The purposes of this tutorial are:

Step 1: Develop an understanding of an issue, identifying and reading and summarizing

relevant literature, developing your own position on the problem.

Step 2: Create a linear argument that takes the reader of your proposal from knowing
little about your topic to enthusiasm for your project.

Step 3: Pre-write and draft. Don't feel frustrated after 15-20 drafts.

Step 4: Write the proposal using the following six parts.

Part I. Introduction.

The first step is to summarize the broader concepts and issues related to your topic in
order to place your subject in broader context. Then, you must present the main research
question. A suggestion from Michael Watts is to create a "Powerful Opening:" "Get
straight to the point; do not drift around in some aimless way. The opening paragraph is
your first salvo. You must have a way of encapsulating in a few sharp, snappy sentences
what this project is about."

For more details check this Site .

Part II. Problem Statement

In this section, define and present the issue in order to frame specific questions. This
section builds on the context established in the introduction section. From here, the writer
must develop the rationale for the dissertation by explaining the importance of the
problem and the need to conduct research within the established context. Some questions
you might consider:

Does the dissertation deal with a significant and meaningful problem that lends itself to a
substantial research effort?

Is the problem of interest to other scholars or practitioners in the field?

Has a persuasive case been made as to why the problem is worth solving?

Is it clear who or what will be aided by the research findings?

Will the findings provide a basis for generalized conclusions or have practical
applicability?

Is the intention of the research expressed clearly?

Are the research questions stated concisely and explicitly in question form?
Are they precise, specific, and focused?

Do they flow logically from the problem?

Are the hypotheses, when applicable, well formulated and lucidly articulated?

Do they pose a relationship between or among measurable variables that is subject to

testing?

Are the assumptions that frame the inquiry explicated fully?

Are the limitations of the study identified with recognition of their consequences?

Are discrepancies in the study dealt with positively and candidly?

Are technical terms well defined? Are the definitions clear-cut, unambiguous, and
comprehensible?

Does the dissertation clearly address some aspect of social change?

What aspect has been addressed?

For more details visit this website.

Part III. Conceptual Framework.

Begin with the theoretical framework, and provide key constructs. Define specific terms
and how you will use them, and then model what you think is going on. For example, if
your topic is related to Cooperative Learning in post secondary education, you must
establish a base of educational theory, develop cooperative learning-specific theory,
define all important terminology and which of the varying interpretations you will use,
and ultimately, define in your terms precisely what cooperative learning is and does.

For additional help in just how to achieve these goals, see:

[Link]

[Link]

Part IV. Methods

State clearly what you plan to do and why. Then discuss how your methods link to the
conceptual framework and why. In other words, how does your research methodology
serve to answer your research questions. The follwoing article adds some depth to this
discussion: [Link]
Part V. Bibliography

Creating a bibliography is self-explanatory. Students should begin their bibliography as

soon as they begin taking courses in order to catalogue works used throughout the
breadth of their educational experience. Works reviewed early during the pursuit of the
degree can propel a student into the works referenced within them. A bibliography should
always be a work in progress as new information is published and other information
becomes irrelevant as research questions change over time. Ultimately, it is easier to
subtract those references not needed.

Part VI. Appendices

Appendices should be included as needed to support and define research as well as

support the final project. Appendices will generally include surveys (including drafts),
other research data (as required) and a timeline in order to manage the entire dissertation
project itself. For a good sample timeline see:
[Link]

Writing a Research Proposal

The Proposal

A research proposal is the presentation of an idea that you wish to pursue. A good
research proposal presumes that you have already thought about your project and have
devoted some time and effort in gathering information, reading, and then organizing your
thoughts. A research proposal is NOT a project to be thrown together in one night
with ideas off the top of your head. Thus, one might say that the research proposal is a
second step, following the selection of a broad topic.

The actual proposal will indicate what analytical question you wish to address. The
foundation of a good research paper is a good research question. Just a tree needs a good
root system to grow to be strong, a good research paper needs a good analytical question.

What does "analytical" mean? An analytical question can take different forms and no one
form is necessarily better than others. What all analytical questions have in common is
the fact that they are not merely descriptive. That is, an analytical question moves beyond
the "what" and explores the "how," and the "why." A good analytical research paper will
use "the what" as part of the answer to "the why." But it is obligatory to address a
question beyond the "what." For example, a descriptive paper would ask: "What was
Gorbachev's economic perestroika policies?" An analytical paper would ask: "Why did
Gorbachev's economic perestroika policies fail?" As part of the paper, you would then
review what the policies were, but then you would go beyond that description.

The specific parts of the research proposal are as follows:

1. Statement of the question your paper will answer. Again, remember, the point of your
paper is to explain something.

2. Brief literature review in which you review the major works on your topic and indicate
what the arguments are.

If you are applying a theory to an issue, you can review the theory used

The point is to show an awareness of what has been written on your issue, what evidence
was used, what theories applied, and what arguments were made.

3. A statement as to what your argument/explanation will be.

4. A statement as to how your explanation/argument will differ from that which has been
made by other authors. How is your explanation original or different?

If you applying a theory, you can explain which theory you will use and why you think
that is the appropriate theory to explain the event(s) you are interested in.

5. A brief outline of the parts of the paper.

6. A short bibliography/statement as to the major sources you will use. This can include
databases, websties, interviews, etc.

7. The proposal need not be long, but the quality should be high. I would think that 3-4
pages would be sufficient. The more effort you put into your proposal the better your
paper will be. Also, the more detailed your proposal, the more I can comment and
usefully guide you to a good paper.

8. You should have a proposal prepared and submitted to me No Later than one month
after class begins. Start early; the earlier the better.

9. A proposal which does not follow directions is liable to be returned to you for you to
re-do.

General Information on the Paper

The foundation of a good research paper is a good research question. Assuming you have
your question well-defined, the comments below are intended to help you. If you don't
have a question, it is imperative that you define one before beginning your research. The
paper is to be analytical, not descriptive. So you MUST have a question around which
the paper will be organized. Papers that do not address a research question are subject to
being returned ungraded for you to re-do.

Your research paper is intended to be a semester-long project and will be graded as such;
hence the early deadline for the outline. In other words, the amount of effort expended is
a relevant consideration when evaluating the quality of the paper. Papers that are clearly
"rush jobs" or that had been researched and written during the final weeks of the semester
will be penalized accordingly.

Below are some general guidelines and instructions that may be of help; for questions
relating to your specific paper feel free to consult with me.

1. Writing a research paper is a multi-step process. The biggest mistake people make is
not allowing enough time. The process consists of at least four distinct phases: research
(gathering materials), reading the materials, synthesis of the materials, and writing the
paper. You should start early: most people underestimate how long the first three steps
take. These three steps also directly influence the quality of the paper: they are its
foundation. Without a strong foundation the paper cannot be strong.

2. In terms of the number of citations I expect, you should shoot for around 10-15
different sources, in some combination of books and academic journals. (Weekly
magazines like Time, Newsweek, etc. are not considered academic journals. My
experience is that it is necessary to look at 2-3 sources for every one that is actually used,
so in the course of researching your question you will look at about 30-45 separate items.
Required readings for the class do NOT "count" towards your total; HOWEVER,
non-assigned readings from a required text may be used. The point is to get you to
expand your exposure by using outside sources.

3. There should be four distinct parts of the paper. The first part, the introduction, should
spell out clearly for the reader what the paper is about and what you will do. In this part
you should indicate the question you are exploring, the importance of the topic, what the
parts of the paper will be, and a summary of your hypothesis or findings. This then will
serve as the organization for your paper and you should structure the paper
accordingly.

The second part of your paper is the literature review in which you review the major
works on your topic and indicate what the arguments are. You will want to write this part
so that your paper will add to the literature; that is, to be different and original in some
way.

The third part (broadly speaking) is the body, or research you have conducted. And the
fourth part is the conclusion, summarizing what you have found and what your answer is
to the question you have posed. For organizational purposes, in the body of the paper I
like to use sections to divide the paper. I have placed on my website an example of a
paper I wrote which uses sections to divide the paper. YOU ARE TO CONSULT
THIS ARTICLE AND TO USE SECTIONS TO ORGANIZE YOUR PAPER.

4. You have three options for notes to the paper: notes in the text, notes at the bottom of
the page, and notes at the end of the paper. I don't care which option you choose (option
one is the easiest and most convenient) but in any case the format must be correct.
Failure to render notes in correct format will lower the paper grade by one-half
grade. If you have questions as to correct note format, consult Kate Turabian, A Manual
for Writers, which is widely available at new and used bookstores. IF YOU DECIDE TO
PUT SOURCES IN THE TEXT, THEN IT SHOULD LOOK LIKE THIS: (SMITH,
1992, 36). NOTE: THE PERIOD GOES AT THE END OF THE SOURCE, NOT THE
END OF THE SENTENCE. BE SURE TO INCLUDE THE YEAR THE SOURCE WAS
PUBLISHED AS WELL.

5. The paper is to have a title page, indicating the title of the paper, the course, and your
name. I also want you to attach your original proposal to the final paper.

6. The paper is to have a bibliography, rendered in correct format. Failure to either

include a bibliography or, formatting the bibliographical entries incorrectly, will result in
a penalty of one-half grade.

7. The paper is to be typed, double-spaced using normal margins, spell-checked, and

grammatically correct. YOU SHOULD STAPLE THE PAGES TOGETHER UNLESS
YOU WANT ME TO LOSE PART OF YOUR PAPER.

8. NUMBER YOUR PAGES, BEGINNING WITH PAGE TWO, WHICH FOLLOWS

THE TITLE PAGE. IN OTHER WORDS,THE FIRST PAGE IS THE TITLE PAGE
WHICH IS NOT NUMBERED, AND THEN FIRST PAGE OF TEXT WILL BE PAGE
TWO.

9. The paper should use normal font size (12 point) and use regular print (no bold print.

10. For questions about any of the above, or specific questions about your paper, feel free
to consult with me during my office hours.

Where People Lose Points

A number of common errors result in the loss of points. Thus, you should pay attention to
these pointers to avoid that happening to you.

1. A badly written paper will mask even good research. Leave time to do at least two
drafts. DO NOT TURN IN A FIRST DRAFT.
2. A paper that does not follow directions, that is, one that is purely descriptive instead of
analytical, does not fulfill the assignment. Therefore, FOLLOW THE DIRECTIONS
THAT HAVE BEEN GIVEN TO YOU, AND IF YOU DON'T UNDERSTAND, THEN
ASK.

3. A paper that does not use the correct format for note and bibliography loses points.
Again, I don't care what system you use, but do it correctly. There are numerous guides to
consult, and you can always ask me. I consider the failure to render the correct format as
laziness, for which there is no excuse.

Elements of a research proposal and report

2005 © David S. Walonick, Ph.D.

A chapter from Survival Statistics - an applied statistics book for graduate students.

All research reports use roughly the same format. It doesn't matter whether you've done a
customer satisfaction survey, an employee opinion survey, a health care survey, or a
marketing research survey. All have the same basic structure and format. The rationale is
that readers of research reports (i.e., decision makers, funders, etc.) will know exactly
where to find the information they are looking for, regardless of the individual report.

Once you've learned the basic rules for research proposal and report writing, you can
apply them to any research discipline. The same rules apply to writing a proposal, a
thesis, a dissertation, or any business research report.

The Research Proposal and Report

• General
• Style, layout, and page formatting
• Outline of the chapters and sections
• Chapter I - Introduction
• Chapter II - Background
• Chapter III - Methodology
 • Chapter IV - Results
• Chapter V - Conclusions and Recommendations

General considerations

Research papers usually have five chapters with well-established sections in each chapter.
Readers of the paper will be looking for these chapters and sections so you should not
deviate from the standard format unless you are specifically requested to do so by the
research sponsor.

Most research studies begin with a written proposal. Again, nearly all proposals follow
the same format. In fact, the proposal is identical to the first three chapters of the final
paper except that it's writtten in future tense. In the proposal, you might say something
like "the researchers will secure the sample from ...", while in the final paper, it would be
changed to "the researchers secured the sample from ...". Once again, with the exception
of tense, the proposal becomes the first three chapters of the final research paper.

The most commonly used style for writing research reports is called "APA" and the rules
are described in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. Any
library or bookstore will have it readily available. The style guide contains hundreds of
rules for grammar, layout, and syntax. This paper will cover the most important ones.

Avoid the use of first person pronouns. Refer to yourself or the research team in third
person. Instead of saying "I will ..." or "We will ...", say something like "The researcher
will ..." or "The research team will ...".

A suggestion: Never present a draft (rough) copy of your proposal, thesis, dissertation, or
research paper...even if asked. A paper that looks like a draft, will interpreted as such,
and you can expect extensive and liberal modifications. Take the time to put your paper
in perfect APA format before showing it to anyone else. The payoff will be great since it
will then be perceived as a final paper, and there will be far fewer changes.

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Style, layout, and page formatting

Title page

All text on the title page is centered vertically and horizontally. The title page has no
page number and it is not counted in any page numbering.

Page layout
Left margin: 1½"
Right margin: 1"
Top margin: 1"
Bottom margin: 1"

Page numbering

Pages are numbered at the top right. There should be 1" of white space from the top of
the page number to the top of the paper. Numeric page numbering begins with the first
page of Chapter 1 (although a page number is not placed on page 1).

Spacing and justification

All pages are single sided. Text is double-spaced, except for long quotations and the
bibliography (which are single-spaced). There is one blank line between a section
heading and the text that follows it. Do not right-justify text. Use ragged-right.

Font face and size

Any easily readable font is acceptable. The font should be 10 points or larger. Generally,
the same font must be used throughout the manuscript, except 1) tables and graphs may
use a different font, and 2) chapter titles and section headings may use a different font.

References

APA format should be used to cite references within the paper. If you name the author in
your sentence, then follow the authors name with the year in parentheses. For example:

Jones (2004) found that...

If you do not include the authors name as part of the text, then both the author's name and
year are enclosed in parentheses. For example:

One researcher (Jones, 2004) found that...

A complete bibliography is attached at the end of the paper. It is double spaced except
single-spacing is used for a multiple-line reference. The first line of each reference is
indented.

Examples:

Bradburn, N. M., & Mason, W. M. (1964). The effect of question order on response.
Journal of Marketing Research 1 (4), 57-61.
 Bradburn, N. M., & Miles, C. (1979). Vague quantifiers. Public Opinion Quarterly 43
(1), 92-101.

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Outline of chapters and sections

TITLE PAGE

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER I - Introduction
Introductory paragraphs
Statement of the problem
Purpose
Significance of the study
Research questions and/or hypotheses

CHAPTER II - Background
Literature review
Definition of terms

CHAPTER III - Methodology

Restate purpose and research questions or null hypotheses
Population and sampling
Instrumentation (include copy in appendix)
Procedure and time frame
Analysis plan (state critical alpha level and type of statistical tests)
Validity and reliability
Assumptions
Scope and limitations

CHAPTER IV - Results

CHAPTER V - Conclusions and recommendations

Summary (of what you did and found)
Discussion (explanation of findings - why do you think you found what you did?)
Recommendations (based on your findings)

REFERENCES

APPENDIX

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 Chapter I - Introduction

Introductory paragraphs

Chapter I begins with a few short introductory paragraphs (a couple of pages at most).
The primary goal of the introductory paragraphs is to catch the attention of the readers
and to get them "turned on" about the subject. It sets the stage for the paper and puts your
topic in perspective. The introduction often contains dramatic and general statements
about the need for the study. It uses dramatic illustrations or quotes to set the tone. When
writing the introduction, put yourself in your reader's position - would you continue
reading?

Statement of the Problem

The statement of the problem is the focal point of your research. It is just one sentence
(with several paragraphs of elaboration).

You are looking for something wrong.

....or something that needs close attention
....or existing methods that no longer seem to be working.

Example of a problem statement:

"The frequency of job layoffs is creating fear, anxiety, and a loss of productivity in
middle management workers."

While the problem statement itself is just one sentence, it is always accompanied by
several paragraphs that elaborate on the problem. Present persuasive arguments why the
problem is important enough to study. Include the opinions of others (politicians,
futurists, other professionals). Explain how the problem relates to business, social or
political trends by presenting data that demonstrates the scope and depth of the problem.
Try to give dramatic and concrete illustrations of the problem. After writing this section,
make sure you can easily identify the single sentence that is the problem statement.

Purpose

The purpose is a single statement or paragraph that explains what the study intends to
accomplish. A few typical statements are:

The goal of this study is to...

... overcome the difficulty with ...
... discover what ...
 ... understand the causes or effects of ...
... refine our current understanding of ...
... provide a new interpretation of ...
... understand what makes ___ successful or unsuccessful

Significance of the Study

This section creates a perspective for looking at the problem. It points out how your study
relates to the larger issues and uses a persuasive rationale to justify the reason for your
study. It makes the purpose worth pursuing. The significance of the study answers the
questions:

Why is your study important?

To whom is it important?
What benefit(s) will occur if your study is done?

Research Questions and/or Hypotheses and/or Null

Hypotheses

Chapter I lists the research questions (although it is equally acceptable to present the
hypotheses or null hypotheses). No elaboration is included in this section. An example
would be:

The research questions for this study will be:

1. What are the attitudes of...

2. Is there a significant difference between...
3. Is there a significant relationship between...

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Chapter II - Background

Chapter II is a review of the literature. It is important because it shows what previous

researchers have discovered. It is usually quite long and primarily depends upon how
much research has previously been done in the area you are planning to investigate. If
you are planning to explore a relatively new area, the literature review should cite similar
areas of study or studies that lead up to the current research. Never say that your area is
so new that no research exists. It is one of the key elements that proposal readers look at
when deciding whether or not to approve a proposal.

Chapter II should also contain a definition of terms section when appropriate. Include it if
your paper uses special terms that are unique to your field of inquiry or that might not be
understood by the general reader. "Operational definitions" (definitions that you have
formulated for the study) should also be included. An example of an operational
definition is: "For the purpose of this research, improvement is operationally defined as
posttest score minus pretest score".

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Chapter III - Methodology

The methodology section describes your basic research plan. It usually begins with a few
short introductory paragraphs that restate purpose and research questions. The
phraseology should be identical to that used in Chapter I. Keep the wording of your
research questions consistent throughout the document.

Population and sampling

The basic research paradigm is:

1) Define the population
2) Draw a representative sample from the population
3) Do the research on the sample
4) Infer your results from the sample back to the population

As you can see, it all begins with a precise definition of the population. The whole idea of
inferential research (using a sample to represent the entire population) depends upon an
accurate description of the population. When you've finished your research and you make
statements based on the results, who will they apply to? Usually, just one sentence is
necessary to define the population. Examples are: "The population for this study is
defined as all adult customers who make a purchase in our stores during the sampling
time frame", or "...all home owners in the city of Minneapolis", or "...all potential
consumers of our product".

While the population can usually be defined by a single statement, the sampling
procedure needs to be described in extensive detail. There are numerous sampling
methods from which to choose. Describe in minute detail, how you will select the
sample. Use specific names, places, times, etc. Don't omit any details. This is extremely
important because the reader of the paper must decide if your sample will sufficiently
represent the population.

Instrumentation
If you are using a survey that was designed by someone else, state the source of the
survey. Describe the theoretical constructs that the survey is attempting to measure.
Include a copy of the actual survey in the appendix and state that a copy of the survey is
in the appendix.

Procedure and time frame

State exactly when the research will begin and when it will end. Describe any special
procedures that will be followed (e.g., instructions that will be read to participants,
presentation of an informed consent form, etc.).

Analysis plan

The analysis plan should be described in detail. Each research question will usually
require its own analysis. Thus, the research questions should be addressed one at a time
followed by a description of the type of statistical tests that will be performed to answer
that research question. Be specific. State what variables will be included in the analyses
and identify the dependent and independent variables if such a relationship exists.
Decision making criteria (e.g., the critical alpha level) should also be stated, as well as
the computer software that will be used.

Validity and reliability

If the survey you're using was designed by someone else, then describe the previous
validity and reliability assessments. When using an existing instrument, you'll want to
perform the same reliability measurement as the author of the instrument. If you've
developed your own survey, then you must describe the steps you took to assess its
validity and a description of how you will measure its reliability.

Validity refers to the accuracy or truthfulness of a measurement. Are we measuring what

we think we are? There are no statistical tests to measure validity. All assessments of
validity are subjective opinions based on the judgment of the researcher. Nevertheless,
there are at least three types of validity that should be addressed and you should state
what steps you took to assess validity.

Face validity refers to the likelihood that a question will be misunderstood or

misinterpreted. Pretesting a survey is a good way to increase the likelihood of face
validity. One method of establishing face validity is described here. How to make sure
your survey is valid.

Content validity refers to whether an instrument provides adequate coverage of a topic.

Expert opinions, literature searches, and pretest open-ended questions help to establish
content validity.
Construct validity refers to the theoretical foundations underlying a particular scale or
measurement. It looks at the underlying theories or constructs that explain a phenomena.
In other words, if you are using several survey items to measure a more global construct
(e.g., a subscale of a survey), then you should describe why you believe the items
comprise a construct. If a construct has been identified by previous researchers, then
describe the criteria they used to validate the construct. A technique known as
confirmatory factor analysis is often used to explore how individual survey items
contribute to an overall construct measurement.

Reliability is synonymous with repeatability or stability. A measurement that yields

consistent results over time is said to be reliable. When a measurement is prone to
random error, it lacks reliability.

There are three basic methods to test reliability : test-retest, equivalent form, and internal
consistency. Most research uses some form of internal consistency. When there is a scale
of items all attempting to measure the same construct, then we would expect a large
degree of coherence in the way people answer those items. Various statistical tests can
measure the degree of coherence. Another way to test reliability is to ask the same
question with slightly different wording in different parts of the survey. The correlation
between the items is a measure of their reliability. See: How to test the reliability of a
survey.

Assumptions

All research studies make assumptions. The most obvious is that the sample represents
the population. Another common assumptions are that an instrument has validity and is
measuring the desired constructs. Still another is that respondents will answer a survey
truthfully. The important point is for the researcher to state specifically what assumptions
are being made.

Scope and limitations

All research studies also have limitations and a finite scope. Limitations are often
imposed by time and budget constraints. Precisely list the limitations of the study.
Describe the extent to which you believe the limitations degrade the quality of the
research.

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Chapter IV - Results

Description of the sample

Nearly all research collects various demographic information. It is important to report the
descriptive statistics of the sample because it lets the reader decide if the sample is truly
representative of the population.

Analyses

The analyses section is cut and dry. It precisely follows the analysis plan laid out in
Chapter III. Each research question addressed individually. For each research question:

1) Restate the research question using the exact wording as in Chapter I

2) If the research question is testable, state the null hypothesis
3) State the type of statistical test(s) performed
4) Report the statistics and conclusions, followed by any appropriate table(s)

Numbers and tables are not self-evident. If you use tables or graphs, refer to them in the
text and explain what they say. An example is: "Table 4 shows a strong negative
relationship between delivery time and customer satisfaction (r=-.72, p=.03)". All tables
and figures have a number and a descriptive heading. For example:

Table 4
The relationship between delivery time and customer satisfaction.

Avoid the use of trivial tables or graphs. If a graph or table does not add new information
(i.e., information not explained in the text), then don't include it.

Simply present the results. Do not attempt to explain the results in this chapter.

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Chapter V - Conclusions and recommendations

Begin the final chapter with a few paragraphs summarizing what you did and found (i.e.,
the conclusions from Chapter IV).

Discussion

Discuss the findings. Do your findings support existing theories? Explain why you think
you found what you did. Present plausible reasons why the results might have turned out
the way they did.

Recommendations
Present recommendations based on your findings. Avoid the temptation to present
recommendations based on your own beliefs or biases that are not specifically supported
by your data. Recommendations fall into two categories. The first is recommendations to
the study sponsor. What actions do you recommend they take based upon the data. The
second is recommendations to other researchers. There are almost always ways that a
study could be improved or refined. What would you change if you were to do your study
over again? These are the recommendations to other researchers.

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References

List references in APA format alphabetically by author's last name

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Appendix

Include a copy of any actual instruments. If used, include a copy of the informed consent
form.