Dear MBA students,

ESLSCA 51F

As agreed please find attached the Final Term Exam, you should:
1. Answer ALL questions, Part1 & Part2
2. Use your text book, extra text book, the internet, and other references.
3. DON'T discuss or share, by any means of communication, with any other class students (even for those who are
Otherwise will be counted as 'Plagiarism'
4. It is NOT ACCEPTED to just copy and paste from any source, your interpretation and write-up is a MUST to g
5. Reply with your file .xls, of your answer to ME ONLY, to ashraf@[Link] .
6. MUST include your first name and family name WITHIN the file name (ex.: DrAshrafElsafty-E-RM-51A-Fina
7. Use BLUE color for your text answers, or just fill in the shaded blocks.
8. Email directly to ME ONLY no later than agreed deadline day and time 7th January 2017, 10:00 pm, oth
9. Please give every single question the needed high care, as grades are NOT equally distributed among que

As I mentioned before for the mid-term and during our classes, we are studying to learn, and we are now leveragi
So please focus on your time and answers to learn while filling the exam.

I hope I did met your expectations, and now you as a researcher, you will be responsible for what you have learne
what you already gained for the welfare of the country and your people.

Hope you gained the ultimate scientific benefit from the course and me as well.
May Allah bless you all.

Kind Regards,

Dr. Ashraf Elsafty 
Adjunct Assistant Professor, Strategist
Research Methods & Strategic Management
ESLSCA, MIU, Riti/MsM cairo outreach.
ESLSCA 51F
 Dr. Ashraf Elsafty
Research Methods
ESLSCA 51F DrAshrafElsafty-E-RM-58FDA-FinalExam
Final Exam
Part ONE
Q
Answer ONLY using A or
DON'T DELETE OR HIDE ANY

Just
answer
on grey
cells
only
1 Which of the following is most suitable when there is
little to no insight in a certain problem or when there is
no information available on how similar problems or
research issues have been solved in the past?

A. Exploratory research.
B. Descriptive research.
C. Causal research.
D. Experimental research.

2 What cannot be seen as purpose of a causal study?

A. Understanding the dependent variable.

B. Predicting the dependent variable.
 C. Making sure that all relevant variables are included in
the study.
D. Explaining variance in the dependent variable.

3 If a bank manager wants to analyze the relationship

between interest rates and bank deposit patterns of
clients, a ‘field study’ is the most suitable method of
investigation.
A

A. true
B. false

4 A marketing manager aims to investigate the relationship

between customer satisfaction and store loyalty among
British consumers. For this purpose, data will have to be
collected from British stores and the ‘unit of analysis’ is F
the country.

A. true
B. false

5 The Chief Financial Officer (CFO) of a multinational

corporation wants to know the profits made during the
past 5 years by each of the subsidiaries in England,
Germany, France, and Spain. It is possible that there are
many regional offices of these subsidiaries in each of
these countries. The profits of the various regional
centers for each country have to be aggregated and the T
profits for each country for the past 5 years provided to
the CFO. Hence, the ‘unit of analysis’ is the country.

A. true
B. false

6 Studies, when data on the dependent variable are

gathered at two or more points in time to answer the
research question, are called:
B

a. Cross-sectional studies.
b. Longitudinal studies.
c. Exploratory studies.
d. Case studies.
7 Experimental designs invariably are longitudinal studies
since data are collected both before and after a
manipulation.
A. true
B. false

8 Which of the following studies is a causal study? The

researcher tries to find out:
C

a. What percentage of the population thinks commercials

are annoying compared to 10 years ago.

b. Why unemployment in Europe is higher than in Asia.

c. If smoking is related to cancer.

d. All the above answers are correct.

9 A bank manager wants to determine the cause-and-effect

relationship between interest rate and the inducements
it offers to clients to save and deposit money in the bank.
What is the appropriate study setting? B

a. A field study.
b. A field experiment.
c. A lab experiment.
d. None of the above.

10 The goal of a _____________ study, hence, is to offer to the

researcher a profile of the phenomena of interest from
an individual, organizational, industry-oriented, or other
perspective.
B

a. Exploratory.
b. Descriptive.
c. Causal.
d. Experimental.
11 ____________ studies are also necessary when some facts
are known, but more information is needed for
developing a viable theoretical framework.
A

a. Exploratory.
b. Descriptive.
c. Causal.
d. Experimental.

12 Whether a study is a causal or a correlational one

depends on the type of research questions asked and
how the problem is defined.

A. true
B. false

13 The extent of interference by the researcher with the

normal flow of work at the workplace has a direct
bearing on whether the study undertaken is causal or
correlational.

A. true
B. false
14 A causal study is conducted in the natural environment of
the organization with minimum interference by the
researcher with the normal flow of work.

A. true
B. false

15 In studies conducted to establish cause-and-effect

relationships, the researcher tries to manipulate certain
variables so as to study the effects of such manipulation
on the dependent variable of interest. A

A. true
B. false

16 Correlational studies are invariably conducted in

contrived settings, whereas most rigorous causal studies
are done in non-contrived lab settings.

A. true
B. false

17 The unit of analysis refers to the level of aggregation of

the data collected during the subsequent data analysis
stage.
A

A. true
 B. false

18 Our research question determines the unit of analysis.

A. true
B. false

19 A study can be done in which data are gathered just once,

perhaps over a period of days or weeks or months, in
order to answer a research question. Such studies are
called: A

a. Cross-sectional studies.
b. Longitudinal studies.
c. Exploratory studies.
d. Case studies.

20 A marketing manager is interested in tracing the pattern

of sales of a particular product in four different regions of
the country on a quarterly basis for the next 2 years. This
is an example of a:

a. Cross-sectional study.
b. Longitudinal study.
c. Exploratory study.
d. Case study.
21 Knowledge of research design details also helps
managers to study and intelligently comment on
research proposals.

A. true
B. false

22 Methodological rigor increases as we move progressively

from an exploratory study to a hypothesis-testing study,
and with this, the costs of research also increase.

A. true
B. false

23 Measurement is the assignment of numbers or other

symbols to characteristics of objects according to a pre-
specified set of rules.
A

A. true
B. false

24 Objects include:

a. Persons, strategic business units, and companies.

 b. Countries, cars, and arousal seeking tendency.
c. Elephants, kitchen appliances, and shopping
enjoyment.
d. Restaurants, shampoo, and service quality.

25 Examples of characteristics of objects are:

a. Length, weight, and country.

b. Arousal seeking tendency, strategic business unit, and
shopping enjoyment.
c. Service quality, conditioning effects, and taste.
d. Restaurants, shampoo, and service quality.

26 Attributes of objects that can be physically measured by

some calibrated instruments pose no measurement
problems.

A. true
B. false

27 Reduction of abstract concepts to render them

measurable in a tangible way is called operationalizing
the concepts.

A. true
B. false
28 Operationalizing is done by looking at the behavioral
dimensions, facets, or properties denoted by the
concept. These are then translated into observable and
measurable elements so as to develop an index of
measurement of the concept.

A. true
B. false

29 Operationalizing a concept involves a series of steps.

1. Come up with a definition of the construct.

2. Develop a response format.
3. Assess the validity and reliability of the measurement
scale.
4. Develop an instrument (one or more items or
questions) that actually measures the concept that one
wants to measure.
What is the correct order?
a. 1-4-2-3.
b. 4-2-1-3.
c. 4-2-3-1.
d. 3-1-4-2.

30 Operationalizing a concept consists of delineating the

reasons, antecedents, consequences, or correlates of the
concept.

A. true
 B. false

31 You cannot measure objects; you measure _____________ of

objects.
D

a. Elements.
b. Dimensions.
c. Antecedents.
d. Attributes.

32 Operationalizing is:

a. Designing questionnaires.
b. Translating a problem definition into a research
question.
c. Making an abstract concept measurable.
d. Defining difficult concepts in the research proposal.

33 A variable or construct must always be directly

observable.
B

A. true
B. false
34 Operationalizing a variable precedes defining a variable.

A. true
B. false

35 The construct ‘hunger’ is a typical example of a construct

that must be operationalized because it is an abstract
and subjective concept.

A. true
B. false

36 What is the type of scale of the variable ‘age’ if it is

measured in the following way?

“What is your age? ____ years.”

a. Nominal.
b. Ordinal.
c. Interval.
 d. Ratio.

37 What is the measurement level of income, measured in

the following way: “What is your annual gross income?”
B

< €15.000
€20.000 - €30.000
€30.000 - €45.000
> € 45.000
a. Nominal.
b. Ordinal.
c. Interval.
d. Ratio.

38 “As the calibration or fine-tuning of a scale increases in

sophistication, so does the power of the scale”. What is
therefore the most powerful scale?

a. A nominal scale.
b. An ordinal scale.
c. An interval scale.
d. A ratio scale.

39 The difference between an ordinal and a ratio scale is

that a ratio scale has an arbitrary zero point.

B
 A. true
B. false

40 Army rank (such as lieutenant, captain, major, colonel,

general, etc.) is ordinal in nature.

A. true
B. false

41 Temperature is usually measured on a ratio scale.

A. true
B. false

42 A lady stands on a pair of scales three times in a row. The

first time she weighs 69 kilo, the second time 69 kilo, and
the third time 69 kilo. Her real weight is 51 kilo. What is
the matter with the scales? B

a. The pair of scales is not reliable and not valid.

b. The pair of scales is reliable but is not valid.
c. The pair of scales is not reliable but is valid.
d. The pair of scales is reliable and valid.

43 The following scale is a: “Ugly __ __ __ __ __ Beautiful”

a. A likert-scale.
b. A semantic differential scale.
c. A numerical scale.
d. An itemized rating scale.
44 Which of the following is not a source of primary data?

a. A focus group.
b. A panel.
c. Company records.
d. A video conference.

45 Whereas panels meet for a one-time group session, focus

groups meet more than once.
B

A. true
B. false

46 The Delphi Technique is a forecasting method that uses a

cautiously selected panel of experts in a systematic,
interactive manner.

A. true
B. false

47 The advantage of seeking secondary data sources is

savings in time and costs of acquiring information.
A
 A. true
B. false

48 Unstructured interviews are so labeled because the

interviewer does not enter the interview setting with a
planned sequence of questions to be asked of the
respondent.

A. true
B. false

49 Structured interviews are those conducted when it is

known at the outset what information is needed.

A. true
B. false

50 When conducting interviews, it is unethical that the

researcher makes written notes as the interviews are
taking place, or as soon as the interview is terminated.

A. true
B. false
51 The principles of wording refers to which of the following
factors?

a. The appropriateness of the content of the questions

b. How questions are worded and the level of

sophistication of the language used.
c. The type and form of questions asked.
d. All of the above.

52 The way questions are sequenced could also introduce

certain biases, frequently referred to as the ordering
effects.

A. true
B. false

53 Instead of phrasing all questions positively, it is advisable

to include some negatively worded questions as well, so
the tendency in respondents to mechanically circle the
points toward one end of the scale is minimized. A

A. true
B. false

54 “Do you think there is a good market for the product and
that it will sell well?”

This question is:

a. Leading.
b. Loaded.
 c. Double-barreled.
d. Ambiguous.

55 “Don’t you think that in these days of escalating costs of

living, employees should be given good pay raises?”
A

a. Leading.
b. Loaded.
c. Double-barreled.
d. Ambiguous.

56 The sequence of questions in the questionnaire should be

such that the respondent is led from questions of a
general nature to those that are more specific.

A. true
B. false

57 The sequence of questions in the questionnaire should be

such that the respondent is led from questions that are
relatively easy to answer to those that are progressively
more difficult.
A

A. true
B. false

58 The sequence of questions in the questionnaire should be

such that you end with questions that respondents refuse
to answer.
B

A. true
B. false
59 The biggest disadvantage of secondary data is:

a. That they are not meeting the specific needs of the

particular situation or setting.
b. That it is generally more expensive to collect secondary
data than primary data.
c. That they are generally qualitative in nature.
d. That they cannot be used for forecasting purposes.

60 Probability sampling designs are used when the

representativeness of the sample is of importance in the
interests of wider generalizability.

A. true
B. false
61 Convenience sampling and quota sampling are examples
of probability sampling.

A. true
B. false

62 A researcher who investigates the relationship between

the loyalty program of a specific supermarket and the
loyalty towards this supermarket, collects his data by
questioning consumers who leave the specific
supermarket on several daily periods. The sampling
method used by this researcher is called:
A

a. Convenience sampling.
b. Simple random sampling.
c. Stratified sampling.
d. Quota sampling.
63 When the properties of the population are not over-
represented or under-represented in the sample, we will
have a representative sample.

A. true
B. false

64 From a statistical perspective, probability sampling is

preferred over non-probability sampling.

A. true
B. false
65 The results of probability sampling are less generalizable
than the results of non-probability sampling.

A. true
B. false

66 The sampling frame is a (physical) representation of all

the elements in the population from which the sample is
drawn.
A

A. true
B. false

67 The payroll of an organization would serve as the

sampling frame if its members are to be studied.

A. true
B. false
68 The type of probability and non-probability sampling
designs that is chosen depends on:

a. The extent of generalizability desired.

b. The demands of time and other resources.
c. The purpose of the study.
d. All of the above.

69 A sample size of 40 is large enough.

A. true
B. false

70 As a sampling technique, qualitative research generally

uses non-probability sampling as it does not aim to draw
statistical inference.

A. true
B. false

Thanks
Dr Ashraf Elsafty
[Link]

NLY using A or B or C or D or E
TE OR HIDE ANY OF THE ROWS or COLUMNS

MUST Add needed justification for your selection

An exploratory study is undertaken when not much is known about the

situation at hand, or no information is available on how similar problems or
research issues have been solved in the past. In such cases, extensive
preliminary work needs to be done to gain familiarity with the phenomena in
the situation, and understand what is occurring, before we develop a model
and set up a rigorous design for comprehensive [Link] essence,
exploratory studies are undertaken to better comprehend the nature of the
problem since very few studies might have been conducted in that area.
Example:
Multinational Company want to research how to motivate its employees for
better productivity and it wants to study the difference between its
employees in india than in Egypt , the culture , religion , economical , political
and social lifes and its roles in differentiating the charactesrtics of the
employees and what motivtes them

Casual study is done when it is necessary to establish a definitive cause-and-

effect relationship
the intention of the researcher conducting a causal study is to be able to state
that variable X causes variable Y. So, when variable X is removed or altered in
some way, problem Y is
solved
Casual Study Question:
Did the devaluation in Egypt caused goods prices rise.
This is a field study where the bank manager has merely taken the balances
in various types of account and correlated them to the changes in interest
rates. Research here is done in a noncontrived setting with no interference
with the normal work routine.

the manager get directly the feedback from the customers as in a face to face
interview the manager can get the opinion with no control on the customers
opinions

The unit of analysis refers to the level of aggregation of the data collected
during the subsequent data
analysis stage, The unit of analysis is the british consumers themselves not
the country as a whole

the data will now have to be aggregated at the country level , as the CFO
interest to know the profits by each country

the researcher might want to study people or phenomena at more than one
point in time in order to answer the research question, when data on the
dependent variable are gathered at two or more points in time to answer the
research question, are called longitudinal studies.
cause-and-effect relationship
the intention of the researcher conducting a causal study is to state that
smoking causes cancer.

This would be field experiment. Though the study would be setup in the
bank (the natural environment of the problem), the bank manager will make
all variables fixed and shall study only the effect of mainupulating the
interest rate and its effect on the clients to deposit money in the bank
keeping all other variables fixed

A descriptive study is undertaken in order to ascertain and be able to

describe the characteristics of the variables of interest in a situation, The
goal of a descriptive study, therefore, is to offer to the researcher a profile or
to describe
relevant aspects of the phenomenon of interest from an individual,
organizational, industry-oriented, or other perspective. In many cases, such
information may be vital before even considering certain corrective steps
Exploratory studies are also necessary when some facts are known, but more
information is needed
for developing a viable theoretical framework

A study in which the researcher wants to delineate the cause of one or more
problems is called acausal study. When the researcher is interested in
delineating the important variables associated with the problem, the study is
called a correlational study. It may be of interest to know that attempts are
sometimes made to establish cause-and-effect relationships through certain
types of correlational or
regression analyses, such as cross-lagged correlations and path analysis
(Billings and Wroten, 1978; Namboodiri, Carter and Blalock, 1975). Whether
a study is causal or correlational thus depends on the type of research
questions asked and how the problem is defined

True , In the casual study the researcher tries to prove a cause and effect
relation between two variables , the researcher researcher conduect the
research in the normal environment all variables fixed except for the
variables he wants to prove the casual relation , he mainpulates variable X to
prove its cause to variable Y , so that to be able to state that variable X causes
variable Y.
While correlational study the research is conducted in normal environment ,
When the researcher is interested in delineating the important variables
associated with
the problem
False , In the casual study the researcher tries to prove a cause and effect
relation between two variables , the researcher researcher conduect the
research in the normal environment all variables fixed except for the
variables he wants to prove the casual relation , he mainpulates variable X to
prove its cause to variable Y , so that to be able to state that variable X causes
variable Y.
Here the researcher tries to prove why there's a relation and the reason
behind it.
So the reasearcher interfer in the natural environment settings keeping all
variables fixed and mainupulate one variable to check its impact od
dependant variable to prove cause and effect relation

True, the reasearcher interfer in the natural environment settings keeping

all variables fixed and mainupulate one variable to check its impact od
dependant variable to prove cause and effect relation to prove why there's a
relation and the reason behind it.

FALSE
Correlational study is conducted natural environment where work proceeds
normally to prove that a variable X is presnet in with associate of Variable Y.
Correlational studies done in organizations are called field studies. Studies
conducted to establish cause-and-effect relationships using the same natural
environment in which employees normally function are called field
experiments.
Field Study: conducted in actual environment with non controlled variables
settings (No change will take place for the amount & direction of all
variables).
Field Experiment: in actual field but with contolled variable settings
(Change will take place for the amount & direction of some percentage of the
variables).

The unit of analysis refers to the level of aggregation of the data collected
during the subsequent data analysis stage
It is necessary to decide on the unit of analysis even as we formulate the
research question, since the data collection methods, sample size, and even
the variables included in the framework may sometimes be determined or
guided by the level at which data are aggregated for analysis.
Based on problem defination unit of analysis might be ( individuals, dyads ,
groups , industry , divisions or countries)

A study can be undertaken in which data are gathered just once, perhaps
over a period of days or
weeks or months, in order to answer a research question. Such studies are
called one-shot or crosssectional
studies.

the researcher might want to study people or phenomena at more than one
point in time in order to answer the research question. For instance, the
researcher might want to study employees' behavior before and after a
change in the top management, so as to know what effects the change
accomplished. Here, because data are gathered at two different points in
time, the study is not cross-sectional or of the one-shot kind, but is carried
longitudinally across a period of time. Such studies, as when data on the
dependent variable are gathered at two or more points in time to answer the
research question, are called longitudinal studies.

Here the manager is interested to study Sales of particular

product( Phenomena) in four different regions (Same Sample) on quarerly
basis ( more than once)
Knowledge about research design issues helps the manager to understand
what the researcher is attempting to do. The manager also understands why
the reports sometimes indicate data analytic results based on small sample
sizes, when a lot of time has been spent in collecting data from several scores
of individuals, as in the case of studies involving groups, departments, or
branch offices.
One of the important decisions a manager has to make before starting a
study pertains to how rigorous the study ought to be. Knowing that more
rigorous research designs consume more resources, the manager is in a
position to weigh the gravity of the problem experienced and decide what
kind of
design will yield acceptable results in an efficient manner

Example: if the research is correlational study from the problem defination ,

in case the researher fell in the trap of cause and effect relation then the
manager can intelligently comment to put the researcher back on the right
track

Methodological rigor increases as we move progressively from an

exploratory study to a hypothesis-testing study, and with this, the costs of
research also increase.
increases in sample size, multiple methods of data collection, development
of sophisticated measuring instruments, and the like, add to research costs,
though they contribute more
to testability, accuracy, precision, and generalizability

A: All choices are objects

B: arousal tendency is characteristics of objects
C: shopping enjoyment is characteristics of objects
D: Service quality is characteristics of objects

A is the correct answer

A: Country is an object
B: strategic business unit is an objects
C: All choices are characteristics of objects
D: Restaurants, shampoo are characteristics of objects
C is the correct answer

Attributes of objects that can be physically measured by some calibrated

instruments pose no measurement problems. For example, the length and
width of a rectangular office table can be easily measured with a measuring
tape or a ruler.
As long as there's a standard or standards of measuring the physcial measure
, like measuring the length either in meters or in foots , measuring the weight
in KG or in pounds , as We use calibrated instruments We can make change
values between different standards and finally get agreement on the
measured values

Despite the lack of physical measuring devices to measure the more

nebulous variables, there are ways of tapping these types of variable. One
technique is to reduce these abstract notions or concepts to observable
behavior and/or characteristics. In other words, the abstract notions are
broken down
into observable behavior or characteristics.
Reduction of abstract concepts to render them
measurable in a tangible way is called operationalizing the concepts
Operationalizing is done by looking at the behavioral dimensions, facets, or
properties denoted by the concept. These are then translated into observable
and measurable elements so as to develop an index of measurement of the
concept. Operationalizing a concept involves a series of steps:
1. The first step is to come up with a definition of the construct that you want
to measure.
[Link] down the definition to dimension elements and there may be many
break downs
[Link] the existence or absence the elements with direct question.
[Link]. of questions is equal to no. of elements.

Operationalizing a concept involves a series of steps:

1. The first step is to come up with a definition of the construct that you want
to measure.
[Link] down the definition to dimension elements and there may be many
break downs
[Link] the existence or absence the elements with direct question.
[Link]. of questions is equal to no. of elements.

operationalizing a concept does not consist of delineating the reasons,

antecedents, consequences, or correlates of the concept. Rather, it describes
its observable characteristics in order to be able to measure the concept. It is
important to remember this because if we either operationalize the concepts
incorrectly or confuse them with other concepts, then we will not have valid
measures. This means that we will not have “good” data, and our research
will not be
scientific.
Measurement is the assignment of numbers or other symbols to
characteristics (or attributes) of objects according to a pre-specified set of
rules

Operationalizing is done by looking at the behavioral dimensions, facets, or

properties denoted by the concept. These are then translated into observable
and measurable elements so as to develop an index of measurement of the
concept. Operationalizing a concept involves a series of steps. The first step
is to come up with a definition of the construct that you want to measure.
Then, it is necessary to think about the content of the measure; that is, an
instrument (one or more items or questions) that actually measures the
concept that one wants to measure has to be developed. Subsequently, a
response format (for instance a seven-point rating scale with end-points
anchored by “strongly disagree” and “strongly agree”) is needed, and finally,
the validity and reliability of the measurement scale has to be assessed

Some variables can be measured through the use of appropriate measuring

instruments ex: length , Weight , blood preseeure
While some variables like satisfaction , enjoy , happinness (Intangible) do
not lend themselves to accurate measurement because of their abstract and
subjective nature
The first step is the definimg the variable We want to study followed by
dimensions then Elements ending by Questions, explaining in details each
step:
1. The first step is to come up with a definition of the construct that you want
to measure.
[Link] down the definition to dimension elements and there may be many
break downs
[Link] the existence or absence the elements with direct question.
[Link]. of questions is equal to no. of elements.

Hunger is an abstract and subjective concept in order to Reduce Hunger to

render it measurable in a tangible way is called operationalizing the
concepts
One technique is to reduce these abstract notions or concepts
to observable behavior and/or characteristics. In other words, the abstract
notions are broken down into observable behavior or characteristics. We
cannot see Hunger However, we would expect a hungry person to eat alot of
food. In other words, the expected reaction of people to hunger is to eat food.
If several people say they are hungry, then we may determine the hunger
levels of each of these individuals by the measure of the quantity of food that
they eat to quench their hunger. We will thus be able to measure their levels
of hunger.

the ratio scale not only measures the magnitude of the differences between
points on the scale but also taps the proportions in the differences. It is the
most powerful of the four scales because it has a unique zero origin (not an
arbitrary origin) and subsumes all the properties of the other three
scales.

If you are 20 years old, you not only know that you are older than someone
who is 15 years old (magnitude) but you also know that you are five years
older (equal intervals). With a ratio scale, we also have a point where none of
the scale exists; when a person is born his or her age is zero
An ordinal scale not only categorizes the variables in such a way as to denote
differences among the various categories, it also rank-orders the categories
in some meaningful way. With any variable for which the categories are to be
ordered according to some preference

The ratio scale overcomes the disadvantage of the arbitrary origin point of
the interval scale, in that it has an absolute (in contrast to an arbitrary) zero
point, which is a meaningful measurement point. Thus, the ratio scale not
only measures the magnitude of the differences between points on the scale
but also taps the proportions in the differences. It is the most powerful of the
four scales because it has a unique zero origin (not an arbitrary origin) and
subsumes all the properties of the other three scales. The weighing balance
is a good example of a ratio scale. It has an absolute (and not arbitrary) zero
origin calibrated on it, which allows us to calculate the ratio of the weights of
two individuals

An ordinal scale not only categorizes the variables in such a way as to denote
differences among the various categories, it also rank-orders the categories
in some meaningful way. With any variable for which the categories are to be
ordered according to some preference, the ordinal scale would be used. The
preference would be ranked (e.g., from best to worst; first to last) and
numbered 1, 2, and so on.
While the ratio scale not only measures the magnitude of the differences
between points on the scale
but also taps the proportions in the differences. It is the most powerful of the
four scales because it
has a unique zero origin (not an arbitrary origin)
An ordinal scale not only categorizes the variables in such a way as to denote
differences among the various categories, it also rank-orders the categories
in some meaningful way. With any variable for which the categories are to be
ordered according to some preference, the ordinal scale would be used. The
preference would be ranked (e.g., from best to worst; first to last) and
numbered 1, 2, and so on

the Army ranks provides officers a rank based on the seniority level and
promotions received, each rank gives the officer an order and a preference
with respect to other ranks

Temperature is usually measured on interval scale, Interval scales are

numerical scales in which intervals have the same interpretation throughout.
As an example, consider the Fahrenheit scale of temperature. The difference
between 30 degrees and 40 degrees represents the same temperature
difference as the difference between 80 degrees and 90 degrees. This is
because each 10-degree interval has the same physical meaning

The Scale can be considered reliable for giving the same measure every time
the lady stands on the scale , probably the scale needs adjustment as the lady
real weight is 51Kg not 69 Kg as the scale measures , giving a wrong measure
means it's not valid

Several bipolar attributes are identified at the extremes of the scale, and
respondents are asked to indicate their attitudes, on what may be called a
semantic space, toward a particular individual, object, or event on each of the
attributes. The bipolar adjectives used might employ such terms as Good–
Bad; Strong–Weak; Hot–Cold
Primary data refer to information obtained first-hand by the researcher on
the variables of interest for the specific purpose of the study.
Secondary data refer to information gathered from sources that already exist

Company records are data already exist collected before for different reasons
and not specifcally for the reasearch

False
Panels, like focus groups, are another source of primary information for
research purposes. Whereas
focus groups meet for a one-time group session, panels (of members) meet
more than once

The Delphi Technique is a forecasting method that uses a cautiously selected

panel of experts in a systematic, interactive manner. These experts answer
questionnaires in two or more rounds. In the first round they are asked to
answer a series of questions on the likelihood of a future scenario or any
other issue about which there is unsure or incomplete knowledge. The
contributions from all the experts are then collected, summarized, and fed
back in the form of a second-round questionnaire.
After reviewing the first-round results, the experts assess the same issue
once more, taking the opinions of other experts into account. This process
goes on until it is stopped by the researcher. The rationale behind this
iterative process is that it eventually may lead to a consensus about the issue
that
is being investigated.

The advantage of seeking secondary data sources is savings in time and costs
of acquiring information as they are already available (books ,periodicals,
government
publications of economic indicators, census data, statistical abstracts,
databases , the media, annual reports of companies, etc. Case studies)
True
When the researcher might entertain a vague idea of certain changes taking
place in the situation without knowing what exactly they are. Such situations
call for unstructured interviews with the people concerned. In order to
understand the situation in its totality, the researcher should interview
people involved in the problem at several levels. In the initial stages, only
broad, openended questions should be asked, and the replies to them should
inform the researcher of the perceptions of the individuals.
In such case the the interviewer does not enter the interview setting with a
planned sequence of questions to be asked of the respondent.

Structured interviews are those conducted when it is known at the outset

what information is needed. The interviewer has a list of predetermined
questions to be asked of the respondents either personally, through the
telephone, or through the medium of a PC. The questions are likely to focus
on factors that surfaced during the unstructured interviews and are
considered relevant to the problem.

False
On the contrary ,interviewers are encourged to take notes , as taking notes
isn't a matter of ethical or not , it's a matter of recording the outcome of the
interview and not depending on memorizing information recalled from
memory is imprecise and often likely to be incorrect.
Furthermore, if more than one interview is scheduled for the day, the
amount of information received increases, as do possible sources of error in
recalling from memory as to who said what. Information based solely on
recall introduces bias into the research.
Accordingly , interviewer should take notes during the interview or as soon
as the interview is finished
Content of Question: The nature of the variable tapped – subjective feelings
or objective facts – will determine what kinds
of questions are asked
How Questions are worded: The language of the questionnaire should
approximate the level of understanding of the respondents. The choice of
words will depend on their educational level, the usage of terms and idioms
in the
culture, and the frames of reference of the respondents
Type and form of questions: The type of question refers to whether the
question is open-ended or closed. The form of the question refers to whether
it is positively or negatively worded.

True
The way questions are sequenced can also introduce certain biases,
frequently referred to as ordering effects. Though randomly placing the
questions in the questionnaire reduces any systematic bias in the responses,
it is very rarely done, because of subsequent confusion while categorizing,
coding, and analyzing the responses.

Good questionnaire includes positive and ngeative worded questions , A

respondent who is not particularly interested in completing the
questionnaire is more likely to stay involved and remain alert while
answering the questions when positively and negatively worded questions
are interspersed in it.

Double barreled question is a question that consist of more than one part ,
and each part can be answered with a different answer , like the example in
this question
(Do you think there is a good market for a product) answer: Yes
(Product sell Well) answer might be No for several reasons , accordingly
such type of questions should be avoided and instead this question to be
splitted to two seperate questions
Leading question is question which guide the respondant to certain answer
like the exmaple in this question , ofcourse any employee will answer this
question with Yes , as the wording pressuring respondants to answer with
yes

The sequence of questions should follow Funnel approach , questions

progress starts from general nature that surronds the organization and then
more in depth questions regarding the specific job, department , ..
Easy questions might relate to issues that do not involve much thinking; the
more difficult ones might call for more thought, judgment, and decision
making in providing the answers.

The sequence of questions in the questionnaire should be such that the

respondent is led from questions of a general nature to those that are more
specific, and from questions that are relatively easy to answer to those that
are progressively more difficult. This funnel approach, as it is called
(Festinger and Katz, 1966)
Easy questions might relate to issues that do not involve much thinking; the
more difficult ones might call for more thought,
judgment, and decision making in providing the answers.

Questions are formed so that to get answers from respondants not to be

refused to answer , accordingly interviewer should follow funnel approach in
sequencing the questions from general to more specific to get respondant
reply to the problem
secondary data refer to information gathered by someone other than the
researcher conducting the current study. Such data can be internal or
external to the organization and accessed through the Internet or perusal of
recorded or published information.
Accordingly secondary data don't meet specific needs of particular situation
or settings

In probability sampling, the elements in the population have some known,

non-zero chance orprobability of being selected as sample subjects (the
probabilitu of each element being selected from the population is known and
usually equal chance)
Probability sampling designs are used when the representativeness of the
sample is of importance in the interests of wider generalizability. When time
or other factors, rather than generalizability, become critical, nonprobability
sampling is generally used
Convenience sampling and quota sampling are examples of non-probability
sampling.
convenience sampling refers to the collection of information from members
of the population who are conveniently available to provide it.
Quota sampling, a type of purposive sampling, ensures that certain groups
are adequately represented in the study through the assignment of a quota.
Generally, the quota fixed for each subgroup is based on the total numbers of
each group in the population. However, since this is a nonprobability
sampling plan, the results are not generalizable to the population.

Non-Probability Sampling: Probability of each element to be selected from

population is unknown , as population size can't be precisely estimated.
Ex:
Popoluation Size: Unknow
Sample Size: 1000
Probability choosing element: Unknown

By definition Convenience & Quota Sampling are non-probability

convenience sampling refers to the collection of information from members

of the population who are conveniently available to provide it.

In this example , the researcher sample is the consumers who leave the
supermarket on daily period , here the researcher can't give us estimate how
much is the population , and the data collected from consumers who are
conveniently available at the daily periods
A representative sample is a small quantity of something that accurately
reflects the larger entity. An example is when a small number of people
accurately reflect the members of an entire population. In a classroom of 30
students, in which half the students are male and half are female, a
representative sample might include six students: three males and three
females.
A representative sample allows the collected results to be generalized to a
larger population. For most marketing or psychology studies, it is impractical
in terms of time, finances and effort to collect data on every person in the
target population. This is especially impractical for large population such as
an entire country or race.

When the properties of the population are not overrepresented or

underrepresented in the sample,
we have a representative sample. When a sample consists of elements in the
population that have
extremely high values on the variable we are studying, the sample mean X
will be far higher than the
population mean μ.

probability sampling, the elements in the population have some known, non-
zero chance or probability of being selected as sample subjects. In
nonprobability sampling, the elements do not have a known or
predetermined chance of being selected as subjects. Probability sampling
designs are used when the representativeness of the sample is of importance
in the interests of wider generalizability. When time or other factors, rather
than generalizability, become critical, nonprobability sampling is generally
used.
probability sampling, the probability of selection of each element from
population is known and has equal chance of selection
Ex:Population size:1000
Sample Size:80
Probability:8%
Non-Probability Sampling: Probability of each element to be selected from
population is unknown , as population size can't be precisely estimated.
Ex:
Popoluation Size: Unknow
Sample Size: 1000
Probability choosing element: Unknown

Probability sampling designs are used when the representativeness of the

sample is of importance in the interests of wider generalizability. When time
or other factors, rather than generalizability, become critical, nonprobability
sampling is generally used. Each of these two major designs has different
sampling strategies. Depending on the extent of generalizability desired, the
demands of time and other
resources, and the purpose of the study, different types of probability and
nonprobability sampling design are chosen.

Sampling begins with precisely defining the target population. The target
population must be defined in terms of elements, geographical boundaries,
and time.
The sampling frame is a (physical) representation of all the elements in the
population from which the sample is drawn.

True , because payroll of an organization lists all employees working in this

organization without missing anyone , then the sample frame surronds all
the population
Probability sampling designs are used when the representativeness of the
sample is of importance in the interests of wider generalizability. When time
or other factors, rather than generalizability, become critical, nonprobability
sampling is generally used. Each of these two major designs has different
sampling strategies. Depending on the extent of generalizability desired, the
demands of time and other
resources, and the purpose of the study, different types of probability and
nonprobability sampling design are chosen.

This information is not quite enough , more information required about the
whether the population size is available or not, sample frame then the
sample design to suit the research purpose as defined in problem defination
and lit. review and based on the criticality of the problem the confidence
level and error percentage is defined accordingly , after that the sample size
is calculated accordingly out of population

Sampling for qualitative research is as important as sampling for

quantitative research. Qualitative sampling begins with precisely defining the
target population. As a sampling technique, qualitative research generally
uses nonprobability sampling as it does not aim to draw statistical inference.
Purposive sampling is one technique that is often employed in qualitative
investigation: subjects are selected on the basis of expertise in the subject
that is being investigated. It is important that the subjects are chosen in such
a way that they reflect the diversity of the population
MUST Add used reference(s)

Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research

methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research

methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research
methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research

methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research

methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research

methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research
methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research

methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research

methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research
methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research

methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research

methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research
methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research

methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research

methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research

methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research
methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research

methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research

methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research
methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research

methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research

methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research

methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research
methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research

methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research

methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research
methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research

methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research

methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research
methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research

methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research

methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research
methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research

methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.

[Link], U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research

methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.

2.
[Link]
surementscales/
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methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research

methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research

methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research
methods for business: A skill-building approach.
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[Link], U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research

methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.
2.
[Link]
of_measurement.html

Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research

methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research

methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research
methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research

methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research

methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research

methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research
methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research

methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research

methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research
methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research

methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research

methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research

methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research
methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research

methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research

methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research

methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research
methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research

methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.
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methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research

methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.
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methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.

2.[Link]
[Link]

Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research

methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.
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methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research

methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research

methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.
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methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research

methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research

methods for business: A skill-building approach.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.
44D ESLSCA 51F
 Dr. Ashraf Elsafty
Research Methods
ESLSCA 51F
Final Exam
Part TWO
Q
Part 1:
1 Develop a conceptual model for the scenario below, with
needed discussion and graph:

Incidence of smoking in movies has started to increase again,

after having declined for several decades. According to the
National Cancer Institute smoking is seen in at least three out
of four contemporary box-office hits. What’s more, identifiable
cigarette brands appeared in about one-third of all movies in
2008. Exposure to smoking in movies is an important
predictor of adolescent smoking initiation: smoking in movies
has been shown to affect adolescents’ intentions to start
smoking. In turn, the intentions to start smoking are
determined by a more positive attitude toward smoking after
seeing a film character smoke. Recent research has revealed
that the relationship between seeing a film character smoke
and the attitude toward smoking is stronger when a person’s
identification with a film character increases. These findings
are consistent with social learning theory, which predicts that
attitudes and behaviors are modeled by observing the
behaviors of others.
2 What are the main research design settings? Describe
them in detail, using your own example. (4-5 paragraphs)
3 Compare between exploratory and descriptive research
design purpose, using your own example.(3-5 Paragraphs)

4 Discuss the inter-relationships among: non-contrived

setting, purpose of the study, type of investigation,
researcher interference, and time horizon of the study,
using your own example.
5 Why is the unit of analysis an integral part of the research
design? Use your own example (1-2 paragraphs)

6 Why is the ratio scale the most powerful of the four

scales? (1 paragraph, use own example)

7 Below are three scenarios. For each, indicate how the

researcher should proceed with the following, giving
reasons covering:
The purpose of the study
The type of investigation
The extent of researcher interference
The study setting
The time horizon for the study
The unit of analysis.
 Scenario A: Ms. Joyce Lynn, the owner of a small business (a
woman’s dress boutique), has invited a consultant to tell her
how she is different from similar small businesses within a 60-
mile radius, in regard to her usage of the most modern computer
technology, sales volume, profit margin, and staff training.

Scenario B: Mr. Paul Hodge, the owner of several restaurants is

concerned about the wide differences in the profit margins of the
various restaurants. He would like to try some incentive plans
for increasing the efficiency levels of those restaurants that are
lagging behind. But, before he introduces this, he would like to
be sure that the idea will work. He asks a researcher to help him
on this issue.

Scenario C: A manager is intrigued why some people seem to

derive joy from work and get energized by it, while others find it
troublesome and frustrating.

From your text book: 5th digital edition

8 Exercise 4.6

Variable
Dependent variable

Independent variable

Moderating variable

9 Exercise 4.7
Situation 1
 Situation 2

Situation 3

10 Exercise 4.8
Variable
Dependent variable
Independent variable
Intervening variable
Moderating variable
11 Compare between Cluster and Convenience Sampling
design, with clear example of your own.

12 Operationalize the subjective concept 'Shopping

Satisfaction', and use the needed measurement scales.
13 Write a full research proposal/research project, using the
book studied examples and guided by the sample thesis
provided, regarding a problem/opportunity about
“Egypt’s needed development”, from a business and
management perspective, it is of your selection to set the
whole story to guide your proposal or to define the
context to support developing a clear research proposal.
(Should cover all topics studied within research methods;
mention the item on the left and your answer on the right,
and within 2 or 3 pages length only).

Item 1
Item 2
Item 3
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Item (as much as you can of items learned)
Answer

Dependant Variable:Adults intentions to start smoking

Independent Variable: Exposure to smoking in movies
Mediating variable: Attitude toward smoking
Moderating Variable: Identification with a film character ( watching him smoking in the movie)

As per above identifications of variables , the main dependant variable for this research is the adults smokin
start smoking and its relation with independant variable exposure of adults to smoking in movies , this rela
dependant and independant variable affected in the presence of moderating and mediating variables

-there's a strong relation between exposure to smoking in the movies and the identification with afilm char
the movie. (Positive relation)
Independant Variable Dependant Variable

Exposure to  Attitude toward  Exposure to 

smoking smokking smoking

Hypotheses testing:
the expousre of adults to smoking in the movies with identification to a film character smoking in a movie r
attitude toward smoking the more adults intentions to start smoking
Exposure to 
smoking
Having identified the variables in a problem situation and developed the theoretical framework, the next st
the research in such a way that the requisite data can be gathered and analyzed to arrive at a solution.

Basic research designs can be classified by the purpose of the study:

[Link]: We use this type when the input is clear model for the relation between Independant variabl
dependant variables but scattered relations found
[Link]: is undertaken in order to ascertain and be able to describe the characteristics of the variables
situation, At this type we will find some models A,B or C as above figure at this type the situation of hypothe
tends to be directional as this models will have either direction or amount as a researcher you will choose o
models
[Link] testing: Studies that engage in hypothesis testing usually explain the nature of certain relation
establish the differences among groups, or the independence of two or more factors in a situation.
We use this Hypothesis testing when the input from lit. Revire has a direction and amount without significa
aim of this type is to determine the significance .Assume that the researcher know the amount and direction
know which variable with its amount and direction will make a difference in this certain enviroment on the
variable so we will take a specific model with all variables and related amount and/or direction so only sign
are not known so we conduct the Hypothis Testing

the type of research and the problem defination will guide the researcher to kind of investigation:
1. Causal study:A study in which the researcher wants to delineate the cause of one or more problems.
2. Correlational study When the researcher is interested in delineating the important variables associated w
problem.

The study settings: organizational research can be done in the natural environment where work proceeds
is, in noncontrived settings) or in artificial, contrived settings
The research settings can be done as following:
1. Field Study: in actual environment with non controlled variables settings (No Mainpulation for the variab
[Link] Experiment: in actual field but with contolled variable settings (Variables will be mainpulated)
[Link] Experiment: the lab simulates the field or the actual inviroment to avoid losing the customers or the m
other words the lab is a part from the field that simulates it.

The unit of analysis refers to the level of aggregation of the data collected during the subsequent data anal

Time horizon: cross-sectional versus longitudinal studies

[Link] sectional: collecting data one time from specific sample.
[Link] cross sectional: collecting data for more than one time using different samples.
[Link]: collecting data for more than one time using same sample
Exploratory Study: it's a study when there's no defined model for the relations between the variables but o
relation between variables , in the study you may find 15 independent variables relation with the dependan
variable , and in the literature review stage you find out that threre are only 10 Variables relation verified w
are rejected , then the researcher write hypotheses statements to test the relation between this independan
the dependant variables, after making data collection and anaylsysis the RD conclusion may find at the end
10 variables verified during the lit. review only 7 variables are tested and verified that the affect the depend
and 3 variables are not
Exploratory study is a non-directinal study.

Example: a multinational company based in Europe wants to study the effect of the ethics of its employees i
india on the productivity.
since there is considerable controversy about what work ethic values mean to people in other cultures, the
curiosity can be satisfied only by an exploratory study, interviewing the employees in organizations in egyp
Religion, political, economic, and social conditions, upbringing, cultural values, andso on play a major role i
view their work in different parts of the world Here, since very little is known about work ethic values in In
an exploratory study will have to be undertaken

Descriptive Study: The goal of a descriptive study, therefore, is to offer to the researcher a profile or to des
relevant aspects of the phenomenon of interest from an individual, organizational, industry-oriented, or oth
[Link] this type we will find some models A,B or C , at this type the situation of hypothetical statem
directional as this models will have either direction or amount as a researcher you will choose one of these
that you chose A and you want to add a moderating or mediating variable with knowing that it must come f
conceptual model even if it found in other models as they only support the existemce of this variable as it is
deassemple any model

Example: Researcher want to study the understanding of student in high school class for their lessons
the researcher define how many students in the class and how many males and females students and how m
they have each day and how long is their break time and how many subjects are they taught per day and ho
teachers enter the class and the teachers genders and age
The unit of analysis refers to the level of aggregation of the data collected during the subsequent data
analysis stage. It is necessary to decide on the unit of analysis even as we formulate the research question, s
the data collection methods, sample size, and even the variables included in the framework may
sometimes be determined or guided by the level at which data are aggregated for analysis.
Example: If We want to study the qulaity of Education in schooling stage inthe gulf countries, the scope of in
researcher is the whole schooling educational system not individuals schools in each country, accordingly th
the time of data analysis, the data gathered from each of the education schooling within each gulf country w
have to be meaningfully aggregated, and only those countries, which will form the samples, have to be taken
consideration. Thus, the unit of analysis is a function of the research question posed, and is an integral part
design. Research design decisions relating to sampling also depend on the unit of analysis.

Ratio scales incorporate all of the powers of the previous scales plus the provision for absolute zero or orig
represent the actual amounts of a variable. Measures of physical dimensions such as weight, height, distanc
examples. In the behavioral sciences, few situations satisfy the requirements of the ratio scale—the area of
offering some exceptions. In business research, we fi nd
ratio scales in many areas. There are money values, population counts, distances, return rates, productivity
amounts of time (e.g., elapsed time in seconds before a customer service representative answers a phone in

Example:
The weighing balance is a good example of a ratio scale. It has an absolute (and not arbitrary) zero origin ca
which allows us to calculate the ratio of the weights of two individuals. For instance, a person weighing 250
as heavy as one who weighs 125 pounds. Note that multiplying or dividing both of these numbers (250 and
given number will preserve the ratio of 2:1. The measure of central tendency of the ratio scale
The purpose of the study: Descreptive , as the purpose of the study is to decreibe how different is [Link]
than other similar businesses
The type of investigation: Correlational study between how she differs from other businesses and her usa
technology , Sales , Profit margin and staff training
The extent of researcher interference: minimal interference by the researcher with the normal flow of w
The study setting: Field study as research done in the natural environment where work proceeds normall
The time horizon for the study: Cross-sectional
The unit of analysis: Small Businesses

The purpose of the study: Hypothesis testing , the independence of two or more factors in a situation
The type of investigation: Casual Study as Cause and effect relation need to be proved betweem incentive
increasing the efficiency levels of restaurants lagging behind
The extent of researcher interference: Moderate interfence as the manager will interfer to mainpulate th
between incentive plans (increase or decrease) to check its impact on the efficiency level of restaurants
The study setting: Field Experiement in actual field but with contolled variable settings
The time horizon for the study: Longitudenal as the manager might want to study phenomena at more th
time in order to answer the research question.
The unit of analysis: Restaurants

E-Business  Sales 
adoption Performance
Sales Performance

E-Business adoption

Market Uncertainty Market 

Uncertainty

Operations Manager finds that the level of motivation of the employees highly affects theie productivity , the
employees are motivated the higher is their productivity
Operations Manager finds that the level of motivation of the employees highly affects theie productivity , the
employees are motivated the higher is their productivity

Human resources department in an organization found out that Job rotation for employees increases their o
productivity , by observation Job rotation boos the employees motivations

Business unit manager is studing with the human resources department to raise the employees salary to ra
productivity as they find out that raising employees salary will motiviate them for higher productivity , but
already have supplemental income will not be turned on by higher pay

Problems for Organization

Follow accounting system
Confusion
Experience in Book Keeping
Cluster sampling
Cluster samples are samples gathered in groups or chunks of elements that, ideally, are natural
aggregates of elements in the population. In cluster sampling, the target population is first divided
into clusters. Then, a random sample of clusters is drawn and for each selected cluster either all the
elements or a sample of elements are included in the sample. Cluster samples offer more
heterogeneity within groups and more homogeneity among groups – the reverse of what we find in
stratified random sampling, where there is homogeneity within each group and heterogeneity across
groups.
1. We divide the population into many subgroups.
• Each subgroup has few elements in it.
• Subgroups are selected according to some criterion of ease or
availability in data collection.
2. We try to secure heterogeneity within subgroups.
3. We try to secure homogeneity between subgroups.
4. We randomly choose several subgroups that we then typically
study in depth.

Nonprobability samples that are unrestricted are called convenience samples. They are the least reliable de
normally the cheapest and easiest to conduct. Researchers or fi eld workers have the freedom to choose wh
nd: thus, the name “convenience.” Examples include informal pools of friends and neighbors, people respon
newspaper’s invitation for readers to state their positions on some public issue, a TV reporter’s “person-on
intercept interviews, or the use of employees to evaluate the taste of a new snack food.
Although a convenience sample has no controls to ensure precision, it may still be a useful procedure.
Often you will take such a sample to test ideas or even to gain ideas about a subject of interest. In the early s
exploratory research, when you are seeking guidance, you might use this approach. The results may presen
is so overwhelming that a more sophisticated sampling procedure is unnecessary. In an interview with stud
some issue of campus concern, you might talk to 25 students selected sequentially. You might discover that
are so overwhelmingly one-sided that there is no incentive to interview further
MAKE SURE TO ANSWER THIS QUESTION FULLY.

Answer 1
Answer 2
Answer 3
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Answer (as much as you can of items learned)
Must add reference(s) used

Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010).

Research methods for business: A
skill-building approach. New York:
John Wiley & Sons.
[Link], U., & Bougie, R. (2010).
Research methods for business: A
skill-building approach. New York:
John Wiley & Sons.
[Link]-Safty, A. (2016). Lec 6,7:
BUS631[Lecture notes]. Cairo, :
University of ESLSCA
[Link], U., & Bougie, R. (2010).
Research methods for business: A
skill-building approach. New York:
John Wiley & Sons.
[Link]-Safty, A. (2016). Lec 6:
BUS631[Lecture notes]. Cairo, :
University of ESLSCA
Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010).
Research methods for business: A
skill-building approach. New York:
John Wiley & Sons.

Cooper, D. R., & Schindler, P. S.

(2003). Business Research Methods.
Boston: McGraw Hill.

Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010).

Research methods for business: A
skill-building approach. New York:
John Wiley & Sons.
Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010).
Research methods for business: A
skill-building approach. New York:
John Wiley & Sons.

Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010).

Research methods for business: A
skill-building approach. New York:
John Wiley & Sons.

Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010).

Research methods for business: A
skill-building approach. New York:
John Wiley & Sons.

Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010).

Research methods for business: A
skill-building approach. New York:
John Wiley & Sons.
Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010).
Research methods for business: A
skill-building approach. New York:
John Wiley & Sons.

Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010).

Research methods for business: A
skill-building approach. New York:
John Wiley & Sons.

Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010).

Research methods for business: A
skill-building approach. New York:
John Wiley & Sons.

Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010).

Research methods for business: A
skill-building approach. New York:
John Wiley & Sons.
Cooper, D. R., & Schindler, P. S.
(2003). Business Research Methods.
Boston: McGraw Hill.

Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010).

Research methods for business: A
skill-building approach. New York:
John Wiley & Sons.
ESLSCA
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