EngineeringEssentials

DAVID A. HALL | Contributing Technical Expert

Understanding Intermodulation
Distortion
Measurements
Don’t be deterred by the theory. With a working knowledge of RF signal analyzer
architectures, anyone can accurately measure IMD.

I
ntermodulation distortion is one of the most interesting and third-order distortion products at every combination of
signal analyzer measurements. Often abbreviated IMD, first-order and second-order products. Thus, in addition to
it is an important metric of linearity for a wide range of harmonics, second-order distortion products will occur at
RF and microwave components. Fundamentally, IMD f2 – f1 and f1 + f2.
describes the ratio (in dB) between the power of fundamental Two of the most challenging distortion products are the
tones and third-order distortion products. signal content due to third-order distortion that occurs directly
adjacent to the two input tones at 2f1 – f2 and 2f2 – f1. IMD mea-
THIRD-ORDER DISTORTION PRODUCTS surement, then, describes the power ratio between the power
IMD measurements start with injecting a two-tone signal into level of output fundamental tones (f2 and f1) and third-order
a device under test (DUT). As an example, we’ll consider the distortion products (2f1 – f2 and 2f2 – f1).
behavior of an RF power amplifier. A perfectly linear amplifier Note that IMD is problematic in RF and microwave systems
would produce an output signal that includes two tones at the for a range of reasons. In modulated signals, third-order distor-
exact same frequencies as the input signal, but at the amplified tion creates additional frequency content often called “spec-
output power. By contrast, a more realistic amplifier (i.e., one tral regrowth” in bands adjacent to the modulated signal. In a
with some level of nonlinearity) will produce additional signal transmitter, spectral regrowth resulting from poor linearity can
content at frequencies other than
the two input tones at its output. Power
Intermodulation Second-order Third-order
For instance, it’s well known Third-order
distortion
distortion (IM3) distortion
that nonlinearity leads to har- distortion
products products
product
monics that occur at multiples of
each input tone. What’s interest-
f1 + f2
ing in the two-tone case is that a
nonlinear device will produce fre- 2f1 + f2 f1 + 2f2
quency content at an even wider
f2 – f1
range of frequencies (Fig. 1).
2f2 – f1
Second harmonics occur at 2f1 – f2
multiples of the fundamental
tones, and we can observe them at f1 f2 2f1 2f2 3f1 3f2

frequencies such as 2f1 and 2f2. Of Frequency

course, we’ll find third harmonics 1. A realistic amplifier will produce additional signal content at frequencies other than the two input
at 3f1 and 3f2. In addition, the sys- tones at its output. In these two-tone cases, nonlinear devices will produce frequency content at an
tem will produce second-order even wider range of frequencies.

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EngineeringEssentials

Sources Isolators Combiner Signal analyzer

f1

DUT ADC

f2

2. Most IMD measurement setups use two signal generators that are combined with an RF power combiner. The best setups include an isolator
between each signal generator and the combiner to produce the cleanest possible two-tone source.

interfere with other wireless channels. In a receiver, by contrast, TOI = (IMD/2) + power
it can cause out-of-band signals to obscure the signal of interest.
MAKING ACCURATE IMD MEASUREMENTS
THIRD-ORDER INTERCEPT Today, many RF signal analyzers come with an IMD mea-
It is important to understand that the IMD ratio greatly surement mode that automatically detects the fundamental and
depends on the power level of the fundamental input tones. third-order distortion signals and calculates both their ratio and
As a result, a related measurement known as third-order inter- the resulting TOI. However, the hardware configuration for the
cept (TOI) is also used to specify device characteristics. The IMD measurement setup requires the most attention.
fundamental principle of TOI is that for every 1-dB increase While we’ll mainly focus on the signal analyzer side here, rec-
in the power of the input tones, the third-order products will ognize that configuring the two-tone source is often a complex
increase by 3 dB. element of measuring IMD. Most IMD measurement setups
So as one continues to increase the power level of a two-tone use two signal generators that are combined with an RF power
stimulus, the IMD ratio will decrease as a function of input combiner. The best setups include an isolator between each sig-
power. At some arbitrarily high input power level, the third- nal generator and the combiner to produce the cleanest possible
order distortion products would theoretically be equal in power two-tone source (Fig. 2).
to the fundamental tones. This theoretical power level at which For the most difficult IMD measurements, where the third-
first-order and third-order products are equal in power is called order distortion products are extremely small and the IMD
the third-order intercept. ratio is high, careful attention to the RF signal analyzer settings
TOI, called IP3 (intercept point of the third order), is a useful is essential. The RF signal analyzer includes a mixer directly
specification that combines the notion of IMD with the power after its programmable attenuator. This mixer, while being an
level at which it was measured. TOI is always calculated as a essential element to downconversion, will behave nonlinearly at
function of IMD: higher power levels (see “Understanding Signal Analyzer Archi-
tectures” at [Link]).
–50
Average noise level and distortion relative to mixer level (dB)

One might think that a simple approach to preserving the lin-

Noise
–60 Second harmonic distortion earity of the RF signal analyzer would be to increase the amount
Third-order distortion of programmable attenuation before the mixer. Since IMD is
–70 directly correlated to input power level and attenuators reduce
power level, this would allow the mixer to operate in a more
–80
linear region of operation.
–90 While increasing attenuation would certainly reduce the IMD
IMD and noise
contribution of the RF signal analyzer, it would also affect its
–100
floor intersection noise floor. If one applies too much attenuation, the third-order
–110 distortion products one is trying to measure will be undetectable
because they will fall below the noise floor of the instrument.
–120

–130 PRACTICAL TIPS

–70 –60 –50 –40 –30 –20 –10 0 As a result of these characteristics, the dynamic range chart
Mixed level (dBm) is one of the most critical guides to RF signal analyzer perfor-
3. The dynamic range chart is one of the most critical guides to RF mance (Fig. 3). Using this chart, one can identify exactly how
signal analyzer performance. Using it, one can identify exactly how much attenuation one should use to ensure the highest quality
much attenuation to use to ensure the highest quality measurement. measurement.

48 11.07.13 ELECTRONIC DESIGN

 The inherent third-order distortion of an RF signal analyzer limited region of its operating range. Generally, the ideal instru-
and its noise floor are directly related to the mixer level of the ment configuration is such that the configured attenuation is a
instrument. Mixer level, defined as the signal power present at few dB higher than the attenuation level where IM3 no longer
the input of the first mixer, is determined by the input power changes as a function of attenuation.
at the RF connector and the amount of attenuation being used.
At the intersection of IMD and noise floor, the instrument’s PARTING THOUGHTS
own inherent third-order distortion products are equal in pow- Distortion measurements such as IMD and the related TOI
er to the noise floor. When configuring the instrument to have a result are some of the most interesting and important measure-
mixer level that is lower than this intersection, the results will be ments that one can make with an RF signal analyzer. While the
noise limited. By contrast, configuring the instrument to have theory of these measurements might seem complex at first,
a mixer level that is higher than the intersection point, IMD one can perform accurate IMD measurements with a work-
measurements will be linearity limited. Thus, maximizing an ing knowledge of RF signal analyzer architectures. For more
instrument’s dynamic range for IMD measurements requires us detailed on measurement best practices using RF signal analyz-
to configure a mixer level that is right at this intersection point. ers, visit [Link]/rf-academy/.
Note that if one doesn’t have access to the instrument’s dynam-
ic range chart, identifying the ideal operating point manually is DAVID HALL is a senior product marketing manager at National
fairly straightforward. With the test signal connected to the sig- Instruments, where he is responsible for RF and wireless test hard-
nal analyzer, slowly begin to increase the amount of attenuation. ware and software products. His job functions include educating
If the power of the third-order intermodulation (IM3) products customers on RF test techniques, product management, and devel-
decreases with an increase in attenuation, then you know the oping product demos. His areas of expertise include instrumenta-
instrument is operating in a linearity-limited region. tion architecture, digital signal processing, and test techniques for
By contrast, if the power of the IM3 products does not cellular and wireless connectivity devices. He holds a BS degree
change, then you know the instrument is likely in the noise- with honors in computer engineering from Penn State University.

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