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CHAPTER 3.3: METAMORPHIC ROCKS

Introduction
• Metamorphism - the process of changes in texture and mineralogy of pre-
existing rock due to changes in temperature and/or pressure.

• Metamorphic means ‘change of form’.

• The rocks formed due to the transformation of pre-existing igneous or

sedimentary that has been buried deeply within the crust because of the
movements of lithospheric plates.

• These rocks are subjected to changes in the temperature, pressure and

chemical environments inside the earth's crust and thus become unstable.

• The minerals undergo recrystallization forming new minerals and new rocks
either physically or chemically and the texture, color, structure and chemical
composition are modified.

• The processes that cause these changes are known as metamorphism (meta-
change; morphe - form/shape).

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Causes and Changes during Metamorphism

• Metamorphism causes changes in texture

(recrystallization, alignment of platy minerals) and
mineralogy (growth of new minerals that are more
stable).

• The processes of compaction and recrystallization

change the texture of rocks during metamorphism.

Compaction
• The grains move closer together.

• The rock becomes denser.

• Porosity is reduced.

• Example: clay to shale to slate

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Recrystallization
• Growth of new crystals.

• No changes in overall chemistry.

• New crystals grow from the minerals already present.

• A preferred orientation of minerals commonly develops under applied

pressure.

• Platy or sheet-like minerals such as muscovite and biotite become oriented

perpendicular to the direction of force (see page 125).

• This preferred orientation is called foliation.

Metamorphic Textures
• Consist of three:

(1) Foliation
(2) Lineation
(3) Non - foliated or granular

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Foliation
• A broad term referring to the alignment of sheet - like minerals.

• Schistosity – alignment of large mica flakes, as in a mica schist

derived from the metamorphism of shale.

• Slaty cleavage – alignment of very fine - grained micas, as in a slate

derived from the metamorphism of shale.

• Phyllitic structure – alignment of fine - grained micas, as in a phyllite.

• Gneissic banding – segregation of light and dark minerals into

distinct layers in the rock, as in a gneiss.

Lineation
• Refers to the alignment of elongated, rod - like
minerals.

• Lineation is a texture commonly seen in the

metamorphic rock amphibolites derived from the
metamorphism of basalt.

• E.g. amphibole, pyroxene, tourmaline, kyanite, etc.

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Non - foliated or granular

• Those which are composed of equidimensional
grains.

• There is no preferred orientation. The grains form a

mosaic.

• E.g. quartz or calcite.

Mineral changes in Metamorphic Rocks

• The process consist of:

(1) Recrystallization
(2) Formation of new minerals

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Recrystallization
• Rearrangement of crystal structure of existing
minerals. Commonly many small crystals merge to
form larger crystals.

• Clay in shale becoming micas in slate, phyllite, and

schist.

Formation of new minerals

• A number of metamorphic minerals which form
during metamorphism and are found exclusively (or
almost exclusively) in metamorphic rocks.

• Garnet - dark red dodecahedrons (12 sides).

• Staurolite - brown lozenge -shaped minerals,

commonly twinned to form "fairy crosses". State
mineral of Georgia.

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Agents of Metamorphism
• The principal agents of metamorphism are:

(1) Temperature
(2) Pressure
(3) Chemically Active Solution

Temperature
• The major cause and important agent of metamorphism.

• The temperature in the crust at a depth of 15 km is approximately 300°C.

• It is noted also that the temperature increases as the depth increase.

• This temperature is sufficient for recrystallization for some minerals to begin.

• As the rock temperature rises, minerals begin to change from solid state to
liquid state and amount of pore fluid in rocks increases.

• Heat reduces the ability of rock to withstand deformation and increase the rate
of chemical reactions which facilitate the production of new minerals, i.e. new
atomic arrangement.

• Heat is provided by the nearby intrusions of magma or associated with

compression of the crust.

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Pressure
• The effect of pressure varies at different depths in the crust.

• Rocks at shallow depths are relatively cold and brittle, so they can be
altered, e.g. fracture or crack when subjected to high pressures.

• At greater depths, rocks are much softer because of the high temperatures.

• Under action of pressure, they tend to deform by plastic flow.

• In the region of plastic deformation, pressure influences the types of new

minerals formed and are more tightly packed atomic structure and thus has
greater density.

• Pressure is derived from deep below the earth surface and also associated
with the collision of tectonic plates.

Chemically Active Solution

• Rocks that crystallize during the metamorphism does not actually melt but occur in a solid
phase state.

• The minerals are greatly facilitated by movement of small amounts of liquid or gaseous
solutions through the rock which acts as a medium of transport for ions.

• These solutions which travel through the pores and cracks of the rock add and remove various
ions and molecules as the reactions occur.

• In this way new chemical constituents can be brought in contact with mineral grains so that
they may diffuse through the mineral structures during recrystallization.

• Water may also react as solvent to form another mineral and it can be derived from:

(1) Entrapped water in parent sedimentary rocks at time of deposition

(2) Large watery liquid and vapors from magma

(3) Small amount of water from hydrous mineral

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Types of Metamorphism
• Three types of metamorphism are:

(1) Contact metamorphism

(2) Regional metamorphism
(3) Dynamic metamorphism

Contact metamorphism
• Contact metamorphism occurs when country rocks are
surrounded by igneous intrusion and altered by intruding
magma.

• Physical changes such as recrystallization occur due to

contact metamorphism when original minerals in country
rock are permeated by magmatic fluid.

• For example, limestone intruded by hot magma may be

altered from distance of few inch to several miles from line
of contact between the two rocks.

• Heat is the most significant influence in contact

metamorphism. Metamorphic rock formed in a baked-zone
of the altered country rock.

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Contact metamorphism

Igneous
Intrusion

Regional metamorphism
• The zones of rock alteration are much more extensive (large scale) than rocks altered
under contact metamorphism.

• Regional metamorphism occurs due to the effects of both pressure and temperature.

• The rock layers undergo structural deformation (folded, crushed or fractured) due to
great pressures exerted on it and therefore results in the obliteration of any indication of
fossils or stratification and realignment of mineral grains.

• Regional metamorphism must occur deep within the crust, at least at depths of 10 km or
more and is known to be responsible for the forming of mountain ranges.

• Specific group of minerals present in rock can be used to infer a certain metamorphic
grade. Rocks subjected to high temperatures and pressures are of high grade.

• Under various metamorphic grades, different minerals can be produced from the same
original rock. For example, kyanite, sillimanite and andalusite have the same chemical
composition but different internal structures.

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Dynamic metamorphism
• Dynamic metamorphism is produced by variable strain, variable pressure, variable temperature and
high fluid pressure and normally occurs in active fault zones.

• Dynamic metamorphism is metamorphism of rock masses caused primarily by stresses that yield
relatively high strain (deformation) rates. More simply, it is metamorphism resulting from
deformation.

• Temperatures during dynamic metamorphism are typically elevated and may be caused by the
deformation process.

• Fluids commonly contribute to the metamorphic process, both by altering chemistry and by aiding
recrystallization.

• Dynamic metamorphism occurs in fault zones when country rock is ground up and partially
recrystallized.

• Rocks formed by dynamic metamorphism display a sugary texture, moderate foliated texture, and
small round rock fragments within the foliation.

• Rocks types of Dynamic Metamorphism such as breccias and mylonite.

Types of Metamorphism

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Characteristics/Grades of Metamorphic Rocks

• Under metamorphism, rocks may undergo changes in their

mineral composition leading to formation of new minerals and
changes in textures. Texture of metamorphic rocks is
subdivided into:

(1) Foliated Metamorphic Rock

(2) Non Foliated Metamorphic Rock

Foliated Metamorphic Rock

• During mountain building, rocks are deformed and exposed to
both increased pressures and increased temperatures.

• At such high temperatures and pressures, rocks can actually

flow plastically producing a parallel alignment of mineral
grains.

• Mineral alignment may also be formed under these extreme

conditions, by the growth of crystals with an orientation
perpendicular to the direction of greatest pressure.

• The parallel alignment of minerals in a metamorphic rock is

called foliation

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Orientation of platy mineral grains with respect to direction of highest pressure

during metamorphism

Cont’d

• Metamorphic foliations may be:

(1) Slaty
(2) Phyllitic
(3) Schistose
(4) Gneissic

• It is important to remember that foliation is

completely gradational.

• No sharp boundaries exist between the different

types.

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Slaty
• Slaty foliation is a foliation in which microscopic platy minerals have
a parallel alignment (Figure 3.57).

• This parallel alignment causes the rock to tend to break along

parallel planes forming sheet-like pieces and called rock cleavage.

• Slaty metamorphic rocks are also finely crystalline (Fine texture,

rocks characteristically split into thin slabs) and tend to appear dull.

• Rocks with a slaty foliation are formed at low pressures and

temperatures and are considered low grade metamorphic rocks.

• Slate can be converted to phyllite which is coarser grained than shale

if the metamorphism grade is increased.

Well developed Slaty Cleavage in Slate Outcrop

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Phyllitic
• Phyllitic foliation is similar to slaty foliation except
that the crystals are slightly larger while still fine.

• Rocks with a phyllitic foliation tend to be shiny,

sometimes wrinkled or folded rock cleavage.

• These rocks are formed under slightly higher

pressures and temperatures than slaty
metamorphic rocks and are of low to medium
grade.

Schistose
• Schistose foliation is a foliated texture in which the rock is dominated by
visible platy minerals such as micas which are in a parallel to sub-parallel
orientation (Figure 3.58).

• Schistose metamorphic rocks often have a poor rock cleavage.

• The mineral grains are large enough to be seen by the unaided eye
(medium to coarse grained and coarsely banded metamorphic rock).

• The foliation consists of alternate bands of light and dark colored minerals.
Light colored minerals are mainly composed of quartz and feldspar whereas
the dark layers contain biotite, hornblende, augite and other minerals.

• Rocks having a schistose foliation form under conditions of high pressures

and medium temperatures (from silicic igneous rocks as well as various
types of sedimentary rocks) and are considered medium grade
metamorphic rocks.

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An Outcrop of Schist

Gneissic
• Gneissic foliation is a coarsely foliated texture in
which there are alternating layers which are
dominated by different minerals.

• Rocks with a gneissic foliation are produced by

exposure to high pressures and temperatures and
are considered high grade metamorphic rocks.

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Non Foliated Metamorphic Rock

• Non - foliated metamorphic rocks have no preferred
orientation of mineral grains.

• The grains are also usually of equal size within any particular
rock sample.

• This texture is common in contact metamorphic rocks but may

also be seen in some regionally metamorphosed rocks (i.e.
marble and quartzite).

• These rocks are usually massive and granular in texture. Non-

foliated metamorphic rocks may be of high, medium, or low
grade. The most common non - foliated metamorphic rocks are
quartzite and marble.

Some common igneous and sedimentary rocks and their metamorphic equivalent

Original rock Metamorphic rock

Sedimentary:
Sandstone Quartzite
Shale Slate, phyllite, schist
Limestone Marble
Igneous:
Granitic textured igneous rock Gneiss
Compact textured igneous rock Schist

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A simplified flowchart showing the origin of some of the common metamorphic rock

Classification of Metamorphic Rocks

• The classification of many metamorphic rocks is based on metamorphic texture which depends on crystal
size and, if present, foliation.

• Foliated metamorphic rocks are named according to their type of foliation and any visible minerals which
may be present.

• A rock with a schistose foliation and containing significant proportions of garnets and micas might be called
garnet-mica schist.

• A rock with a gneissic foliation and containing the same minerals as granite may be called a granitic gneiss.

• Some low-grade metamorphic rocks are named by adding the prefix "meta" to the flame of their protolith.
For example, a meta-conglomerate is the low grade metamorphic equivalent of a conglomerate.

• Other metamorphic rocks are named on the basis of mineral composition. Marble is a metamorphic rock
composed almost entirely of calcite or dolomite.

• A quartzite is formed by the recrystallization of sandstone under metamorphic pressures and temperatures
and consists mainly of quartz.

• Quartzite can be distinguished from quartz sandstone by the fact that quartzite breaks through grains while
quartz sandstone breaks between grains.

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Engineering in Metamorphic Rock Terrains

The engineering characteristics of metamorphic rocks can be
generalized into two basic types:

• Unaltered and unfractured non foliated metamorphic rocks are considered

strong materials and posses similar engineering properties to intrusive
igneous rocks. Few limitations for foundations, tunnels and dams and
remain stable for vertical excavation slopes.

• Foliated metamorphic rocks are more similar to sedimentary rocks because

of their tendency to fail along specific planes. Foliation planes in this
instance are similar to bedding planes. The orientation of foliation planes
with respect to a natural slope or excavation therefore becomes critical to
the stability of the material.

• In a way similar to the igneous and sedimentary rocks, the ultimate

behavior of a metamorphic rock mass depends upon the degree and
orientation of fractures and the weathering characteristics. These
properties must be ascertained prior to construction of each individual
engineering project.

End of Chapter 3

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