a main language question, a first
language question, plus a language proficiency question
in terms of whether (and how well) this language can be
spoken/understood/read/written.

osL official state Language

fL=foreign Languages
ooL=official other Languages
iL=immigrant Languages

Languages in pre-primary education

(No provision of immigrant languages)

Minimum Pre-service in-service

group size teacher teacher state funding
target groups duration requirements days per week training training available

fL all ≥2 years none 0.5–1 day subject-specific subject-specific full

ooL all ≥2 years none >1 day subject-specific subject-specific full

Additional all ≥2 years none 0.5–1 day subject-specific subject-specific full

osL support

Languages offered in pre-primary education

ooL basque

fL English

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LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Languages in primary education (No provision of immigrant languages)

organisation
Extra support for diagnostic testing on Monitoring of language
Curriculum newcomers entry skills

osL support coherent and explicit before mainstream immigrants only national standardised

start of Minimum Monitoring of

target language group size language Level to be state funding
groups Curriculum CLiL education scheduling requirements skills achieved available

ooL all coherent widespread from year 1 in school none national national or full
and explicit hours standardised regional
norms

fL all coherent localised from year 1 in school none national national or full
and explicit hours standardised school norms

teaching
Pre-service teacher in-service teacher
teacher qualifications training training Mobility

osL support language teachers general general N/A

ooL language teachers subject-specific subject-specific N/A

fL language teachers subject-specific subject-specific informal financial support

Languages offered in primary education

ooL basque

fL English: compulsory

Languages in secondary education (No provision of immigrant languages)

organisation
Extra support for diagnostic testing on Monitoring of language
Curriculum newcomers entry skills

osL support coherent and explicit before mainstream immigrants only national standardised

Minimum Monitoring state

target group size of language Level to be funding
groups Curriculum CLiL scheduling requirements skills achieved available

ooL all coherent and widespread in school none national national or full
explicit hours standardised regional
norms

fL all coherent and localised in school none national linked to CEFR full
explicit hours standardised

teaching
teacher Pre-service in-service teacher Language level
qualifications teacher training training required Mobility

osL support language teachers subject-specific general linked to CEFR N/A

ooL language teachers subject-specific subject-specific N/A N/A

fL language teachers subject-specific subject-specific linked to CEFR informal financial

support

210
 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Languages offered in secondary education

ooL basque

fL (languages in italics offered at upper Compulsory: English, German

secondary only) Optional: Arabic, french, Italian, Russian, Turkish

In Basque Country, school is now far more important than family for the transmission of the
Basque language. Basque is the language of instruction chosen by 60% of parents when deciding
how their children will be educated, whether they speak Basque or not and whether Basque is
alive in their area/town or not (moreover, 22% opt for a bilingual model and the rest, 18%, choose
Basque as a school subject). In pre-primary education the percentage of parents who choose
Basque for their children is even higher. As a result, Spanish monolinguals are about to become
extinct amongst children under six.
The main problem concerning school is that children whose first language is Spanish identify
Basque mainly with homework. They give up speaking Basque as soon as they are outside school.
Usually, children from Spanish-speaking areas speak only Spanish at home or in the street, unless
at least one of the parents is a Basque speaker. In such circumstances, they rarely feel confident
or comfortable using the language learnt at school. Nevertheless, as mentioned above, school
has become crucial in the revitalisation of the language.
In primary as well as secondary education a foreign language must be learned. Although the vast
majority of schools offer English as first foreign language, other languages, such as French or
German, can be learned too.

Languages in further and higher education

further education (in three VEt institutions) (No provision of immigrant languages)
range of language state funding
programmes Curriculum Level to be achieved available

ooL institution A wide variety coherent and explicit N/A full

institution B

institution C limited no guidelines N/A full

fL institution A limited coherent and explicit national full

institution B limited general none full

institution C limited general national full

higher education (in two universities)

target groups Level to be
for additional achieved in recruitment
support in the foreign of non- Mobility for Mobility for
Language(s) Languages on national language national language non-language
of instruction website language instruction students students students

university A national, foreign national, foreign restricted national or only native no offer optional
and R/M and R/M institution- speakers of
based national
language

university B national, foreign national, foreign none none only no offer optional
and R/M and R/M international

45% of students at the University of the Basque Country currently study in Basque. As a result,
the status of Basque in the university sector is much better now compared to thirty years ago.
At graduate and especially postgraduate levels, English is increasingly introduced into study
programmes.
In vocational education multilingual profiles are also emerging, but at a slower rate. For instance,
Basque is chosen as a language for instruction by only 25% of students.

211
LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Languages in audiovisual media and press

Non-national language Non-national language r/ML programmes Availability of sign

tV productions films in cinema outside of region language on tV

dubbed dubbed sometimes sometimes

In Basque Country there is one country-wide newspaper and there are nearly 50 regional or local
magazines published entirely in Basque. There are also two public television channels which
broadcast exclusively in Basque (and some local channels are the same). The presence of other
languages, apart from Basque and Spanish, in publications accessible to Basque citizens is
growing but still reflects a moderate interest in foreign languages.

Languages in public services and spaces

institutionalised language strategies at city level
Language recruitment of Language record of
Website use of competencies in speakers of training offered language skills
N languages presence interpreters job descriptions languages to employees of employees

>4

3–4 Vitoria-Gasteiz

1–2 Donostia-San Donostia-San Donostia-San Donostia-San Donostia-San Donostia-San

Sebastian Sebastian Sebastian Sebastian Sebastian Sebastian
Bilbao Vitoria-Gasteiz Vitoria-Gasteiz Vitoria-Gasteiz Vitoria-Gasteiz Vitoria-Gasteiz
Bilbao Bilbao Bilbao Bilbao Bilbao

Communication facilities
top five oral communication facilities top five written communication facilities

Legal Immigration and integration

Immigration and integration Transport
Tourism Tourism
Transport Education
= Educational Theatre
= Emergency
= Health
= Social
= Political debates and decision making

Public services are commonly offered in Spanish and Basque, the two official languages of
Basque Country. In some cases (such as, translation services and primary attention to immigrants)
other languages are also used, such as English, French, Arabic, Chinese, Russian, Georgian
or Wolof.

212
 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Languages in business (out of 20 companies)

GENErAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs

mobility provision
language skills in

Awareness of Eu
use of networks
staff records of
use of external

language skills

programmes/

programmes/
Availability of

international

for language
Emphasis on

interpreters
recruitment

translators/

use of Eu
language
strategy

training

funding

funding
Widely practised 6 14 8 8 1 5 3 0

iNtErNAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs EXtErNAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs

documents/intranet
reward/promotion

Language used for

Language used for

Language used for

Language used for

Language used for

schemes based on

Language training

Language used for

Partnerships with

branding/identity
education sector

annual/business
language skills

software, web
programmes
use of CEfr

marketing
workplace
provision

website
reports
osL widely 1 0 2 3 20 19 19 20 19 18
practised

Business widely 3 1 10 5 5 8 9 4 8 11
English practised

Additional widely 4 1 6 2 3 1 2 9 8 10
languages practised

Basque companies are trying to integrate language-management practices into their daily work.
This aspect of their business strategy goes far beyond official bilingualism, as other languages
(mainly, but not exclusively, English) are absolutely necessary for their relationships with
companies all over the world. An aspect that should be improved is the promotion of language
competencies among employees.

213
LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Key findings overall References

Basque Country exhibits comparatively strong multilingual Euskara Biziberritzeko Plan Nagusia/Plan general de Promoción
profiles in primary and secondary education for Spanish, Basque del Uso del Euskera (EBPN), Vitoria-Gasteiz, Eusko Jaurlaritza/
and the main foreign languages (with English in top position). Gobierno Vasco, 1999.
However, immigrant languages have a very weak or non-existent
status in the educational system. Euskararen egoerari eta bilakaerari buruzko adierazleak/
Indicadores de situación y evolución del euskera, Viceconsejería
In higher education, printed media, public services and private de Política Lingüística, 2011. [Link]/r59-738/
companies, multilingual profiles are emerging at quite a fast rate. es/contenidos/informacion/argitalpenak/es_6092/adjuntos/
This should be improved and consolidated in the future by the ebpn_txostena/EBPN%20Txostena%[Link]
development of an adequate educational basis oriented towards
multilingualism. Fourth Sociolinguistic Survey (2006), Vitoria-Gasteiz, Eusko
Jaurlaritza/Gobierno Vasco, 2008.

Itun berritu baterantz / Hacia un pacto renovado, Vitoria-Gasteiz,

Promising initiatives and pilots Eusko Jaurlaritza/Gobierno Vasco, 2009. English version:
Multilingualism is a challenge for a society which is far from [Link]/r59-738/es/contenidos/
being 100% bilingual. The gradual move towards a bilingual informacion/7041/es_2447/adjuntos/Maketa-Pacto_Baja-
society must therefore be combined with the growing need and 1eng%[Link]
demand for multilingual strategies. One of these strategies is
already on track: a pilot has been developed to introduce a
trilingual framework into primary and secondary education.
Around 120 schools have adopted this new framework, which
will probably be extended to the entire educational system.

Within the realm of new technologies, a big effort is currently

being directed towards creating a machine-translation system
that can translate texts and websites from Spanish and English
to Basque and vice versa. This new tool will be based on a
powerful grammatical analyser and a large public repository of
translation memories.

The goal of these (and other) initiatives is not easy to achieve

but it is, at the same time, a very attractive one: to develop and
strengthen multilingual profiles in a society that wants and tries
to increase the use of Basque, the sociolinguistically weakest
language.

214
 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

17 SWiTZerLanD
Raphael Berthele, Bernhard Lindt-Bangerter, Susanne Obermayer

immigrated to Switzerland. Roughly one-third of these are

Country context naturalised Swiss citizens. The most widely represented
Switzerland is a parliamentary confederation. It comprises languages in order of frequency are: German, French, Italian,
26 cantons and, as of 2010, it numbered 7.9 million inhabitants. Bosnian/Croatian/Serbian, Albanian, Portuguese, Spanish,
As federated states with their own constitutions, the cantons are English, Turkish and Tamil (source: 2000 census). The linguistic
endowed with a great deal of autonomy. In particular, the integration of immigrants who speak a foreign language is a
educational system is cantonally organised; as a consequence, major focus of current federal policies (including language
the school systems often differ considerably between cantons. courses in the regional languages).
At present, efforts to harmonise the systems are in progress, as
stipulated by both a constitutional article from 2006 and by an
agreement to harmonise compulsory school (see below). Languages in official
In Switzerland, four languages have traditionally been spoken in documents and databases
relatively homogeneous territories: German, French, Italian and
Rhaeto-Romanic. The first three languages have been national
All four national languages (that is, french, German,
languages since the foundation of the Confederation in 1848;
Italian and Rhaeto-Romanic), foreign languages, and
the latter since 1938. A Law on Languages, in effect since 2010,
immigrant languages are dealt with in language
regulates the use and promotion of languages and enhances the
legislation and/or language policy documents. The
status of Rhaeto-Romanic as one of the official languages.
learning and teaching of the national languages abroad
The status of the Alemannic dialects – the first language of the
for children and/or adults originating from Switzerland is
majority of Swiss – has not yet been clarified. While UNESCO
(co)funded in more than 20 countries in Europe and
has placed the Swiss-German dialects amongst the world’s
abroad. The European Charter for Regional or Minority
vulnerable languages, educational institutions tend to restrict
Languages has been signed by government and ratified
their use. The Italian dialects in Ticino are increasingly being
by parliament in Switzerland. The following languages
replaced by standard Italian, and the Franco-Provençal varieties
are recognised in the Charter: Italian and Rhaeto-
spoken in Western Switzerland have become moribund.
Romanic at the federal level, french in the canton of
Each canton is responsible for defining its official language. bern, German in bosco-Gurin, Ederswiler, and the
Of the 26 cantons, 17 have designated German as the official cantons of fribourg and valais, and yiddish, yenish, and
language, four French and one Italian. Three cantons are Walser. There is official provision in nation- or region-
officially bilingual (French, German), and one canton is trilingual wide education, supported by the Charter, for Rhaeto-
(German, Rhaeto-Romanic, Italian). In addition, there are several Romanic and Italian.
officially bilingual municipalities at the German-French language
Since 2010, official nationwide data collection
border. The trilingual canton of Graubünden represents a
mechanisms on language diversity in Switzerland exist in
linguistically unique situation. The minority language Rhaeto-
terms of yearly updated register data (STATPOP). In these
Romanic has been losing ground for centuries; the lingua franca
data collection mechanisms, national, R/M and immigrant
German increasingly threatens the richness and vitality of
language varieties are addressed based on three
Switzerland’s fourth language. In the attempt to secure a
different language questions, i.e., (1) ‘what is your main
Rhaeto-Romanic-speaking territory, Graubünden has issued
language, i.e. the language you think in and know best?’,
language
a new cantonal language law with new provisions. Now, a
(2) ‘what language(s) do you habitually speak at home,
municipality is considered monolingual if 40% of its population
with your family?’,
family? and (3) ‘what language(s) do you
speaks Rhaeto-Romanic, and multilingual if 20% do.
habitually speak at work/at your educational
Furthermore, in Rhaeto-Romanic areas, the local dialect is the
establishment?’.
exclusive language spoken at nurseries and in the first years of
primary school.

According to the national census in the year 2000, 63.7% of the Up to the year 2000, Switzerland carried out a census to collect
population spoke German as their main language, 20.4% French, data on all residents. As of 2010, only random sampling will be
6.5% Italian, 0.5% Rhaeto-Romanic and 9% a non-official done, which excludes statements on the level of the individual
language. Approximately 30% of the population has an municipalities and which is particularly problematic for assessing
immigrant background, meaning they or their parents the vitality of Rhaeto-Romanic.

215
LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

NL=National Language(s)
fL=foreign Languages
r/ML=regional or Minority Languages
iL=immigrant Languages

Languages in pre-primary education

Zurich (No provision of r/M and foreign languages)
Geneva (No provision of r/M, foreign and immigrant languages)
ticino (No provision of any language education)
Minimum Pre-service in-service
group size days per teacher teacher state funding
target groups duration requirements week training training available

iL Zurich native speakers 1 year none <0.5 day general subject-specific partial
only

Additional Zurich immigrant ≥2 years none 0.5–1 day subject-specific none full
NL children only
support
Geneva all ≥2 years none 0.5–1 day subject-specific subject-specific full

Languages offered in pre-primary education

iL In Zurich: Albanian, Arabic, bosnian, Chinese,

Croatian, finnish, french, Greek, Hungarian, Italian,
Korean, Portuguese, Portuguese (brazil), Russian,
Slovenian, Spanish (Latin America), Turkish
In Geneva: Albanian, Arabic, Italian, Portuguese,
Spanish and Turkish

In its promotion of language skills in pre-primary education, the authorities focus clearly on a
given region’s official language. In current educational policy, children generally attend nursery
for two years and, as a rule, language integration takes place through immersion. In nurseries with
a high percentage of children who speak a foreign language, lesson sequences in small groups
and with special language-learning modules are offered.
In the coming years, the specific measures promoting integration should increasingly support
projects which provide early (preschool) intervention to help children with an immigration
background learn the local language.

216
 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Languages in primary education

organisation
Extra support for diagnostic testing on Monitoring of language
Curriculum newcomers entry skills

Zurich coherent and explicit before mainstream immigrants only school-based

NL support

Geneva coherent and explicit before mainstream absent national standardised

ticino general before mainstream immigrants only absent

start of Minimum Monitoring state

target language group size of language Level to be funding
groups Curriculum CLiL education scheduling requirements skills achieved available

other Zurich all coherent absent from mid- in school none national national or full
NL and explicit phase hours standardised regional
norms

Geneva all coherent absent from year 1 in school none school- national or full
and explicit hours based regional
norms

ticino all coherent absent from mid- in school none school- school full
and explicit phase hours based norms

fL Zurich all coherent absent from year 1 in school none national linked to full
and explicit hours standardised CEFR

Geneva all coherent absent from year 1 in school none school- national or full
and explicit hours based school
norms

ticino all coherent absent from mid- in school none school- national or full
and explicit phase hours based school
norms

iL Zurich native general localised from year 1 partly in none school- not partial
speakers school based specified
only hours

Geneva No provision

ticino No provision

217
LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

teaching
Pre-service teacher in-service teacher
teacher qualifications training training Mobility

NL support Zurich general teachers subject-specific none N/A

Geneva language teachers subject-specific subject-specific N/A

ticino general teachers general none N/A

other NL Zurich general teachers general none N/A

Geneva general teachers subject-specific subject-specific N/A

ticino general teachers general none N/A

fL Zurich general teachers subject-specific none incorporated into training

Geneva general teachers subject-specific subject-specific incorporated into training

ticino general teachers general none incorporated into training

iL Zurich general teachers general subject-specific N/A

Geneva No provision

ticino No provision

Languages offered in primary education

other NL German, french, Italian

fL In Zurich: English and french compulsory

In Geneva: English and German compulsory
In Ticino: french compulsory

iL In Zurich: Albanian, Arabic, bosnian, bulgarian,

Chinese, Croatian, finnish, french, Greek, Hungarian,
Italian, Korean, Kurdish, Portuguese, Russian, Serbian,
Slovenian, Spanish, Swedish, Turkish
In Geneva: Albanian, Arabic, Italian, Portuguese,
Spanish, and Turkish

In Switzerland, compulsory schooling lasts nine years. After the seventh year, the majority of
cantons have two or three different categories based on academic ability. Students generally
enter higher secondary school (Gymnasium) after the eighth or ninth class.
Teaching a second national language is a traditional part of compulsory schooling. The past few
years, however, have seen language teaching undergo major reforms: an agreement (HarmoS)
between a majority of the cantons has been drawn up with the aim of harmonising both the
sequence of subjects taught and the educational goals. The concrete changes to language
teaching are that alongside a second official language for all students, English must be taught. In
addition, the first foreign language must have been introduced by the third class at the latest; the
second foreign language by the fifth class. In future, German will be the first foreign language
taught in French-speaking Switzerland and in areas of Graubünden where Rhaeto-Romanic or
Italian are the regional languages; French will be the first foreign language in Italian-speaking
Ticino and in many German-speaking cantons in western Switzerland. In the German-speaking
territories of Graubünden, Italian will be the first foreign language, while a majority of the German-
speaking cantons in central and eastern Switzerland will introduce English as the first foreign
language. The fact that a part of German-speaking Switzerland has chosen English over the
national language French has given rise to a great deal of criticism.
The stated aim of HarmoS is that students achieve comparable language skills in both foreign
languages during their compulsory schooling. Educational standards for all languages taught are
currently being drafted.

218
 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

As a general rule, the promotion and cultivation of the first language of children with immigration
backgrounds is the responsibility of the nations concerned and private organisations are also at
times involved. The Conference of Cantonal Ministers of Education recommends that the cantons
support Heritage Language and Culture courses. In most cantons, school infrastructures (such as
classrooms) are provided for these courses, and some German-speaking cantons accredit them
provided they adhere to a prescribed framework curriculum. In these cantons, there are various
forms of co-operation between regular and heritage language teachers, as well as integrated
instruction.

Languages in secondary education

organisation
Extra support for diagnostic testing on Monitoring of language
Curriculum newcomers entry skills

Zurich coherent and explicit before mainstream absent school-based

NL support

Geneva coherent and explicit before mainstream absent national standardised

ticino coherent and explicit before mainstream absent school-based

Minimum Monitoring state

target group size of language Level to be funding
groups Curriculum CLiL scheduling requirements skills achieved available

other Zurich all coherent and localised in school none national national or full
NL explicit hours standardised regional
norms

Geneva all coherent and localised in school none national national or full
explicit hours standardised regional
norms

ticino all coherent and localised in school none school-based school norms full
explicit hours

fL Zurich all coherent and localised in school none national linked to full
explicit hours standardised CEFR

Geneva all coherent and localised in school none national linked to full
explicit hours standardised CEFR

ticino all coherent and localised in school none school-based national or full
explicit hours school-based
norms

iL Zurich native general localised partly in none school-based national or partial

speakers school hours regional
only norms

Geneva native general widespread outside none school-based no norms partial

speakers school hours
only

ticino No provision

219
LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

teaching
Pre-service teacher in-service teacher Language level
teacher qualifications training training required Mobility

NL support Zurich language teachers subject-specific none linked to CEFR N/A

Geneva language teachers subject-specific subject-specific national or N/A

school-based
norms

ticino language teachers subject-specific none linked to CEFR N/A

other NL Zurich language teachers subject-specific none N/A N/A

Geneva language teachers subject-specific subject-specific N/A N/A

ticino language teachers subject-specific none N/A N/A

fL Zurich language teachers subject-specific subject-specific linked to CEFR informal financial

support

Geneva language teachers subject-specific subject-specific national or informal financial

regionwide support
standards

ticino language teachers subject-specific none national or informal financial

regionwide support
standards

iL Zurich general teachers general subject-specific N/A N/A

Geneva language teachers general general N/A N/A

ticino No provision

Languages offered in secondary education

other NL German, french, Italian

fL English, Greek, Latin, Spanish: 1-2 of these languages

is/are compulsory

iL In Zurich: Albanian, bosnian, Chinese, Croatian,

Croatian, finnish, french, Greek, Hungarian, Italian,
Korean, Kurdish, Portuguese, Russian, Serbian,
Slovene, Spanish, Swedish, Turkish
In Geneva: Albanian, Arabic, Italian, Portuguese,
Spanish and Turkish

The teaching of national and foreign languages and the promotion of plurilingualism continues to
be a major preoccupation of the cantonal and federal authorities in secondary education. As a
rule, two foreign languages (generally another national language and English) are compulsory for
all pupils until the end of higher secondary education. At the end of upper secondary school,
pupils are expected to have attained level B2 according to the Council of Europe’s Common
European Framework of Reference for Languages.
Many higher secondary schools offer bilingual curricula. The predominant language combination
is the regional official language and English, especially in German-speaking Switzerland. For pupils
with an immigration background there is also the possibility of extracurricular courses in
immigrant languages, organised by these language communities, but often supported by local
school authorities.

220
 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Languages in further and higher education

further education (in three VEt institutions) (No provision of immigrant languages)
range of language state funding
programmes Curriculum Level to be achieved available

other institution A wide variety coherent and explicit N/A partial

NL
institution B wide variety coherent and explicit N/A full

institution C wide variety coherent and explicit N/A full

fL institution A wide variety coherent and explicit national partial

institution B wide variety coherent and explicit linked to CEFR full

institution C wide variety coherent and explicit linked to CEFR full

higher education (in three universities)

target groups Level to be
for additional achieved in recruitment
support in the foreign of non- Mobility for Mobility for
Language(s) Languages on national language national language non-language
of instruction website language instruction students students students

university A national, other national, other all linked to CEFR international optional optional
national and national and and immigrant
foreign foreign

university B national, other national, other all none international optional optional
national and national and and immigrant
foreign foreign

university C national, other national, other restricted linked to CEFR only optional optional
national and national and international
foreign foreign

Switzerland has a comparatively low percentage of students who acquire a university entry
qualification. This is because a great deal of value is placed on high-quality vocational training.
In vocational programmes, apprentices work in a company or trade while attending a so-called
vocational school one or two days per week, with a very diverse degree of focus on the
promotion of the regional official language or of foreign languages. Within commercial training
programmes, for example, language is given a prominent role (a second official language plus
English are compulsory), whereas in professions requiring primarily manual labour, foreign
languages are only very perfunctorily treated, if at all. Therefore, it is impossible to make general
statements on the treatment of foreign languages in vocational education.

221
LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Languages in audiovisual media and press

Non-national language Non-national language r/ML programmes Availability of sign

tV productions films in cinema outside of region language on tV

dubbed subtitled always regularly

National radio and television programmes from the various language regions are broadcast
throughout the whole of Switzerland. Programmes of comparable quality are broadcast on the
same terms within the four language regions. There is a considerable redistribution of licence fee
income to the regional companies of the minority language regions in order to support and
promote linguistic and cultural diversity.
In addition, most households have cable – or internet television – and thereby have access to
numerous additional domestic and foreign programmes in diverse languages. It must, however,
be noted that most television and radio consumers prefer broadcasts in their own language.
Although print media in the national and many foreign languages are available throughout the
country, they are mainly read by the respective language communities.

Languages in public services and spaces

institutionalised language strategies at city level
Language recruitment of Language record of
Website use of competencies in speakers of training offered language skills
N languages presence interpreters job descriptions languages to employees of employees

>4 Zurich Zurich

Geneva

3–4 Geneva Lugano Lugano

Lugano

1–2 Zurich Geneva Zurich Zurich

Geneva

Communication facilities
top five oral communication facilities top five written communication facilities

Education Educational
Health Legal
Social Immigration and integration
Legal Tourism
Immigration and integration Transport

In the Federal Administration, the percentage of employees from one of the official language
communities is proportional to the overall population. Nonetheless, there are hierarchical
disparities, with a partial underrepresentation of the national minorities in executive roles.
Moreover, deficiencies were observed regarding the advancement of individual multilingualism
of employees in the Federal Administration. Immigrant minority languages are also clearly
underrepresented in the Federal Administration.
Traditionally the army has been an important national site where the various linguistic
communities, especially the smaller ones, were able to use their respective languages. In the
recent past, the troop size of the Swiss army was reduced considerably, which entailed an
increase in linguistically mixed groups (the army used to
be organised territorially and thus largely in monolingual groups, in correspondence with the
traditional principle of territoriality). In the absence of a coherent language policy in the army,
this development gives rise to fears of Germanisation in the national minority groups, since
mixed groups tend to function in the majority language, German.

222
 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Languages in business (out of 32 companies)

GENErAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs

mobility provision
language skills in

Awareness of Eu
use of networks
staff records of
use of external

language skills

programmes/

programmes/
Availability of

international

for language
Emphasis on

interpreters
recruitment

translators/

use of Eu
language
strategy

training

funding

funding
Widely practised 8 23 4 5 0 3 0 0

iNtErNAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs EXtErNAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs

documents/intranet
reward/promotion

Language used for

Language used for

Language used for

Language used for

Language used for

schemes based on

Language training

Language used for

Partnerships with

branding/identity
education sector

annual/business
language skills

software, web
programmes
use of CEfr

marketing
workplace
provision

website
reports
NL widely 4 0 5 2 30 28 29 29 32 28
practised

Business widely 3 1 6 2 11 7 4 7 13 10
English practised

Additional widely 3 0 3 1 7 3 7 5 11 13
languages practised

Major factors for businesses to place value on language skills can be linked to the individual
branch, the clientele and an individual’s role in the company’s hierarchy. While the present study
is only able to mirror this statement to a very limited degree, the data obtained does confirm
larger studies which reveal that other national languages continue to occupy an important
position in the professional world. These studies have also indicated that one cannot speak of a
general, but rather a sectoral and local displacement of the regional language in favour of English.
Many smaller businesses in all parts of the country are monolingual.

223
LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Key findings overall References

In compulsory education, the strong economic relevance of Swiss law on languages: [Link]/ch/d/ff/2007/[Link]
English has led to competition with the official languages not
spoken in a given region. The situation weakens the position of Law on languages: [Link]/frontend/versions/238
smaller official languages, especially Italian. Indeed Rhaeto-
Swiss Conference of Cantonal Ministers of Education (EDK),
Romanic and Italian are barely represented in school settings or
Teaching languages (in German and French): [Link]/
in public life outside their own territory.
dyn/[Link] (accessed January 2012).
The progress of integration and valorisation of original
Swiss Conference of Cantonal Ministers of Education (EDK),
languages spoken by immigrants is unsatisfactory, both at
Teaching in immigrant languages (in German, French and Italian):
school and in society.
[Link]/dyn/[Link] (accessed January 2012).

Georges Lüdi; Iwar Werlen (2005) Sprachenlandschaft in der

Promising initiatives and pilots Schweiz, Neuchâtel, available at Swiss Federal Statistical Office.

The Schweizer Institut für Kinder- und Jugendmedien promotes

family literacy. Their project Schenk mir eine Geschichte (loosely
translated as ‘tell me a story’) specifically addresses immigrant
families and encourages them to cultivate their own languages
([Link]/d/?/d/lesefoerderung/projekte/family_literacy.
html).

Ch Foundation is an important contact point for language exchange

programmes in Switzerland and abroad for school pupils, trainees
and university students. It is for the most part financed by the
Confederation and the cantons ([Link]/).

The canton Basel-Stadt initiated an overarching language

concept for schools, which acknowledges the roles of the
various languages: German as the main language, the taught
foreign languages, and the original languages of children with an
immigration background ([Link]
fremdsprachen/herkunftssprachen).

The Forum du bilinguisme in the bilingual city of Biel/Bienne

supports projects that promote multilingualism. For example, the
organisation awards a ‘label of bilingualism’ to companies that
practice a culture of bilingualism ([Link]/).

Several academic institutions perform applied research in the

area of multilingualism. These include the Osservatorio linguistico
della Svizzera italiana and the Fachstelle für Mehrsprachigkeit
at the University of Teacher Education Graubünden. Both
institutions observe the current situation regarding language
policy in Italian- and Rhaeto-Romanic-speaking Switzerland and
formulate calls for action. The Research Centre on Multilingualism
in Fribourg/Freiburg, which receives funds from the
Confederation, co-ordinates research at academic institutions on
institutional and individual multilingualism ([Link]/index.
php?id=38747; [Link]/[Link]?&L=0;
[Link]/en).

224
 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

18 uKraine
Lyubov Naydonova

Country context Languages in official

As of 1 October 2011 the population of Ukraine was 45.7 million documents and databases
(according to the State Statistics Service of Ukraine). According
to the national census in 2001 Ukraine was inhabited by
The national language, foreign languages and a whole
representatives of more than 130 nationalities and ethnic groups
range of R/M languages are dealt with in language
with Ukrainians accounting for 77.8% of the population. The
legislation and/or language policy documents. The
largest minority group was Russian and comprised 8.3 million
learning and teaching of the national language abroad
people (17.3% of the country’s population). All other large
for children and/or adults originating from Ukraine is
ethnolinguistic minorities together are estimated at less than
(co-)funded in 15 countries in Europe and abroad. The
2.4 million people (4.9% of the Ukrainian population), with each
European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages has
of them containing less than 300,000 people.1
been signed and ratified by Ukraine. The following 13
Pursuant to the 1989 Law on Languages and the 1996 R/M languages are recognised in the Charter: belarusan,
Constitution the state language is Ukrainian. The most bulgarian, Crimean-Tatar, Gagauz, German, Greek,
widespread languages in Ukraine are Ukrainian and Russian. Hungarian, Moldovan, Polish, Romanian, Russian, Slovak
Ukraine is regionally divided into a predominantly Ukrainian- and yiddish. There is official provision in nation- or
speaking West and mainly Russian-speaking East, while in the regionwide education, supported by the Charter, for all
central regions Russian dominates in large cities and Ukrainian in of these languages.
small towns and villages. The most populated towns and cities
Official nationwide data collection mechanisms on
are situated in eastern Ukraine, which influenced the peculiarity
language diversity in Ukraine exist in terms of census
of choosing Lviv for the three-municipal form of research as the
data and periodically updated survey data. In these data
largest city among the cities and towns of Ukrainian-speaking
collection mechanisms, national and R/M language
West.
varieties are addressed, based on a mother tongue
The linguistic landscape of Ukraine is determined by the fact that question.
Russian, which is not a state language, is used by the majority of
the population including those people belonging to the other
minorities. In 2001, 67.5% of Ukrainian inhabitants acknowledged In 1996 Ukraine signed the European Charter for Regional or
Ukrainian to be their mother tongue while 29.6% considered Minority Languages which became valid on 1 January 2003.
their mother tongue to be Russian. According to recent The main authority responsible for the issues of minorities is the
sociological data2, communication in Ukrainian is decreasing, State Committee on Nationalities and Religions. According to
while communication in Russian is increasing. information provided by the government language issues are
officially monitored in Ukraine. Ukraine submitted its first
The language issue regarding the balance between Ukrainian periodic report on the implementation of the Charter to the
and Russian is at the centre of heated public debate. The Council of Europe in August 2007. The report’s conclusions were
extended usage of Ukrainian means an inevitable narrowing of accepted by the Committee of Experts on 27 November 2008
those fields where Russian is used. Earlier there was a long-term and the corresponding recommendations were approved in
process of forcing Ukrainian language out of usage in favour of July 2010.3 Language issues are systematically studied by
Russian. The renewal of the status of Ukrainian is officially scientific institutions. The results of social and sociolinguistic
supported but the actual status of Russian in society remains research are published in print and electronic mass media and
strong. Reaching an appropriate balance between Ukrainian and are widely available.
Russian is a crucial task for the current social and political
processes in Ukraine.

The level of immigration to Ukraine is rather high with more than

30,000 people coming to the country every year.1 Immigrants
living in Ukraine are considered to be minorities as far as
language issues are concerned. Most often newly arrived
immigrants learn Ukrainian (more seldom) or Russian (more
often) or use English.

225
LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

NL=National Language(s)
fL=foreign Languages
r/ML=regional or Minority Languages
iL=immigrant Languages

Languages in pre-primary education

(No provision of immigrant languages)

Minimum Pre-service in-service

group size teacher teacher state funding
target groups duration requirements days per week training training available

r/ML no support ≥2 years >10 >1 day subject-specific subject-specific full

fL no support ≥2 years >10 <0.5 day subject-specific general partial

Additional NL all ≥2 years none >1 day general general full

support

Languages offered in pre-primary education

r/ML Crimean Tatar, German, Hungarian, Moldovan, Polish,

Romanian, Russian

fL English, french, German, Spanish: one of these

languages is compulsory

The Ukrainian educational system comprises about 15,000 pre-primary establishments and
21,000 schools where 84.6% of children are taught in Ukrainian, 14.8% are taught in Russian, and
in the areas densely inhabited by the population of other nationalities about 6,500 children are
taught in Hungarian, Moldavian, Romanian, Crimean Tatar and other languages. Pre-primary
education in Belarusan, Gagauz and Greek is not provided. The authorities need to conduct more
consultations with the speakers of these languages to better estimate the need for teaching
children in the languages of their minorities and to ensure the training of teaching staff and
provision of educational materials.

Languages in primary education (No provision of immigrant languages)

organisation
Extra support for diagnostic testing Monitoring of language
Curriculum newcomers on entry skills

NL support coherent and explicit absent absent school-based

start of Minimum Monitoring of

target language group size language Level to be state funding
groups Curriculum CLiL education scheduling requirements skills achieved available

r/ML all coherent widespread from year 1 in school none school-based national or full
and explicit hours regional
norms

fL all coherent localised from mid- partly in none school-based national or full
and explicit phase school school norms
hours

226
 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

teaching
Pre-service teacher in-service teacher
teacher qualifications training training Mobility

NL support general teachers general general N/A

r/ML language teachers subject-specific subject-specific N/A

fL language teachers subject-specific subject-specific informal financial support

Languages offered in primary education

r/ML belarusan, bulgarian, Crimean Tatar, Gagauz, German,

Greek, Hebrew, Hungarian, Moldovan, Polish,
Romanian, Russian, Slovak

fL Compulsory: English, German, french, Spanish:

depending on the school, one or two of these
languages are compulsory
Optional: Korean, Turkish, Armenian, Czech,
vietnamese: optional, extracurricular languages

Formerly, foreign languages were taught from the fifth form but since 2002 learning has starting
from the second form. From 2012 one foreign language will be obligatorily in primary school from
the first form. From 1996 to 2006 the number of foreign language teachers for primary schools
increased almost sixfold.

Languages in secondary education (No provision of immigrant languages)

organisation
Extra support for diagnostic testing Monitoring of
Curriculum newcomers on entry language skills

NL support coherent and explicit absent all school-based

Minimum Monitoring state

target group size of language Level to be funding
groups Curriculum CLiL scheduling requirements skills achieved available

r/ML all coherent and widespread in school none school-based national or full
explicit hours regional
norms

fL all coherent and absent in school none school-based linked to CEFR full
explicit hours

teaching
teacher Pre-service in-service teacher Language level
qualifications teacher training training required Mobility

NL support language teachers subject-specific subject-specific national or school- N/A

based norms

r/ML language teachers subject-specific subject-specific N/A N/A

fL language teachers subject-specific subject-specific national or informal financial

regionwide support
standards

227
LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Languages offered in secondary education

r/ML Russian, Hungarian, Romanian, Moldovan, Crimean

Tatar, Polish, German, Slovak, belarusan, bulgarian,
Gagauz, Greek, Jewish

fL English, German, french, Spanish: depending on the

school, one or two of these languages are
compulsory
Korean, Turkish, Armenian, Czech, vietnamese:
optional, extracurricular languages

There are about 3.1 million children in secondary education and there are 16 foreign languages
available for study, one or two of which are chosen for obligatory learning. More than 90% of
schools make their choice in favour of English. Over the past years the number of English
teachers has grown by more than a third (2008 compared to 1996).
The language of teaching in secondary schools is determined by the parents and in most cases
they have a choice. Teaching in secondary schools using minority languages is well provided for
when compared to the other levels of education. The prospects for further development create
the conditions for teaching children in secondary schools using the Karaim, Krymchak and
Romani languages.

Languages in further and higher education

further education (in three institutions) (No provision of r/M and immigrant languages)
range of language
programmes Curriculum Level to be achieved state funding available

fL institution A limited coherent and explicit national full

institution B limited general national full

institution C limited coherent and explicit none full

higher education (in three universities)

target groups Level to be
for additional achieved in recruitment
support in the foreign of non- Mobility for Mobility for
Language(s) Languages on national language national language non-language
of instruction website language instruction students students students

university A national and national, all linked to CEFR international optional optional
foreign foreign, R/M and immigrant

university B national, national and all national or international optional optional

foreign, R/M foreign institution- and immigrant
based

university C national only national and all national or only optional optional
foreign institution- international
based

Vocational education in Ukraine is provided in 919 state educational establishments using mostly
Ukrainian. Thirty-nine educational facilities offer their students instruction in Russian (in 123
facilities the subjects are partially taught in Russian), and there is only one establishment where
the subjects are taught in Hungarian. In universities, foreign languages, as well as the languages
of minorities, are mainly taught as separate subjects.

228
 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Languages in audiovisual media and press

Non-national language tV Non-national language r/ML programmes Availability of sign

productions films in cinema outside of region language on tV

Kyiv sometimes dubbed dubbed never sometimes

Kharkiv subtitled dubbed regularly sometimes

Lviv sometimes dubbed sometimes dubbed sometimes sometimes

According to the public affairs service of the Ministry of Justice, in 2007 among the national
publications printed, there were 4,390 registered printed periodicals in Ukrainian only,
2,495 publications in Russian and 35 publications in English. There were 4,389 registered mixed-
form publications: the majority of them are in Russian and other languages, 13 are in Crimean
Tatar and other languages, eight are in Bulgarian and other languages, ten are in Polish and other
languages, five are in Romanian and other languages, 324 are in English and other languages,
28 are in German and other languages, eight are in French and other languages, two are in
Chinese and other languages, and four are in Belarusan and other languages. The three cities
selected for research do not show a great number of minority language publications, except
for Russian.
The language situation in mass media is characterised by two peculiarities. The first is related to
the correlation between the usage of Ukrainian and Russian where there is a considerable
domination of Russian, especially with regard to the circulation of newspapers and magazines, the
language of television programmes in prime-time, and the playlist of FM radio stations. The
second is an evidently poor meeting of the language needs of other minority groups. Thus,
television and radio broadcasting in minority languages (except for Russian) is provided only in
five of the 26 oblasts of Ukraine. There still exists a widespread opinion going back to the Soviet
times that groups speaking other languages have to meet their needs by accessing Russian
language media space.

Languages in public services and spaces

institutionalised language strategies at city level
Language recruitment of Language record of
Website use of competencies in speakers of training offered language skills
N languages presence interpreters job descriptions languages to employees of employees

>4

3–4 Kyiv Kharkiv Kyiv

Kharkiv
Lviv

1–2 Kharkiv Lviv Kyiv Kharkiv

Lviv Kharkiv
Lviv

229
LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Communication facilities
top five oral communication facilities top five written communication facilities

Immigration and integration Tourism

Transport Immigration and integration
Tourism Health
Health Transport
Theatre = Education
= Emergency
= Social
= Legal
= Theatre

In the field of law the state language is mainly used. Of the minority languages, Russian is used,
especially in Eastern Ukraine. There is little information available regarding the use of translation
to other languages if a person cannot speak either Ukrainian or Russian. Official documents at
local government level are published in Ukrainian and Russian. Oral communication in state and
public bodies is provided in other languages at the level of village councils in the areas of
minority settlements. The use of Ukrainian by the representatives of ethnic minorities (except for
Russian) in communication with the governmental authorities is fully provided for in those areas
where the corresponding ethnic group represents the majority or a considerable part of the
population and has representation in the government. In other cases such language requirements
are rarely, if at all, met.
Euro 2012 in Ukraine promoted the introduction of English in public spaces and services, and
furthered the development of agencies to render services to tourists speaking other languages.

Languages in business (24 companies)

GENErAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs

mobility provision
language skills in

Awareness of Eu
use of networks
staff records of
use of external

language skills

programmes/

programmes/
Availability of

international

for language
Emphasis on

interpreters
recruitment

translators/

use of Eu
language
strategy

training

funding

funding
Widely practised 8 13 6 6 0 2 0 0

iNtErNAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs EXtErNAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs

documents/intranet
reward/promotion

Language used for

Language used for

Language used for

Language used for

Language used for

schemes based on

Language training

Language used for

Partnerships with

branding/identity
education sector

annual/business
language skills

software, web
programmes
use of CEfr

marketing
workplace
provision

website
reports

NL widely 1 0 1 0 23 22 23 22 23 20
practised

Business widely 2 0 6 1 9 15 11 5 11 12
English practised

Additional widely 0 1 0 1 10 12 6 7 11 15
languages practised

The information about language diversity in the commercial world is the least available. In
regulations of enterprises there is no provision excluding or restricting the usage of regional
languages or languages of minorities, at least among the people using the same language.

230
 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Key findings overall References

The language correlation currently existing in Ukraine is, on 1. Publications of statistical reference books by the State
the one hand, the continuation of the process of total Statistics Service of Ukraine [Link]/
Russification, and, on the other hand, the reflection of the
desire of the Ukrainian people for national and political 2. Language Policy and Language Situation in Ukraine: Analysis
self-awareness. Therefore, the usage of Ukrainian and Russian, and Recommendations /Ed. J. Besters-Dilger, 2nd Edition,
which has become the subject of heated social and political Publishing House Kyiv-Mohyla Academy, 2008: 363, INTAS
debate, remains the central issue for language development. Project Language Policy in Ukraine: Anthropological,
The controversy over the need to establish Ukrainian and the Linguistic and Further Perspectives (2006–2008).
preservation of the usage of Russian needs to be strategically
3. Application of the Charter in Ukraine. First Stage of
settled and legally regulated.4 It concerns in particular fields
Monitoring: A Report by the Committee of Experts about the
such as mass media, education and social life. The development
Charter Application by Ukraine. Recommendation by
of other minority languages (except for Russian) requires both
Committee of Ministers of Council of Europe as to the
state support and an increase in the conscious aspiration of
Application of the Charter by Ukraine/ECRML 2010 (6) –
ethnic groups to preserve and develop their language, and, thus,
Strasbourg, 7 July, 2010.
demand to exercise their rights to the full extent of Ukrainian
laws. Currently, immigrant languages are the least protected in 4. Personal and Interpersonal Backgrounds for Increasing Status
Ukraine and require heightened attention on the part of state Value of Communication in Ukrainian among Students
authorities and public organisations, as well as the furthering of (V.O. Vasiutynskyi, K.M. Kalachnikova).
their recognition in society.

Important initiatives for international relations and cultural

development of Ukrainian minorities include the following:
cultural and educational events aimed at creating tolerance,
respect for culture, history, customs and traditions of the
representatives of different nationalities; state financial support
to newspapers published in the languages of minorities and
rendering assistance to cultural centres; tourist routes to the
areas densely inhabited by minority groups to broaden
awareness of ethnic, cultural and language diversity and identity.

231
LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

19 uniTeD KingDoM
19.1 england
Teresa Tinsley and Philip Harding-Esch

Country context Languages in official

England has a population of 51.8 million people of which 16% documents and databases
belong to an ethnic minority group or are of mixed race.1
It is favoured linguistically not only by having a major world
English, foreign languages, R/M languages and
language – English – as its official language but also by a very
immigrant languages are dealt with in language
high degree of linguistic diversity – the latest survey in London
legislation and/or language policy documents in
found 233 distinct languages.2 One in six primary school
England. The learning and teaching of English abroad for
children (16.8%) and one in eight (12.3%) secondary were found
children and/or adults originating from the UK is (co-)
to have another language besides English – nearly a million
funded in belgium, belize, brunei, Canada, Cyprus,
across England.3
falkland Islands, Germany, Gibraltar, Italy and the
England has only one recognised regional minority Netherlands. The European Charter for Regional or
language – Cornish, used to some degree by several hundred Minority Languages has been signed and ratified by the
people (2008).4 UK. In England, the R/M language recognised in the
Charter is Cornish, for which there is also official
provision in regionwide education.

Official UK-wide data collection mechanisms on language

diversity in England exist in terms of periodically
updated municipal register data, census data and survey
data. In these data collection mechanisms, national, R/M
and immigrant language varieties are addressed, based
on a home language, and a main language question and
a language proficiency question in terms of whether (and
how well) this language can be spoken/understood/
read/written.

There is little language legislation as such in England or the

UK generally, beyond that relating to R/M languages. English,
foreign languages, R/M languages and sign language have
been dealt with in a range of language policy and guidance
documents. In England, following the 2010 election many of
these have been reviewed.

1
Office for National Statistics, resident population estimates by ethnic group, 2009
2
Language Capital: mapping the languages of London’s schoolchildren, Eversley
et al., CILT, 2011.
3
Department for Education pupil data 2011.
4
Report on the Cornish Language Survey, Cornish Language Partnership, 2008.

232
 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

NL=National Language(s)
fL=foreign Languages
r/ML=regional or Minority Languages
iL=immigrant Languages

Languages in pre-primary education (No provision of foreign and immigrant languages)

Minimum Pre-service in-service

group size teacher teacher state funding
target groups duration requirements days per week training training available

r/ML all ≥2 years none <0.5 day general general partial

Additional NL all ≥2 years none 0.5–1 day subject-specific subject-specific full

support

Languages offered in pre-primary education

r/ML Cornish in Cornwall

fL Occasionally french, German, Italian, Spanish

All children from age four with limited attainment in English receive extra support from
appropriately trained teachers. Foreign languages are occasionally taught at pre-primary level but
teachers receive no special training. Cornish is taught informally in a small but increasing number
of pre-primary schools.

Languages in primary education (No provision of immigrant languages)

organisation
Extra support for diagnostic testing Monitoring of
Curriculum newcomers on entry language skills

NL support coherent and explicit before mainstream all national standardised

start of Minimum Monitoring of

target language group size language Level to be state funding
groups Curriculum CLiL education scheduling requirements skills achieved available

r/ML all coherent absent from year 1 outside 5–10 national national or partial
and explicit school standardised regional
hours norms

fL all coherent localised from mid- in school none school-based national or full
and explicit phase hours school norms

teaching
Pre-service teacher in-service teacher
teacher qualifications training training Mobility

NL support general teachers subject-specific subject-specific N/A

r/ML general teachers none subject-specific N/A

fL general teachers subject-specific subject-specific informal financial support

233
LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Languages offered in primary education

r/ML Cornish

fL Optional. Any living language may be offered. In

practice mainly french, Spanish and German, with
some Chinese, Italian, Urdu.

iL Urdu, Chinese, Turkish, for example

In 2000, following widespread public consultation, the Nuffield Languages Inquiry1 recommended
a series of measures including an early start to learning another language. This became one of
the main planks of the National Languages Strategy for England launched by the Labour
government in 2002. By 2010, following a far-reaching programme of curriculum development,
support for schools, and teacher training, 92% of primary schools offered a foreign language.
Although this was most commonly French, guidance strongly encouraged a holistic approach to
developing language competence, making explicit links to literacy in English and other languages
known by children. Foreign languages are usually taught by generalist teachers who have
received pre-service and in-service training in language teaching; they are often supported by
secondary school colleagues. Language learning in the majority of schools starts in the first year
of primary school, at age seven, typically for 30–40 minutes per week.2
Although the National Languages Strategy was abandoned when the current government came to
power, non-statutory guidelines remain available – the Key Stage 2 Framework for Languages (KS2)
and most schools base their practice on this document. A consultation process on the national
curriculum is currently under way and the advisory committee has recommended that from 2014
language learning should start at least by age nine. In June 2012 the government announced its
intention to legislate for compulsory foreign language learning from the age of seven.
A flourishing voluntary complementary sector provides opportunities for children to learn
languages spoken in their communities. This serves both primary and secondary school children
(and earlier). A 2005 survey3 found provision in after-school and Saturday classes for at least 61
languages. An innovative national programme, Our Languages, ran from 2008-2010 to promote
and strengthen this provision and to draw it into contact with mainstream schools. Under this
scheme any language may be offered in primary schools, and some languages of the wider world
are taught, usually in areas with large minority populations and/or as part of ‘language taster’ and
intercultural awareness programmes.
There has been funding through an Ethnic Minority Achievement Grant (EMAG) for language
support for newcomers and bilingual pupils. Such support is offered outside and during
mainstream classes and skills are monitored regularly. Since 2011 the EMAG has been
‘mainstreamed’ within general funding and there is some doubt as to how it will be used in future.
In Cornwall, approximately 30% of primary schools in the county offer Cornish, usually as an
extra-curricular subject at KS2. Limited funding is available to support teachers and a coherent
curriculum for Cornish is available with assessment linked to the CEFR.

1
Languages: the next generation. The final report and recommendations of The Nuffield Languages Inquiry. London, 2000.
2
Language Learning at Key Stage 2: A longitudinal study, DCSF Research Report RR198, Department for Children, Schools and
Families, 2010.
3
Community Language Learning in England, Wales and Scotland, CILT, 2005.

Languages in secondary education (No provision of R/M languages)

organisation
Extra support for diagnostic testing Monitoring of
Curriculum newcomers on entry language skills

NL support coherent and explicit before mainstream all national standardised

Minimum Monitoring state

target group size of language Level to be funding
groups Curriculum CLiL scheduling requirements skills achieved available

fL all coherent and absent in school none national linked to CEFR full
explicit hours standardised

iL all coherent and absent partly in none national no norms partial

explicit school hours standardised

234
 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

teaching
teacher Pre-service in-service teacher Language level
qualifications teacher training training required Mobility

NL support language teachers subject-specific subject-specific national or school- N/A

based norms

fL language teachers subject-specific subject-specific national or informal financial

regionwide support
standards

iL unqualified none subject-specific N/A N/A

Languages offered in secondary education

fL One language compulsory up to age 14. Any living

language, but with a recommendation that there
should be suitable accreditation. The main languages
on offer are french, German and Spanish, but also
include Italian, Urdu, Arabic, Polish, Chinese, Russian,
Portuguese, Turkish and Japanese

iL Arabic, Chinese, Urdu, Polish, Portuguese, Turkish,

bengali and Panjabi

The situation of foreign languages in secondary schools in England has been a matter of concern
for many years. Languages were compulsory until age 16 until 2004 when this was reduced to
age 14. Numbers sitting a public examination have since fallen dramatically: in 2001, 78% of the
cohort sat a GCSE exam in languages; this was just 43% in 2011. French and German have seen
the biggest falls in numbers; however, Spanish and many of the lesser taught languages have
become more popular. At ages 16-18, the numbers studying languages have remained steadier.
This relative success is mainly due to the maintenance of language learning in independent
schools, which educate around 7% of the school population in England, but account for over 40%
of Advanced level entries in languages. This reveals a key concern for the future of language
teaching in England – that of social inequality.
The current government is encouraging schools to prioritise languages by introducing the English
Baccalaureate – an overarching form of certification for students who obtain good passes in five
key subjects including a language other than English. The government’s advisory panel on the
national curriculum has recommended that additional language learning should again be made
compulsory for all students up to the age of 16.
Languages are taught as subjects. There are also pilot and individual CLIL schemes which involve
the use of another language as a medium of instruction.1 There has been a clear curriculum, and
skills are monitored using national instruments. These National Curriculum ‘attainment target’
descriptors are based on the Languages Ladder (DCSF 2007) which is aligned with the CEFR.
National examinations exist for 28 languages and many secondary schools facilitate access to
these for pupils who have developed competence in them – usually outside mainstream school.
An initiative developed as part of the National Languages Strategy – Asset Languages –
successfully developed examinations in new languages such as Cornish, Tamil and Yoruba for
which previously no examination existed.
In Cornwall, a small but increasing number of secondary schools offer Cornish, usually as an
extra-curricular subject. There is no curriculum on offer to schools. There is some teaching of
Welsh and Irish in urban centres such as London.
The standard English curriculum is usually used for English as a second language (EAL).2 There
is a diagnosis of English language skills before entering secondary education and skills are
monitored regularly using age-appropriate standard instruments. The Ethnic Minority Achievement
Grant has also been used for language support in secondary schools (see above – primary
education)

1
Towards an integrated curriculum – CLIL national statement and guidelines, 2009.
2
Source: [Link]/eal-teaching-and-learning/faqs

235
LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Languages in further and higher education

further education (in three VEt institutions) (No provision of r/M languages)
range of language state funding
programmes Curriculum Level to be achieved available

fL institution A wide variety coherent and explicit national partial

institution B no specifications coherent and explicit national partial

institution C wide variety coherent and explicit national partial

iL institution A

institution B

institution C wide variety coherent and explicit N/A partial

higher education (in three universities)

target groups Level to be
for additional achieved in recruitment
support in the foreign of non- Mobility for Mobility for
Language(s) Languages on national language national language non-language
of instruction website language instruction students students students

university A national only national only all national or international optional optional
institution- and immigrant
based

university B national only national only all national or only obligatory optional
institution- international
based

university C national only national only all national or international obligatory optional
institution- and immigrant
based

Although the three vocational institutions surveyed for Language Rich Europe provide language
support, across England there is very little provision for languages alongside vocational courses.
A survey in 2006 estimated that less than 1% of all students on vocational courses were studying
a language. Those that were, were mainly studying Spanish in either Travel and Tourism or
Business courses. A 2011 follow-up survey found that provision had declined even further and
that very few attempts were being made in the sector to link languages to the world of work.1
English universities offer a wide range of languages as degree subjects or complementary
modules. Traditional language and literary studies have always been strong in the older
universities. There has, however, been a decline in language study over recent decades. Since
2005 languages have been designated ‘strategically important and vulnerable subjects’ in English
universities. This means that they qualify for additional public funding to address declining
national capacity. There is a lack of degree courses in the four most widely spoken community
languages (the UK term for what LRE refers to as immigrant languages): Urdu, Cantonese, Panjabi
and Bengali, and barriers to professional training in community languages for teaching, translation
and interpreting have been identified as concerns.2 The concentration of languages in the older
universities, the narrow student class profile of language undergraduates, and the low incidence
of courses combining languages with scientific and technological subjects are additional
concerns in the sector.

1
Vocationally related language learning in further education, CILT, 2006.
2
Community Languages in Higher Education, McPake and Sachdev, Routes into Languages, 2008.

236
 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Languages in audiovisual media and press (in two cities)

Non-national language Non-national language r/ML programmes Availability of sign

tV productions films in cinema outside of region language on tV

subtitled subtitled sometimes regularly

The use of languages other than English is not prevalent in mainstream audiovisual media (such
as radio and terrestrial television), although there are some relatively popular subtitled detective
series; in the newer media, however – cable television, satellite, online – European and minority
language television channels are widely available. There are also many community radio
programmes available in English cities. Newspapers are available in a large repertoire of
languages other than English especially in large cities. Foreign language films in the UK are
invariably shown in the original language with subtitles in both cinema and on television. Sign
language is regularly offered in important media events in all cities and broadcasters are required
by law to cater for hearing-impaired viewers.

Languages in public services and spaces

institutionalised language strategies at city level (two cities)
Language recruitment of Language record of
Website use of competencies in speakers of training offered language skills
N languages presence interpreters job descriptions languages to employees of employees

>4 London London London London London

Sheffield Sheffield Sheffield

3–4

1–2

Communication facilities
top five oral communication facilities top five written communication facilities

= Political debates and decision making = Political debates and decision making
= Education = Education
= Emergency = Health
= Health = Social
= Social = Legal
= Legal = Immigration and integration
= Immigration and integration = Tourism

In the cities surveyed, police, health services, courts and local government all make extensive
use of translation and interpreting services, and both written and online information is made
available in a variety of languages. The languages supported are defined by the languages of the
communities being served.

237
LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Languages in business (out of 21 companies)

GENErAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs

mobility provision
language skills in

Awareness of Eu
use of networks
staff records of
use of external

language skills

programmes/

programmes/
Availability of

international

for language
Emphasis on

interpreters
recruitment

translators/

use of Eu
language
strategy

training

funding

funding
Widely practised 8 8 9 7 0 4 0 0

iNtErNAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs EXtErNAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs

documents/intranet
reward/promotion

Language used for

Language used for

Language used for

Language used for

Language used for

schemes based on

Language training

Language used for

Partnerships with

branding/identity
education sector

annual/business
language skills

software, web
programmes
use of CEfr

marketing
workplace
provision

website
reports
English widely 3 2 10 0 21 21 21 21 19 21
practised

Additional widely 4 3 8 0 8 7 8 9 12 12
languages practised

Estimation of skill needs by UK employers tends not to reveal a very strong demand for
languages.1 On the one hand this may be because many monolingual employers have a rather
narrow perception of the value of languages to their business; on the other because those that
do value language skills are able to recruit from a plentiful supply of multilingual foreign-born
workers. However, employers’ organisations such as the CBI regularly highlight the importance of
language competence for competitiveness in the global economy, and a recent survey showed
that only a quarter of British businesses had absolutely no need of skills in languages other than
English.2 Recent research on small- and medium-sized business approaches to exporting showed
they regard language and associated cultural issues as one of the biggest barriers to doing
business overseas.3

1
Leitch Review of Skills, Prosperity for all in the global economy: world class skills, 2006.
2
Building for Growth: business priorities for education and skills, CBI Education and Skills Survey, 2011.
3
The eXport factor, British SME’s approach to doing business overseas, Barclays and Kingston University, Small Business
Research Centre, 2011.

238
 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Key findings overall Promising initiatives and pilots

England’s lack of ‘national capability’ in languages has been a England has been particularly active in bringing forward
matter of considerable debate in recent years and in particular evidence to demonstrate the need for languages and in
since the Nuffield Languages Inquiry of 2000. At policy level and developing coherent rationales for language learning.
in public discourse, languages are described as important, but in
practice and provision there have been many fault lines. This is The National Languages Strategy (2002–2011) was responsible
undoubtedly a reflection of the growing importance of English as for a number of key initiatives, especially the creation of a
a lingua franca and a continuing perception that ‘English is framework for language learning for ages seven to 11 (The Key
enough’ and that other languages are ‘important but not Stage 2 framework for languages) and a new assessment
essential’.1 Despite this, there has been significant progress and framework (The Languages Ladder/Asset languages) based on
innovation in introducing the early learning of other languages, the CEFR. It also supported links between mainstream and
in supporting community languages, and in promoting language complementary schools such as the Our Languages initiative.
competence to young people. Partly as a result of this,
Routes into Languages, managed by the University of
languages remain on the political agenda – the case is not
Southampton, has targeted secondary school students with
closed.
messages about the importance of language learning through
direct engagement with universities and student ambassadors.
It has brought universities into contact with schools and
developed some highly successful models of collaboration.

The 2011 report Labour Market Intelligence on Languages and

Intercultural Skills in Higher Education (CILT) demonstrated the
need for a wide range of languages across both public and
private sectors in combination with different workplace skills.

In 2011 a new campaign was launched to support language

learning - Speak to the Future. This has built a broad coalition of
support around five key issues to promote the importance of
language skills and bring about changes in policy and attitudes.

1
Languages in Europe – Towards 2020: Analysis and proposals from the LETPP
consultation and review, King et al., London, 2011.

239
LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

19 uniTeD KingDoM
19.2 Wales
Hywel Jones

Country context Languages in official

Wales has a population of 3 million. In 2001, 20.8% (582,000) of documents and databases
them could speak Welsh, according to the census.

Conquered by England in 1282, the 1563 Act of Union banned English, Welsh and foreign languages are dealt with in
those using the Welsh language from holding public office. The language legislation and/or language policy documents.
majority of the population of Wales continued to speak Welsh The learning and teaching of Welsh abroad for children
until late in the 19th century. Extensive immigration, mostly from and/or adults originating from Wales is not (co-)funded
England and Ireland due to the industrial revolution, coupled abroad. The European Charter for Regional or Minority
with the virtual exclusion of Welsh when compulsory education Languages has been signed and ratified by the UK. There
was introduced, led to a decline in the numbers and proportion is official provision in education, supported by the
of Welsh speakers, and a contraction of the area where Welsh Charter, for Welsh in Wales.
was widely spoken. In 2001, 75,000 Welsh speakers lived in the
Official UK-wide data collection mechanisms on
three cities covered by our LRE research, representing 12% of
language diversity exist in terms of periodically
their total population.
updated census data, municipal register data, and
At the start of the 20th century Cardiff was the world’s largest survey data. In these data collection mechanisms,
coal exporting port and seamen from other parts of the world national, R/M and immigrant language varieties are
established immigrant communities there as well as in Newport addressed, based on a home language, a main
and Swansea. More recently immigrants have come from the language question, and a language proficiency
Indian sub-continent and, since the expansion of the EU, from question in terms of whether (and how well) these
eastern Europe. 25% of the 2001 population were born outside languages can be spoken/understood/read/written.
Wales (20% in England).

The National Assembly for Wales was established in 1999. Its The first piece of legislation dealing with the status of the
legislative powers were initially limited to secondary legislation Welsh language in recent times was the Welsh Courts Act (1942)
in just some spheres, including education. Following the which permitted limited use of the language in courts. The
Government of Wales Act 2006 and a referendum held in Welsh Language Act 1967 guaranteed the right to use Welsh
March 2011 it now has primary legislative powers in many more widely in court and also provided for its use in public
domestic policy areas. administration. The Welsh Language Act (1993) established
the principle that in the conduct of public business and
administration of justice in Wales, the English and Welsh
languages should be treated on a basis of equality. That act
established the Welsh Language Board, giving it the role of
promoting and facilitating the use of Welsh and a statutory duty
to agree and monitor the implementation of public bodies’ Welsh
language schemes. Those Welsh language schemes were to
specify the measures the public bodies proposed to take so as
to give effect to the act’s principle of equality.

The Welsh Language Measure (2011) includes a declaration that

‘the Welsh language has official status in Wales’. It provides for
the establishment of a Welsh Language Commissioner and the
abolition of the Welsh Language Board (see section on Promising
Initiatives).

British Sign Language has been recognised as a language in its

own right but there is no directly related legislation, nor is there
any for foreign and immigrant languages, apart from legislation
relating to education. Languages other than Welsh, when
mentioned in legislation other than that dealing with education,
are largely mentioned in connection with interpretation or
translation facilities.

240
 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

NL=National Language(s)
fL=foreign Languages
r/ML=regional or Minority Languages
iL=immigrant Languages

Languages in pre-primary education (No provision of foreign and immigrant languages)

Minimum Pre-service in-service

group size teacher teacher state funding
target groups duration requirements days per week training training available

r/ML all ≥2 years none >1 day subject-specific subject-specific full

Additional NL all ≥2 years none 0.5–1 day subject-specific subject-specific full

support

Languages offered in pre-primary education

r/ML Welsh

Pre-primary education is not universally provided by the state; most of the provision comes from
the voluntary sector. An organisation, now called Mudiad Meithrin, was formed in 1971 with the
aim of providing Welsh medium nursery schools. They have over 550 playgroups, estimated at
providing for around 17% of Wales’s two year olds. Over two-thirds of the children attending their
playgroups come from homes where Welsh is not the main language. Attendance at the playgroup
is their introduction to the language.

Languages in primary education (No provision of foreign and immigrant languages)

organisation
Extra support for diagnostic testing on Monitoring of language
Curriculum newcomers entry skills

NL support general before mainstream all school-based

start of Minimum Monitoring of

target language group size language Level to be state funding
groups Curriculum CLiL education scheduling requirements skills achieved available

r/ML all general widespread from year 1 in school none school-based national or full
hours regional
norms

teaching
Pre-service teacher in-service teacher
teacher qualifications training training Mobility

NL support general teachers subject-specific subject-specific N/A

r/ML language teachers subject-specific subject-specific N/A

241
LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Languages offered in primary education

r/ML Welsh

Over 20% of pupils in primary school are educated through the medium of Welsh, a proportion
which has been gradually increasing for many years. Welsh medium education is available
throughout Wales. All other pupils are taught Welsh as a second language. Education through
the medium of community languages (the preferred term in the UK for what LRE refers to as
immigrant languages) or foreign languages is not available. Foreign languages are taught in some
schools, as are immigrant languages to a lesser extent. English language support for ethnic
minority pupils is also provided.

Languages in secondary education (No provision of immigrant languages)

organisation
Extra support for diagnostic testing Monitoring of
Curriculum newcomers on entry language skills

NL support coherent and explicit before mainstream all national standardised

Minimum Monitoring state

target group size of language Level to be funding
groups Curriculum CLiL scheduling requirements skills achieved available

r/ML all coherent and widespread in school none national not specified full
explicit hours standardised

fL all coherent and absent in school none national not specified full
explicit hours standardised

teaching
teacher Pre-service in-service teacher Language level
qualifications teacher training training required Mobility

NL support language teachers subject-specific subject-specific not specified N/A

r/ML language teachers subject-specific subject-specific N/A N/A

fL language teachers subject-specific subject-specific none incorporated into

training

242
 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Languages offered in secondary education

r/ML Welsh

fL french, German, Spanish: one of these languages is

compulsory

Welsh medium secondary education is also increasing. By 2010/11, 16.7% of pupils were being
taught Welsh as a first language (nearly all in Welsh medium schools). All other pupils are taught
Welsh as a second language although the level of achievement is low. All pupils are also taught at
least one foreign language during their first three years in secondary school. The percentage
proceeding to take a public examination in a modern foreign language when aged 15 has been
falling for many years: 28% were entered for a GCSE examination in a modern foreign language in
2010, compared with 50% in 1997. Community languages are taught in little more than a handful
of secondary schools and sporadically, depending on pupil numbers which can fluctuate
according to trends in immigration. As in the primary sector, English-language support for ethnic
minority pupils is provided.

Languages in further and higher education

further education (in three VEt institutions)
range of language state funding
programmes Curriculum Level to be achieved available

r/ML institution A wide variety coherent and explicit N/A partial

institution B wide variety coherent and explicit N/A partial

institution C wide variety coherent and explicit N/A partial

fL institution A wide variety coherent and explicit linked to CEFR partial

institution B wide variety coherent and explicit linked to CEFR partial

institution C wide variety coherent and explicit linked to CEFR partial

iL institution A

institution B

institution C limited general N/A full

higher education (in three universities)

target groups Level to be
for additional achieved in recruitment
support in the foreign of non- Mobility for Mobility for
Language(s) Languages on national language national language non-language
of instruction website language instruction students students students

university A national, foreign national, foreign all national or only obligatory optional
and R/M and R/M institution- international
based

university B national, foreign national, foreign restricted national or only obligatory optional
and R/M and R/M institution- international
based

university C national, foreign national, foreign restricted national or only no offer optional
and R/M and R/M institution- international
based

The three cities covered by our LRE research are where the large majority of immigrant
communities are to be found. Even so, demand and provision for education in any particular
community language is limited. The use of Welsh as a medium of tuition is much more limited
in these sectors. In universities, Welsh medium provision, although still not extensive, is mainly
concentrated in universities not covered by the research, namely in Bangor and Aberystwyth,
as well as at the University of Wales Trinity St David, Carmarthen.
European Union domiciles accounted for 5% of all enrolments at Welsh higher education
institutions in 2009/10 and non-EU overseas enrolments for another 13%. There is substantial
provision for supporting these students in English. 243
LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Languages in audiovisual media and press

Non-national language Non-national language r/ML programmes Availability of sign

tV productions films in cinema outside of region language on tV

subtitled subtitled always sometimes

The use of Welsh in audio-visual media is limited to the sole Welsh-language television channel,
S4C, (established in 1982) and largely to the national Welsh language radio service of BBC Radio
Cymru (established in 1977).
Other languages have almost no presence at all in the mainstream audio-visual media outlets,
beyond occasional subtitled films on television.

Languages in public services and spaces

institutionalised language strategies at city level
Language recruitment of Language record of
Website use of competencies in speakers of training offered language skills
N languages presence interpreters job descriptions languages to employees of employees

>4 Cardiff
Swansea
Newport

3–4

1–2 Cardiff Cardiff Cardiff Cardiff Cardiff

Swansea Swansea Swansea Swansea Swansea
Newport Newport Newport Newport

Communication facilities
top five oral communication facilities top five written communication facilities

Social Social
Legal Tourism
Immigration and integration = Education
Tourism = Health
Health = Legal
= Transport
= Theatre

In local and central government and its agencies the existence of Welsh language schemes,
required by the Welsh Language Act (1993), ensures the availability of a number of services in
Welsh and the extensive use of Welsh, for example, on signage and forms. However, as the focus
of the research is on three cities where the percentage of Welsh speakers is low compared to
areas in the north and west of Wales, the provision of Welsh language services is also lower than
it would be for areas with higher percentages of Welsh speakers. On the other hand, as these
cities contain higher concentrations of immigrants, the use of interpretation services is probably
greater than would be found elsewhere in Wales.

244
 Welsh
English

Additional
languages
Widely practised

widely
widely
widely

practised
practised
practised
Partnerships with Availability of

0
0
0
1
education sector language
strategy

is made on signage and in advertising.

reward/promotion

0
0
1
schemes based on
language skills Emphasis on
2
language skills in
recruitment
Language training

0
0
1
provision

international
2

mobility provision
Languages in business (out of 20 companies)

0
0
0
use of CEfr

use of external
Language used for
3

translators/
iNtErNAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs

0
1
20
workplace
interpreters
documents/intranet

Language used for

0
0
20

software, web staff records of

1

programmes language skills

Language used for

GENErAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs

0
0
20

annual/business

Internal business use of languages other than English in the cities is limited but some use of Welsh
reports use of networks
0

for language
training
Language used for
1
2
20

marketing
use of Eu
0

programmes/
Language used for funding
1
3
20

branding/identity

Awareness of Eu
0

Language used for programmes/

3
2
EXtErNAL LANGuAGE strAtEGiEs

20

website funding

245
LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE
LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Key findings overall References

Efforts continue to be made to ensure equality of treatment for Welsh medium education strategy: information. Information
Welsh and English in Wales. Good progress has been made in document No: 083/2010, Cardiff, Welsh Government (2010).
school education but much remains to be done elsewhere. [Link]
Foreign and immigrant languages both have a relatively weak [Link]
presence even in the school education.
Making languages count: Modern foreign languages in secondary
schools and Learning Pathways 14–19 Information document No:
Promising initiatives and pilots 088/2010, Cardiff, Welsh Government (2010).
[Link]
The Coleg Cymraeg Cenedlaethol (National Welsh Language guidance/makinglanguagescount/?lang=en
College) was established in 2011. It is not a single geographical
entity, nor a degree awarding body. It will work with and through Welsh Language Act 1993
all universities in Wales to deliver increased opportunities for [Link]/ukpga/1993/38/pdfs/ukpga_19930038_
students to study through the medium of Welsh. [Link]

Under the Welsh Language Measure (2011), a Welsh Language Welsh Language (Wales) Measure 2011
Commissioner was established in April 2012. The Commissioner [Link]/mwa/2011/1/pdfs/mwa_20110001_en.pdf
has been given functions to promote and facilitate the use of
A living language: a language for living, Cardiff, Welsh
Welsh; to work towards ensuring that Welsh is treated no less
Government (2012).
favourably than English, investigating interference with the
[Link]
freedom to use Welsh; and to conduct inquiries into related
[Link]
matters. The Commissioner has regard to ‘the principle that
persons in Wales should be able to live their lives through the
medium of the Welsh language if they choose to do so’. The
Welsh Ministers (in the National Assembly of Wales) must adopt a
strategy setting out how they propose to promote and facilitate
the use of Welsh. It also allows them to specify standards with
which public bodies must comply. These standards will replace
the current system of Welsh language schemes. The
Commissioner will oversee the implementation of the standards.

The Welsh government published its new Welsh language

strategy on 1 March 2012.

246
 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

19 uniTeD KingDoM
19.3 Scotland
Teresa Tinsley and Philip Harding-Esch

Country context Languages in official

Scotland has a population of 5.22 million people of which documents and databases
92,000, or just under 2%, have some knowledge of Gaelic.1
Scotland has been attracting inward migration since 20022: the
English, foreign languages, R/M languages and immigrant
2001 census showed a 2% non-white ethnic minority with the
languages are dealt with in language legislation and/or
majority being of Pakistani origin, but by 2009 a national pupil
language policy documents in Scotland. The learning and
survey3 showed 4.3% of school children mainly used a language
teaching of English abroad for children and/or adults
other than English at home. Altogether, 138 languages were
originating from the UK is (co-)funded in belgium, belize,
recorded as having been spoken, with Polish at the head of the
brunei, Canada, Cyprus, falkland Islands, Germany,
list with 0.8% of the school population, followed by Panjabi, Urdu,
Gibraltar, Italy and the Netherlands. The European Charter
Arabic, Cantonese, French and Gaelic respectively. 626 pupils
for Regional or Minority Languages has been signed and
were registered as speaking mainly Gaelic at home, slightly less
ratified by the UK. In Scotland, the following R/M
than one in 1,000. However, many more are receiving Gaelic
languages are recognised in the Charter: Scots and
medium education or are being taught Gaelic through the
Gaelic. There is official provision in regionwide education,
medium of Gaelic – 4,064 in 2011, the equivalent to one in every
supported by the Charter, for Gaelic.
180 pupils.4
Official UK-wide data collection mechanisms on language
Scotland is in the second year of implementing a new Curriculum
diversity in Scotland exist in terms of periodically
for Excellence which treats learning holistically rather than as a
updated census data, municipal register data, and survey
series of separate subjects. There have been concerns that this
data. In these data collection mechanisms, national, R/M
may aggravate the situation for languages as both primary and
and immigrant language varieties are addressed, based
secondary schools prioritise numeracy, literacy, health and well-
on a home language, a main language question, and a
being. As a result, the Scottish Schools Inspectorate was moved
language proficiency question on English, Scots and
to make a strong statement about the importance it attaches to
Gaelic in terms of whether (and how well) the languages
languages in the curriculum.5
can be spoken/understood/read/written.
Immigrant languages tend not to be offered in Scottish schools,
the emphasis being on teaching immigrant children English.
The Gaelic Language Act (2005) required the creation of a
National Plan for Gaelic and the Scottish government is
committed to enhancing the status of the language, its
acquisition and use. It has recently published a draft National
Gaelic Language Plan for 2012–20171 which has included the
development of a curriculum in Gaelic. The relatively favourable
standing given to Gaelic has raised questions about the position
of the Scots language, which is also recognised under the
European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, along with
Ulster Scots. The Report of the Ministerial Working Group on
the Scots Language (November 2010)2 called for the Scottish
government to develop a Scots Language Policy and for
Scotland to be presented internationally as a trilingual country.

Policy and practice surrounding English as an Additional

Language (EAL) and support for newcomers was reviewed in
2009.3 The subsequent report recommends good practice found
in local authorities and to be shared more widely, including:
welcoming new arrivals and approaches to initial and ongoing
assessments; enabling newly-arrived children and young people
to use their first language as a tool for learning; and providing
well-targeted staff training to enable staff to meet the needs of
1
Scotland’s Census 2001: Gaelic Report 2005, General Register Office for Scotland.
2
Scotland’s Population 2010, The Registrar General’s Annual Review of Demographic
newly-arrived children and young people more effectively.
Trends, August, 2011.
3
Pupils in Scotland 2009, Scottish Government Publications.
4
Scottish Government, Pupil Census, Supplementary Data 2011.
1
[Link]/parliamentarybusiness/CurrentCommittees/[Link]
5
TESS 4/6/2010.
2
Report of the Ministerial Working Group on the Scots Language, November, 2010.
3
Count Us In report, 2009 [Link]/Images/cuimnnus_tcm4-[Link]

247
LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

NL=National Language(s)
fL=foreign Languages
r/ML=regional or Minority Languages
iL=immigrant Languages

Languages in pre-primary education (No provision of immigrant languages)

Minimum Pre-service in-service

group size teacher teacher state funding
target groups duration requirements days per week training training available

r/ML no support 1 year none >1 day subject-specific none full

fL no support <1 year none <0.5 day none none partial

Additional NL all 1 year none <0.5 day subject-specific subject-specific full

support

Languages offered in pre-primary education

r/ML Gaelic

fL Chinese, french, German, Italian, Spanish - but often

only in the private sector

A small but growing number of pre-school establishments offer foreign language support, mainly
in the private sector, but some local authorities provide foreign languages from age three. All
children with limited ability in English receive extra support if they need it from a combination
of EAL trained and non-EAL trained staff. Gaelic is offered in a small number of pre-school
institutions (approximately 2000 children enrolled). Immigrant languages are rarely offered.

Languages in primary education (No provision of immigrant languages)

organisation
Extra support for diagnostic testing on Monitoring of language
Curriculum newcomers entry skills

NL support coherent and explicit before mainstream all national standardised

start of Minimum Monitoring of

target language group size language Level to be state funding
groups Curriculum CLiL education scheduling requirements skills achieved available

r/ML all coherent localised from year 1 in school none national school full
and explicit hours standardised norms

fL all coherent localised end-phase in school none national linked to full

and explicit only hours standardised CEFR

248
 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

teaching
Pre-service teacher in-service teacher
teacher qualifications training training Mobility

NL support language teachers subject-specific subject-specific N/A

r/ML language teachers subject-specific subject-specific N/A

fL general teachers general subject-specific informal financial support

Languages offered in primary education

r/ML Gaelic

fL french, German, Spanish: optional

Scotland was an early adopter of primary foreign languages (1992), and by 2005 practically all
Scottish primary schools taught a foreign language. French was and remains dominant (compared
to Spanish, German, Italian and Gaelic). All young people have an entitlement to learn at least one
foreign language from the later stage of primary school, but it is not compulsory. The Curriculum
for Excellence gives clear guidelines for foreign language (FL) teaching and the target level to be
achieved by the end of primary is A1 on the Council of Europe’s Common European Framework of
Reference (CEFR). In most cases, FL teaching is limited to the final two years of primary school –
10 to 12 year olds – and has a small time allocation. Recent concerns relate to teacher training
and local authority support (due to funding reductions).1
The learning of Gaelic has been treated fundamentally differently, with the setting up, from 1986
onwards, of Gaelic medium units in primary schools throughout Scotland, complemented by
Gaelic medium pre-school provision in many areas. The most recent HM Inspectorate of
Education (HMIE) report2 found 2,312 children being educated in Gaelic medium primary
provision, most of whom do not have Gaelic as first language. Gaelic is also offered as second
language in a number of primary schools.
All newcomers in mainstream schools receive support in English before and during mainstream
classes, and their skills are assessed and monitored regularly by an EAL specialist. Immigrant
languages are rarely offered.

1
‘Pupils risk being lost in translation’, Edinburgh Evening News, 16 April 2010.
2
HMIE, Gaelic Education: Building on the successes, addressing the barriers, 21 June 2011.

Languages in secondary education (No provision of immigrant languages)

organisation
Extra support for diagnostic testing Monitoring of
Curriculum newcomers on entry language skills

NL support coherent and explicit before mainstream all national standardised

Minimum Monitoring state

target group size of language Level to be funding
groups Curriculum CLiL scheduling requirements skills achieved available

r/ML all coherent and localised in school 5–10 national national or full
explicit hours standardised regional
norms

fL all coherent and absent in school none school-based linked to CEFR full
explicit hours

249
LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

teaching
teacher Pre-service teacher in-service teacher Language level
qualifications training training required Mobility

NL support language teachers subject-specific subject-specific national or school- N/A

based norms

r/ML language teachers general subject-specific N/A N/A

fL language teachers subject-specific subject-specific national or regionwide incorporated into

standards training

Languages offered in secondary education

r/ML Gaelic

fL Generally french, German or Spanish, but also Italian

and Chinese: one of these languages is compulsory/
optional

iL Chinese, Russian, Urdu

Modern languages are an integral part of the Curriculum for Excellence and all children are
entitled to a modern language as part of their broad general education (S1–S3). The entitlement
is to have the opportunity to reach at least level A2 on the CEFR and for most learners this will
happen within the broad, general education (S1–S3), rather than the senior phase (S4–S6). The
Scottish government aims to implement policies to ensure that every child learns two languages
in addition to their mother tongue.
However, the present situation of foreign languages in secondary schools is a matter of concern.
Whereas in 2001 practically all pupils studied a language up to the fourth year of secondary
education, by 2010 this had dropped to 67%.1 French accounts for around 70% of exam entries,
followed by German (around 16%) and Spanish around 10%. Spanish has been increasing despite
the overall decline.2 At more advanced levels, the situation is more stable.3
In 2011 more than half of Scottish local authorities reported having at least one secondary school
where languages were not compulsory with schools interpreting the ‘entitlement’ to language
learning as having been met in primary school.4 Pressures on public spending have impacted
on the employment of Foreign Language Assistants in schools (from 285 in 2005 to 59 in 2011),
prompting a public outcry from foreign Consuls General and concerns over the future
competitiveness of Scottish businesses.5
There is a serious challenge in providing continuity for children to learn through the medium of
Gaelic in secondary school, with only 36 schools providing it and mainly confining it to the first
two years of secondary education.
Scots is not taught as a specific subject but is part of the languages that many children bring to
school. Schools are encouraged, therefore, to make use of this and to offer learners the chance
to experience aspects of Scots language across curricular subjects.
There is a clear curriculum for the teaching of English as a first and second language. Newcomers
receive extra support; however, provision varies widely across Scotland. Immigrant languages are
occasionally offered to children in areas with high immigrant populations; however, the emphasis
is on English to encourage integration.

1
Modern Languages Excellence Report, Scottish CILT, 2011.
2
Modern Languages Excellence Report, Scottish CILT, 2011.
3
Modern Languages Excellence Report, Scottish CILT, 2011.
4
The survey was carried out by TESS and reported as: ‘Poor language skills put Scots at disadvantage’, TESS, 25 March 2011.
5
‘Backlash from diplomats over language cuts’, Scotland on Sunday, 4 December 2011.

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 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Languages in further and higher education

further education (in three VEt institutions) (No provision of r/M and immigrant languages)
range of language state funding
programmes Curriculum Level to be achieved available

fL institution A wide variety coherent and explicit national full

institution B wide variety coherent and explicit national full

institution C wide variety coherent and explicit national partial

higher education (in three universities)

target groups Level to be
for additional achieved in recruitment
support in the foreign of non- Mobility for Mobility for
Language(s) Languages on national language national language non-language
of instruction website language instruction students students students

university A national only national only all national or only obligatory optional
institution- international
based

university B national only national only restricted national or only obligatory optional
institution- international
based

university C national only national only all linked to CEFR international obligatory optional
and immigrant

Scottish universities are suffering from severe financial pressures and this has led to fears for the
future of language departments at some universities and the viability of lesser taught languages
in particular. The Scottish Parliament has been petitioned to ensure targeted support for
‘strategically important and vulnerable’ languages in the same way that this exists in England.
The most recently available data from the Scottish Qualifications Authority shows that modern
language provision in the Scottish further education sector was on the verge of total collapse.1
The analysis shows that a self-perpetuating belief among employers and skills forecasters that
‘English is enough’ had had a negative effect on language provision in both Further and Higher
Education.

1
La Grande Illusion: Why Scottish further education has failed to grasp the potential of modern languages, Hannah Doughty,
University of Strathclyde, Scottish Languages Review, Issue 23, Spring 2011.

Languages in audiovisual media and press

Non-national language Non-national language r/ML programmes Availability of sign

tV productions films in cinema outside of region language on tV

subtitled subtitled regularly regularly

Radio programmes are offered mainly in English, but there is also daily Gaelic content available
on BBC Radio nan Gàidheal. Television programmes are mainly in English and Gaelic but there are
also broadcasts in Senegalese, Hindi, Danish and British Sign Language. Since 2008 a Gaelic BBC
channel, BBC Alba, has been available on digital television, satellite and online, with a weekly
viewership of over 500,000 people. Foreign language films in Scotland are invariably shown in
the original language with subtitles in both cinema and on television. However, foreign and R/M
language radio and television are available via Freeview, online and satellite, for example. Sign
language is regularly offered in important media events in all cities surveyed. Newspapers are
available in a large repertoire of languages other than English in larger cities.

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Languages in public services and spaces

institutionalised language strategies at city level
Language recruitment of Language record of
Website use of competencies in speakers of training offered language skills
N languages presence interpreters job descriptions languages to employees of employees

>4 Glasgow Edinburgh

Edinburgh
Aberdeen

3–4

1–2 Glasgow Glasgow Glasgow Glasgow

Edinburgh Edinburgh
Aberdeen

Communication facilities
top five oral communication facilities top five written communication facilities

= Education Emergency
= Emergency Transport
= Health Immigration and integration
= Social = Health
= Legal = Social
= Immigration and integration = Legal

In the cities surveyed, police, courts, health services and local government all make extensive
use of translation and interpreting services and there are efforts to provide written and online
information in a variety of languages. Written communication is usually available in English and
Gaelic, and is available in a wide variety of other languages. The languages supported are defined
by the languages of the communities being served. Both Edinburgh and Glasgow have plans to
increase the skills of their staff in Gaelic in accordance with the National Plan for Gaelic and the
Gaelic Language Act (2005).

Languages in business
Scottish surveys of skills needs tend not to identify lack of language skills as a problem.1 However,
further investigation of such research has found that Scottish employers tend to circumvent
rather than address language skill needs by exporting only to Anglophone countries or those
where they can easily find English speakers.2 There is clearly a linguistic dimension to the most
commonly reported barriers to exporting – difficulties in finding trustworthy partners abroad.

1
Leitch Review of Skills, Prosperity for all in the global economy: world class skills, 2006, and Futureskills Scotland (2007), Skills in
Scotland 2006, Scottish Enterprise, Glasgow.
2
Modern Languages Excellence Report, Scottish CILT, 2011.

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 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Key findings overall Promising initiatives and pilots

As the LRE research confirms, Gaelic enjoys a high level of The Scottish government has recently set a target to work
political support with the Gaelic Language Plan, as well as towards every child in Scotland learning two languages in
continuing demand for Gaelic medium education from parents. addition to their mother tongue (as per the Barcelona European
Its status is very different from that enjoyed by other languages Union agreement). It intends to implement this over the course
spoken and used in Scotland. A study on community languages of two parliaments and has set up a working group which
(the UK term for what LRE refers to as immigrant languages) reports to Ministers with recommendations in 2012.1
published in 20061 found provision for children of school age to
study 21 such languages in complementary classes, but nothing The Modern Languages Excellence Group, chaired by SCILT,
available for the remaining languages spoken, including Scots. Scotland’s National Centre for Languages, has published a report
The most significant provision was for Urdu, for which 42 which sets out clearly how the study of modern foreign
complementary classes were identified, as well as some languages fits within the Curriculum for Excellence, and what
mainstream provision in primary and secondary schools, needs to happen in order to secure, promote and enhance the
including opportunities to study the subject as a modern provision of modern languages in Scotland.2 It is very positive
language. Although the issue of foreign language learning that standards have now been set, in accordance with the
appears now to be creeping up the political agenda, there is Council of Europe’s Common European Framework of Reference,
clearly a need to continue to make a strong case for the social, for all children to reach by the end of primary school (A1) and
cultural, intellectual and economic benefits to Scotland, as well after the first three years of secondary (A2).
as to invest in high quality training for teachers.
The Scottish Baccalaureate in Languages is another interesting
and promising initiative, aimed at bridging the gap between
school and university and providing skills for learning, life
and work.

1
Record of debate in Scottish Parliament, 8 December 2011, Scottish Parliament
1
Provision for community language learning in Scotland, Scottish CILT/University of website.
Stirling, 2006. 2
Modern Languages Excellence Report, SCILT, March 2011.

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LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

19 uniTeD KingDoM
19.4 northern ireland
Teresa Tinsley and Philip Harding-Esch

Country context Languages in official

Northern Ireland has a population of 1.8 million people. While documents and databases
English is the vernacular, the 2001 census found that 10% of
the population reported ‘some knowledge’ of Irish.1 Since the
English, foreign languages and R/M languages are dealt
stabilisation of the political situation in the late 1990s the
with in language legislation and/or language policy
country has attracted an increasing number of immigrants.
documents in Northern Ireland. The learning and
Following the 2001 census, the most significant language
teaching of English abroad for children and/or adults
groups were identified as Chinese, Arabic and Portuguese;
originating from the UK is (co-)funded in belgium, belize,
however, more recent immigration from the Accession Eight (A8)
brunei, Canada, Cyprus, falkland Islands, Germany,
countries of the European Union has given Polish, followed by
Gibraltar, Italy and the Netherlands. The European Charter
Lithuanian, a significant presence. Currently 3% of primary
for Regional or Minority Languages has been signed and
school children have a language other than English as their first
ratified by the UK. In Northern Ireland, the following R/M
language; rising to 11% in Dungannon, the most diverse district.2
languages are recognised in the Charter: Irish and Ulster
Scots. There is official provision in regionwide education,
supported by the Charter, for Irish.

Official UK-wide data collection mechanisms on language

diversity in Northern Ireland exist in terms of periodically
updated census data, municipal register data, and
survey data. In these data collection mechanisms,
national, R/M and immigrant language varieties are
addressed, based on a main language question, plus a
language proficiency question in terms of whether (and
how well) this language can be spoken/understood/
read/written.

The Good Friday Agreement of 1998 set out principles of respect

and tolerance in relation to linguistic diversity. ‘The Irish
language, Ulster Scots and the languages of the various ethnic
minorities’ were all explicitly mentioned as contributing to the
‘cultural wealth’ of the province.1 The North/South Language
Body, established on 2 December 1999 and comprising two
Body
separate agencies, Foras na Gaeilge (Irish Language Agency)
and Tha Boord o Ulstèr-Scotch (Ulster-Scots Agency), promotes
Irish and Ulster Scots and implements policies agreed by
Ministers in the North South Ministerial Council (NSMC) in
Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland with regard to these
two languages. In August 2000 the Department of Education in
Northern Ireland established Comhairle na Gaelscolaíochta to
encourage and facilitate the strategic development of Irish
medium education and provide guidance and advice to the Irish
medium sector.

There are published statutory requirements for foreign

languages teaching in the lower secondary phase (11–14) only.2
In 2006 the Department of Education commissioned the
development of a Comprehensive Languages Strategy for
Northern Ireland, ‘considering all aspects of languages: at
primary, secondary, further and higher education levels,
1
Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency (NISRA) (2002), Northern Ireland
Census 2001: Key Statistics Report, Belfast: HMSO. 1
Agreement reached in the Multi-Party Negotiations (‘The Good Friday Agreement’)
2
Registrar General Northern Ireland Annual Report 2010, Northern Ireland Statistics (1998). Government of the United Kingdom and the Government of Ireland.
and Research Agency, 2011. Pupil data from School Census, October 2010. 2
[Link]/key_stage_3/areas_of_learning/modern_languages/

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 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

English as an additional language, languages for business, the completely from 2005 to 2009 with the policy Every School a
languages of Northern Ireland, immigrant mother tongues, sign Good School - Supporting Newcomer Pupils launching on 1 April
language, languages for special needs,’ but this has yet to 2009. The UK government recognises Irish and Ulster Scots in
report.3 English language support (EAL) was reviewed Northern Ireland under the ECRML Languages.

3
[Link]/nils/[Link]

NL=National Language(s)
fL=foreign Languages
r/ML=regional or Minority Languages
iL=immigrant Languages

Languages in pre-primary education (No provision of foreign and immigrant languages)

Minimum Pre-service in-service

group size teacher teacher state funding
target groups duration requirements days per week training training available

r/ML all ≥2 years >10 >1 day subject-specific subject-specific full

Additional NL all ≥2 years none 0.5–1 day subject-specific subject-specific full

support

Languages offered in pre-primary education

r/ML Irish

Children with limited ability in English often receive extra support and the teachers who provide
this receive pre- and in-service training. Foreign languages are generally not taught in pre-
primary, but there are 44 Irish medium pre-schools1 and at least one private French-English
bilingual nursery.2

1
[Link]/index/85-schools/10-types_of_school-nischools_pg/schools_-_types_of_school-_irish-medium_schools_
pg/schools_-_types_of_school_lists_of_irishmedium_schools_pg.htm
2
Report of the Review of Irish medium education, Department for Education for Northern Ireland, undated.

Languages in primary education (No provision of immigrant languages)

organisation
Extra support for diagnostic testing Monitoring of
Curriculum newcomers on entry language skills

NL support general before mainstream all national standardised

start of Minimum Monitoring state

target language group size of language Level to be funding
groups Curriculum CLiL education scheduling requirements skills achieved available

r/ML all coherent and widespread from year 1 in school >10 school- not specified full
explicit hours based

fL all coherent and localised from year 1 partly in none national not specified full
explicit school hours standardised

255
LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

teaching
Pre-service teacher in-service teacher
teacher qualifications training training Mobility

Additional NL support language teachers subject-specific subject-specific N/A

r/ML language teachers subject-specific subject-specific N/A

fL general teachers none subject-specific none

Languages offered in primary education

r/ML Irish

fL french, Spanish: optional

Irish medium education (IME) has been increasing in Northern Ireland since the first Irish medium
primary school was set up by parents, outside the mainstream system, in 1971. Now 1.67% of all
primary schoolchildren attend IME primary schools or IME units within English language primary
schools, and the number is increasing year on year. IME is supported by government policy.
Modern Languages did not find a place in the new Northern Ireland primary curriculum which was
revised in 2007, despite a positive evaluation of pilot projects, which took place between 2005
and 2007, involving 21 schools teaching mainly French, with some Spanish. Despite the lack of
curricular requirement, a survey in 2007 found that 57% of responding primary schools were
making some provision for the teaching of a foreign language, although in over half of cases this
was in the form of extra-curricular activity. The new curriculum encourages the teaching of
modern languages within a multidisciplinary framework, and guidance has been published to help
teachers develop and integrate this. This guidance includes online resources for French, German,
Irish and Spanish. From 2008 the Department of Education for Northern Ireland funded a Primary
Languages Programme which provided peripatetic teachers in Spanish or Irish to work alongside
existing Key Stage 1 primary school classroom teachers (Polish was also included from 2009).
The scheme was criticised for excluding French, which is the most widely taught language in
secondary education. By 2009, 247 schools had participated in Spanish and 76 in Irish.1
Newcomers receive intensive support in English before and during mainstream classes and there
has been a concerted effort to provide EAL support in recent years as Northern Ireland has
welcomed an increasing number of immigrants. Immigrant languages are not offered other than,
occasionally, Polish.

1
Primary languages in Northern Ireland: too little, too late? Purdy et al., Language Learning Journal vol. 38, 2, 2010.

Languages in secondary education (No provision of immigrant languages)

organisation
Extra support for diagnostic testing Monitoring of
Curriculum newcomers on entry language skills

NL support general before mainstream absent national standardised

Minimum Monitoring state

target group size of language Level to be funding
groups Curriculum CLiL scheduling requirements skills achieved available

r/ML all general localised in school >10 national national or full

hours standardised regional norms

fL all general absent in school none national not specified full

hours standardised

256
 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

teaching
teacher Pre-service in-service teacher Language level
qualifications teacher training training required Mobility

NL support language teachers subject-specific subject-specific not specified N/A

r/ML language teachers subject-specific subject-specific N/A N/A

fL general teachers subject-specific subject-specific national or informal financial

regionwide support
standards

Languages offered in secondary education

r/ML Irish

fL Compulsory: One from french, German, Spanish

The situation as regards modern foreign languages in secondary schools in Northern Ireland has
deteriorated rapidly since languages were made optional after the first three years of secondary
education as part of the 2007 curriculum reform. This resulted in a 19% drop in numbers sitting
GCSE examinations over three years, with French, as the first foreign language taught, being the
worst hit. Spanish is now the second most widely taught modern language and is managing to
maintain numbers. However, German also suffered declines. At lower secondary level, many
schools require pupils to study two languages.
Up until the introduction of the Northern Ireland Curriculum in 1989, Irish was the second most
common language after French, despite being taught only in the Maintained (Catholic) sector, and
maintained this position in GCSE entries until 2002. The language was excluded from fulfilling the
compulsory language requirement offered by schools under the Northern Ireland Curriculum1 but
since 2006 has been reinstated. A GCSE Irish medium (Gaeilge) exam was introduced in 1993 to
cater for the relatively small number of post-primary pupils being educated through Irish. Irish
medium education presents more difficulties at secondary level than at primary, as a result of
a lack of teachers able to teach other subjects through Irish at this level. Fewer than 0.5% of all
secondary pupils are in Irish medium education.
At ages 16–18, the numbers studying languages have remained steadier but have declined as
a proportion of the cohort. The pattern is: French declining significantly; German, from a smaller
base, less so; Spanish still gaining numbers; and Irish maintaining equilibrium.
Newcomers receive extra support in English before and during mainstream classes. There is not
a needs-based diagnosis of English language skills before entering secondary education, but skills
are monitored regularly using age-appropriate standard instruments. As with primary education,
there has been a concerted effort to provide EAL support in recent years as Northern Ireland has
welcomed an increasing number of immigrants. Immigrant languages are not offered.

1
McKendry, E. (2007) Minority-language Education in a Situation of Conflict: Irish in English-medium Schools in Northern Ireland.
International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism. Vol. 10, No. 4, 2007, 394-409.

Languages in further and higher education

further education (in three VEt institutions) (No provision of immigrant languages)
range of language state funding
programmes Curriculum Level to be achieved available

r/ML institution A limited coherent and explicit N/A partial

institution B wide variety coherent and explicit N/A partial

institution C limited coherent and explicit N/A none

fL institution A wide variety coherent and explicit linked to CEFR partial

institution B wide variety coherent and explicit national partial

institution C wide variety coherent and explicit national partial

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LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

higher education (in two universities)

target groups Level to be
for additional achieved in recruitment
support in the foreign of non- Mobility for Mobility for
Language(s) Languages on national language national language non-language
of instruction website language instruction students students students

university A national only national only all national or only obligatory optional
institution- international
based

university B national only national only all national or international obligatory optional
institution- and immigrant
based

In common with the rest of the UK, there is very little provision for languages in vocational
courses. Northern Ireland’s two universities (Queen’s University Belfast and the University of
Ulster) both offer languages in combination with other specialisms, as well as degree courses in
the foreign languages taught in schools. However, Queen’s University Belfast closed its German
department in 2009, reflecting the squeeze on languages in higher education which is being felt
across the UK. Northern Ireland is a long way from being self-sufficient in producing linguists in
the languages likely to be most needed by its businesses in future, such as Asian languages and a
wider range of European languages.

Languages in audiovisual media and press (in one city – Belfast only)

Non-national language Non-national language r/ML programmes Availability of sign

tV productions films in cinema outside of region language on tV

subtitled subtitled regularly regularly

Radio programmes are offered mainly in English, with several hours a week in Irish and a few
minutes in Cantonese. Television programmes are mainly in English but there are listed
broadcasts in Irish, Scottish Gaelic, French and Ulster Scots. However, the concept of ‘terrestrial
channels’ is becoming obsolete in the digital age with foreign language television and radio
channels widely available via Freeview, online and satellite. Sign language is regularly offered in
important media events. Foreign language press is not always available in hard copy but is widely
available digitally.

Languages in public services and spaces

institutionalised language strategies in Belfast
Language recruitment of Language record of
Website use of competencies in speakers of training offered language skills
N languages presence interpreters job descriptions languages to employees of employees

>4 Belfast Belfast

3–4

1–2 Belfast

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 LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

Communication facilities
top five oral communication facilities top five written communication facilities

= Political debates and decision making Emergency

= Emergency Health
= Health Social
= Social Immigration and integration
= Legal = Transport
= Immigration and integration = Tourism
= Tourism

The Good Friday Agreement, together with recent immigration, appears to have raised awareness
of language issues in public life and of the need for public service translation and interpreting.
According to the LRE research, many public bodies in Belfast provide information not only in Irish –
and, to a lesser extent, Ulster Scots – but also in languages such as Polish, Lithuanian,
Portuguese, Slovak, Cantonese and Arabic. The languages supported are defined by the
languages of the communities being served.

Languages in business
Although not surveyed by Language Rich Europe, in common with the rest of the UK, Northern
Irish employers are not very language aware. However, improved language skills would support
the Northern Irish economy in facing challenges ranging from increasing exports to promoting
tourism and inward investment.

Key findings overall Promising initiatives and pilots

The last decade has seen enormous changes in Northern The proposed Languages Strategy for Northern Ireland, the result
Ireland. From being a country of emigration and conflict in the of more than five years’ consultation and discussion with
late 20th century, it has become more peaceful and more policymakers, is intended to provide an assessment of needs
globally connected with an increase in tourism, low cost air and an action plan across the full spectrum of languages in
travel and immigration. Although it is still probably the least education, business and public life, and should offer
linguistically diverse of the four UK nations, its history makes opportunities for some focused development.
it sensitive to issues of language and culture and the measures
adopted so far have been inclusive. However, as the LRE There have been some encouraging examples of development
research shows, Northern Ireland has a weak profile as regards in Northern Ireland as regards teacher training in languages.
foreign language learning and needs to give this a much higher A successful development is reported at Stranmillis University
priority at all levels in the education system. College to introduce an optional primary languages module,
which has now become an embedded feature of the Bachelor
of Education course.1 In response to the demand for subject-
specific teachers in the growing Irish medium post primary
sector, St. Mary’s University College, Queen’s University Belfast
and the University of Ulster have formed a partnership to offer
a one year PGCE course to students interested in becoming
teachers in Irish medium secondary education. Additional places
have been added to the PGCE intake quotas for both
universities, specifically for those applicants who wish to teach
in the Irish medium post primary sector. On completion of the
course, these students will be awarded a Certificate in Bilingual
Education from St. Mary’s University College in addition to their
PGCE qualification.

1
Report of the Review of Irish medium education, Department for Education for
Northern Ireland, undated.

259
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LANGUAGE RICH EUROPE

TRENDS IN POLICIES AND PRACTICES
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EDITORS: Guus Extra and Kutlay Yağmur

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