Special Rescue Teams
Flood/River Rescue
Sgt. John R. Greenhalgh
San Diego Lifeguard Service
Facts about flooding in America:
♦ 70% of major disasters declared by the President are caused by floods.
♦ More Americans die in floods than in fires.
♦ Floods kill more Americans and cause greater property loss each year than
all other natural catastrophes combined.
♦ On average, three rescuers (generally untrained) die in moving water each
year.
INTRODUCTION
Water rescue is a broad field encompassing numerous disciplines, including swiftwater,
surf and offshore rescue, ice rescue, underwater rescue, and many more. Aquatic res-
cuers often assume that their expertise in one water rescue field makes them an expert
in all. As we have learned in San Diego, river and flood rescue is unique. It requires
specialized training, preparation, equipment, and a strong team approach. Neverthe-
less, persons with a strong background in open water rescue are likely to have great
success when they properly prepare for flood rescue.
THE SAN DIEGO LIFEGUARD RIVER RESCUE TEAM – A
HISTORY
San Diego has a semi-arid climate. Average annual rainfall is 10 inches, but wide
swings occur from year to year. In many years, there is no measurable rainfall at all in
summer months and little the rest of the year. When it does rain however, usually in
winter, the rainfall can be concentrated in torrential downpours that cause very serious
flooding.
The popular 1956 Hollywood movie, The Rainmaker, which starred Burt Lancaster and
Katharine Hepburn, was based on an actual event in San Diego in 1915. Amidst a
crushing drought that was seriously impacting the town, city leaders called upon a man
who proclaimed himself a “Moisture Accelerator.” Following his incantations and other
efforts, there was a deluge of 38 inches of rain in one month, which drowned 20 people.
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Many years later, in 1978, a man and woman drowned after their car was trapped in
floodwaters when they tried to cross a flooded road. With more flooding imminent, the
City of San Diego turned to its professional lifeguards, as experts in water rescue, to or-
ganize and prepare for flood rescues.
The San Diego Lifeguard River Rescue Team was initially comprised of six senior life-
guards who had experience in cliff and SCUBA rescues. At first, none of the lifeguards
were trained in swiftwater rescue, presuming that the river environment would be easily
tackled with their ocean rescue techniques. When two lifeguards were injured and
nearly killed however, they quickly learned that the swiftwater environment required ad-
ditional skills. Even so, these intrepid lifeguards made 23 river rescues in the floods of
1978, without formal river rescue training, repeatedly placing themselves in grave dan-
ger.
Their first specialized training came from a private citizen who had whitewater rafting
experience. He accompanied them to the Colorado River, where they attempted to
adapt their ocean rescue equipment and skills to river rescue. They learned many
things, including how little they really knew; but they also formed a plan to further de-
velop their team.
While some communities have chosen to train a large number of safety personnel at a
basic level of flood rescue skills, San Diego elected to train a small cadre of rescuers at
the highest possible level. While this limited the number of trained providers available to
respond, it ensured that upon arrival at-scene, they were able to quickly and safely ac-
complish the rescue.
During the 1980s the team grew to include 11 highly trained members. Each year, the
team traveled to a swiftwater river somewhere in the United States to hone their skills in
this specialized environment. During this period, flood rescue teams were also being
developed in other parts of the United States. Members of the San Diego team, includ-
ing the current team leader, Lt. Marshall Parks, attended special courses throughout the
nation. Equipment improved and innovations were made.
In some years, there were no rescues whatsoever, due to lack of rainfall. In other years
though, the rescues came one after another during the winter rainy season. In heavy
rains, the River Rescue Team began to be called throughout the County of San Diego
to multiple rescues up to 50 miles apart. The team never declined a request for help
from a neighboring city.
The success of the team drew interest from other emergency workers, some of whom
felt that perhaps lifeguards should not handle this responsibility. Occasionally conflicts
arose at rescue scenes over who would take command of the incident. To resolve this
question, in 1984 the San Diego City Manager issued a policy that defined a river res-
cue as, "… any rescue of persons or property threatened, surrounded or entrapped by
stationary or moving water" and declared that, "To safely perform [river] rescues re-
quires specialized training and equipment … it is important that where possible all river
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rescues be performed by the Lifeguard Service's River Rescue Team." Thereafter, au-
thority of the team was rarely questioned.
Effective communications has been a hallmark of the team. They equipped themselves
with two-way radios that could be used to directly communicate with police, firefighters,
California Highway Patrol, and US Border Patrol Agents throughout San Diego County.
As a result, they became able to monitor and immediately respond to reports of persons
in distress, broadcast by other public safety units in the field. During periods of flooding,
one regularly hears police units stating, “We need the River Rescue Team,” and mem-
bers of the team immediately responding on the police frequency.
In January and February of 1993, San Diego was hit by a series of storms which pro-
duced floods of great proportions. During a three week period the team, augmented by
other lifeguards with basic swiftwater skills, effected 195 swiftwater rescues, assisted in
the evacuation of several hundred citizens trapped by flood waters, and helped save
numerous livestock. They worked day and night for several weeks, often bivouacked in
hotels near the Mexican border where many of the rescues took place. Later, they re-
ceived several awards and commendations for their actions.
One of the original dreams of the San Diego Lifeguard Service was to arrange a na-
tional flood rescue mutual aid system that would allow the team to be deployed wher-
ever it might be needed. A number of contacts were made over the years in an effort to
accomplish this, but little progress was made until a separate, but similar system was
developed for other types of disasters.
Primarily at the urging of firefighters, the United States Government’s Federal Emer-
gency Management Administration began to develop a national mutual aid system for
major national disasters, like earthquakes. This system, which came to be known as
Urban Search and Rescue (USAR), relies on local rescue teams throughout the United
States. In a disaster, teams from unaffected areas are sent via military transport and
other means to assist emergency workers in the disaster area. The system has capital-
ized on the idea that it is less expensive and more efficient to harness the resources of
local rescue crews than to maintain large federal forces in anticipation of infrequent, ma-
jor disasters. It has been very successfully employed in a number of disasters, including
the Oklahoma City bombing case.
In 1996, at the urging of a number of swiftwater rescue teams, including San Diego’s,
California was given the go-ahead to develop a swiftwater rescue component of its
USAR teams. One of these was in San Diego and came to include lifeguards from the
River Rescue Team, along with firefighters with swiftwater rescue training.
Minimum certifications for this team include Swiftwater Rescue Technician I & II, heavy
rescue techniques, Emergency Medical Technician, Vertical/Cliff Rescue, SCUBA, Op-
erator of Personal Watercraft and Inflatable Rescue Vessels, Advanced Incident Com-
mand Operations, Helicopter Rescue, and a minimum swim requirement.
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Shortly after its creation, in February 1997, the team was deployed to a major flood dis-
aster in Northern California. They were flown to the disaster site in military transport
planes with lifeguard vehicles, personal watercraft, inflatable rescue boats, and other
equipment aboard the aircraft. They spent five days evacuating and rescuing people
and livestock. Later, rescuers involved in this deployment, including the River Rescue
Team, received the Higgins and Langley Memorial Award for outstanding achievement
in the field of swiftwater rescue by the National Association for Search and Rescue.
When the San Diego Lifeguard Service replaced a special cliff rescue vehicle in 1993, it
was specially designed to be used for swiftwater rescue as well. This required each life-
guard on the team to acquire special driver licenses due to the weight and complexity of
the vehicle.
River rescue is one of the most dangerous emergencies to which lifeguards respond. It
is the only discipline in which a San Diego lifeguard has died. All team members now
receive hazardous duty compensation.
RIVER RESCUES IN SAN DIEGO
In the San Diego urban environment a number of the roads that cross rivers were de-
signed to allow the river to overflow them so that property would not be damaged during
excessive rainfall. Many of the rescues made are of individuals who attempt to drive
their vehicles through flooded roads and become trapped in their vehicles or swept
downstream.
The Tijuana River, which separates Mexico from the United States and San Diego, is
another common rescue site. During periods of heavy rain many people attempt to
cross the border unlawfully to gain access to the U.S., while trying to elude United
States Border Patrol agents. They feel that these agents will not enter the water, making
their entry into the U.S easier. This creates a special rescue situation.
In attempting to slip into the United States while eluding the Border Patrol, some be-
come stranded on small islands or washed downstream. Others drown and are found
many days later in a heavily decomposed state. Ironically, many of the calls to assist
people in this distress come from Border Patrol agents themselves, who are concerned
for the safety of persons they would otherwise pursue. While river rescue team mem-
bers are attempting to rescue these individuals, they sometimes move or attempt to
flee. Once rescued, lifeguards turn them over to the Border Patrol and they are de-
ported.
Within San Diego’s urban environment, there are also a number of drainage culverts.
When filled with rainwater some flow at speeds up to 40 m.p.h. The River Rescue Team
has responded to numerous calls of children being swept away while playing in or near
these culverts.
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One especially challenging rescue was of a young boy who was playing in a drainage
culvert with a Boogie Board. He was swept downstream into a series of culverts that
ran underground. He found a culvert that led up and out to the street above, but became
trapped in a narrow passageway under the street. Citizens heard his cries for help com-
ing from a storm drain. The River Rescue Team responded and located the child. Water
flowing into the storm drain from heavy rain had to be stopped with sandbags before it
drowned the child. Once stopped the child had to be removed from the storm drain us-
ing heavy rescue equipment to open up the sidewalk above him.
OPERATING PROCEDURES
The primary river rescue season in San Diego lasts from November through March, but
rescue activity varies greatly from year to year depending on the amount of rainfall. The
River Rescue Team operates under guidelines of the San Diego Lifeguard Service’s
Manual of Policies and Procedures. This policy specifies the selection, training, deploy-
ment, and supervision of the team. It also specifies levels of alert for the team.
Most San Diego lifeguards work eight hour shifts, five days a week. To ensure around
the clock response to emergencies on San Diego beaches, there are always at least
two lifeguards assigned to 24-hour shifts, similar to those of firefighters. During the river
rescue season, River Rescue Team members are often assigned to this shift, but team
members who are not on duty must also be prepared to respond to river rescues from
home. The Lifeguard Service has established an alert system involving three levels.
When predicted rainfall heightens the possibility of an emergency response, members
of the team are placed on alert.
In determining the level of alert, a hydrologic criteria has been created. Using predicted
24 hour precipitation amounts as measured in inches related to the coast, foothills, and
mountains, various alert status levels are created. Existing conditions are also taken
into consideration. The precipitation forecast is provided by the National Weather Ser-
vice. The team leader is responsible for determining the various alert level status levels
and ensuring that all appropriate measures are taken.
Team Alert Status Levels:
Alert I
During any alert, team members are required to carry pagers and personal river
rescue equipment at all times, as well as refrain from consuming alcohol. At Alert
I or II, while off-duty, they must stay within 20 miles of Lifeguard Headquarters.
Designated vehicles are equipped with river rescue gear. Weather is constantly
monitored, and the team leader is notified of any changes in weather predictions.
Alert II
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Same as Alert I, however all off-duty team members are placed on paid stand-by.
Designated equipped vehicles are taken home by various members of the team.
Lifeguard Communications, which is always staffed 24-hours a day, is given de-
tails of team operation plans. Appropriate public safety agencies throughout San
Diego County are advised of the team’s status.
Alert III
The team is fully activated as a unit and all members strategically deployed
throughout San Diego in historically known past river rescue locations with an ac-
tion plan in place. During this status the team is broken up into three to four
member squads with a Sergeant as squad leader. The Lieutenant is the overall
leader.
Emergency Response:
When Lifeguard Communications receives a report of a river rescue emergency, they
advise the ranking River Rescue Team member (generally a Lifeguard Lieutenant or
Sergeant). The duty supervisor evaluates the call and determines the appropriate level
of response.
Often, this response will include other emergency agencies, such as firefighters, para-
medics, and police. A police helicopter is commonly summoned, since aerial evacuation
may be the best alternative and the helicopter can be valuable for spotting victims,
communicating with them, and lighting at night. Once on scene the ranking team mem-
ber assumes command of the incident and makes use of all appropriate resources to
effect the rescue.
Environmental Safeguards:
Many rivers in the urban environment have been found to contain contaminates which
may be harmful to humans. For example, sewage is often present in floodwaters. In an
effort to reduce exposure, all team members are issued dry suits and are required to
wear them while actively involved in swiftwater incidents. After each swiftwater incident,
team members are decontaminated and receive appropriate inoculations.
TEAM TRAINING
All team members are required to attend 40 hours of swiftwater training annually. This
training takes place in the fall prior to the river rescue season. Since San Diego lacks
swiftwater training sites in the dry fall season, the team must travel to various parts of
the nation for a suitable swiftwater environment. Most recently, they have utilized the
Potomac River, just outside Washington, D.C.
Generally, the team will meet with a local agency that provides swiftwater rescue for the
training site. This also allows them to share various rescue techniques. Many times the
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San Diego team has provided enhanced training to these agencies. Team members are
assigned training topics and are required to instruct their fellow team members.
During this training the team will cover everything from the basic rescue to highly tech-
nical rescue scenarios, including night rescue operations. All team members are en-
couraged to provide research and development of any new ideas or techniques to their
fellow team members.
CONCLUSION
Today the San Diego River Rescue Team is recognized as one of the nation’s elite
teams and has received national acclaim. This team and the way it operates has been
used as a model by other teams throughout the nation. Team members have received
commendations from the San Diego City Council, San Diego Board of Supervisors, and
the Governor of California. They have twice been awarded the Higgins and Langley
Memorial Award for Outstanding Achievement in the Field of Swiftwater Rescue. In fact,
they are the only two time recipients of this award.
Experts in the field of aquatic rescue consider swiftwater rescue one of the most dan-
gerous water emergencies. Even with their strong aquatic background, San Diego life-
guards learned that significant specialized training and equipment were needed to
safely and effectively perform these rescues. Nonetheless, their extensive aquatic skills
as a basis helped greatly in developing what has become a nationally recognized team
that has been regularly lauded for its successes. In our view, when considering the de-
velopment of a specialty team to respond to these types of emergencies, lifeguards are
the natural choice.
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