HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING

Chapter 1 Breakdown in Gaseous Dielectrics

Chapter 2 Breakdown in Liquid Dielectrics

1
 DEFINITION
• What is High Voltage?

• • *IEC 60038 (2002) – A high

• voltage is voltage being greater than 1000 V for
alternating (AC) and greater than 1200 V for direct
(DC)
• LV, MV, HV, EHV, UHV

• * IEC – International Electrotechnical Commission

 HV Applications

Electrosta/c
precipators –
maintaining
clean
environment
 HV Applications

High Voltage
ozone generator –
odor treatment,
water treatment
 HV Applications

X---Rays
tubes

X---Ray tubes are used for various applica(ons in Science (i.e. Analysis of Materials),
Industry (i.e. thickness measurement) and Medicine (i.e. Diagnos(cs). High voltage
power supplies with different specifica(ons according to the applica(on are needed for
the genera(on of X---Rays.
 HV Applications

Photomul/-
-- plier
Tube (PMT)
Detec(on of weak doses of light in various different applica(ons such as
Par(cle Detectors, medical technologies, op(cal spectroscopy, electron
microscopy
 HV Applications

Plasma
crea/on
For genera(on and maintenance of electron plasma for usage in Science and Industry
High Voltage Power Supplies with high output power are oZen used. Usually for Igni(on
high voltages and for maintenance high current is necessary.
VOLTAGE CLASSIFICATION - IN GENERAL
Voltage class Voltage range

Low voltage (LV) Medium V ≤ 1 kV

1 kV < V ≤ 70 kV
high voltage (MHV)
110 kV ≤ V ≤ 230 kV
High voltage (HV) Extra
275 kV ≤ V ≤ 800 kV

high voltage (EHV) Ultra high 1000 kV ≤ V

voltage (UHV)
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF AC AND DC
TRANSMISSION

New York City streets in 1890. Besides

telegraph lines, mul>ple electric lines
were required for each class of device
requiring different voltages – Source:
Wikipedia
VOLTAGE SYSTEMS ACCORDING TO
IEC60038 (2002)

1
Remarks
The nominal voltage of exis(ng
220/380V and 240/415V systems
shall evolve towards the
recommended value of 230/400 V.

For countries having 220/380 V

should bring the voltage within
the range 230/400 V , + 6% and
---10%.

For countries having 240/415V

systems should bring the voltage
within the range 230/400 +10%,
---6%.
 Electrical Power Systems in Malaysia
Generation

Power Plant
275 kV Transmission Extra-High-Voltage
Substation (275/132
kV)
Commercial/ 132 kV
Industrial Transmission Transmission
Customer
System

Distribution Substation
Urban (33/11 kV) 33 kV Sub-transmission
Customers Distribution
System
(11kV)
High-Voltage
Distribution Line Substation
Overhead
Distribution (132/33 kV)
Underground Cable Transformer

To Other
415V
High-Voltag
Residential 230V Residential
Underground e Substations
Customer Customer
Distribution Transfomer
Electrical Power Systems in Malaysia
HVDC Vs. HVAC

Reduce losses – transfer more

energy compared to HVAC

Bulk and long power transfer

Environmental friendly – less CO2

emission due to lower losses

Reduce Right---of---Way – Reduce

size and visual impact

Lower investment cost --- over a

certain distance (break---even
distance approx. 600 – 800 km),
the HVDC alterna(ve will always
provide the lowest cost.
 Electrical Power Systems in Malaysia

Power plant : Generator, turbine and

reactor

Transmission : TL tower, conductors/

cables, insulators

Substa(ons: Transformer, CB,

disconnected switch, CT/VT, surge
arrester, component insulators
Electrical Power Systems in
Malaysia
Typical substa/on
Electrical Power Systems in Malaysia
Switchgears
➢➢ Fuses, relays, CT and circuit breakers are the
main part of switchgear.
➢➢ Protect and isolate electrical equipment
Vacuum circuit Air circuit
breaker, inside breaker
the switchgear

SF6 circuit
breaker
Oil circuit
breaker in
HV distribu(on
fuses circuit
SEE 4463 High Voltage Technology

Power transformer
Instrument Transformers (Current/Poten/al transformer)

Bus bar

Bus bar Current CT

Circuit
Disconnect
Disconnect breaker
Current CT
Disconnect Circuit Disconnect
breaker
 Electrical Power Systems in
Malaysia

Instrument Transformers (Current/Poten/al transformer)

Lightning
Arrester
Electrical Power Systems in Malaysia

Protect the insula/on and conductors of the system

from the damaging effects of lightning
Electrical Power Systems in Malaysia
[1] electrical conductor
[9] varistor arrangement
[4,6] two electrical connections . [6] is
connected to high voltage and the other
[4] is connected to ground,
[5] a bushing insulator
[11] clamping apparatus - applies a
contact force to the electrical
connections .
The clamping apparatus has an
insulating part which applies the contact
force to the two electrical connections.
The bushing insulator is in the form of a
molding and has a supporting element,
provided with a guide surface, for a
contact [1a] (which is connected to the
electrical conductor [1]) in a plug
 Breakdown Theory

Contents
• Breakdown in gas
• Breakdown in liquid

25
 Introduc(on
Dielectric strength of insulating material depends on
the dielectric stress developed subjected to high
voltages.

Electric stress = Field intensity E = -∇ϕ

Dielectric strength : maximum stress which the

material can withstand

26
 Introduc(on
Dielectric breakdown strength depends on :

Pressure Temperatur Surface

e condition
Nature
Materials of
of applied
electrode voltage

Imperfections
Humidity in dielectric
material

27
Breakdown in Gas

28
Breakdown in Gas

29
 The process of converting an
atom or molecule into an ion*
by adding or removing charged
particles such as electrons.
*(total number electron is not equal to proton)

30
31
 Electrode
surface
Pressure Heat
condition

Electrode Presence of
configuration particles in
initial flow

32
 Breakdown in Gas
Maximum voltage during breakdown is
known as breakdown voltage

When the voltage is low, a small current

flows between electrodes and insulation
criteria do not change

When the voltage is high, a large current

flows causing sparks between electrodes

33
 Breakdown in Gas
Electric discharge in gas consists of;

•Non-sustaining discharge
•Self-sustaining discharge

Breakdown in air is the change of non-sustaining discharge

to self-sustaining discharge

2 theories of gas breakdown;

•Townsend Theory
•Streamer Theory

34
Cell with gas pressure of
few Torr

35
 αd
I = I0
e
Io – initial current at cathode
α --- 1st Townsend ionization
coefficient
d – gap distance

36
 At , V increase, I increase. How?
-Some of the electrons emitted by cathode
diffuse back into it and some lost to the wall.

At , V increase, I saturate. How?

-All electrons emitted by cathode are
collected by anode

37
At , V increase, I
increase exponentially.
How?
- Additional
productions of
electron by the
collision of positive
ions with the cathode

38
 • If n0 is the Primary
numberionization stageemitted
of electrons
by cathode per second , then number of
electrons reaching anode per second is
given by :
n = n e0 • αd
[1]

α de the
Consequently, current insid
is
tube d
I =Ie
0
[2]
I = n e I;0 =d ;I =
Remarks : d= gap length; α= Towsend’s first ionization coefficient; 0
d
current generated by the u.v at the cathode. Note when I0 = 0; Id = 0 -------- not
n e self sustained.
0
39
From [2];
Id
I 0 = e αd
I
Plot of ln as a
dI
0

function of d will
give the value of α

40
 Secondary ionization stage

Townsed observed that with increasing voltage, current in

discharge tube will increase faster than predicted in eq.
[2] .

As the voltage increase, positive ions gain more energy.

With excess energy, positive ions will start liberating
electrons from electrode. That䇻s why current increase
faster than predicted in eq [2].
41
Given n+ = number of electrons released from cathode (per second)
due to positive ion bombardment.

Then from eq.[1] the number of electrons reaching anode (per

second) , n is
αd
n = (no ++n
[3]
)e
After a while, number of electrons released by the positive ion is given
by n = n− n −n
+
{ ( 0 +

)}γ
[4]

43
γ = Townsend secondary
Substituting [4] into [3];
αd
0
n e
n= αd
1− γ e ( [5]

−1)
Since number of electron, n reflects current, I, hence

0
[6] I= αd
I e αd
1− γ (e
−1)

43
Eq. [6] shows that the discharge is non-self sustain. It will go to zero
when UV source to the cathode is removed, that is I0 = 0.

As the voltage continue to increase, the discharge will continue to burn

between electrodes even when UV radiation is removed (I0 = 0).

This is known as non-self sustained discharge to self sustained

discharge transformation.

44
The stage of electrical breakdown in small gap
happened when I ∞ , i.e.

1− γ (eαd −1)= 0

Townsend’s breakdown
criteria

45
 Electron attachment removes free electrons and thus
gives gases very high dielectric strengths. The gases
in which electron attachment occurs are electro-
negative gases.

A gas which captures free electrons and forms negative

ions, so arresting the formation of electrical
discharges e.x SF6, CH3I, dry air, O2

46
 Breakdown criteria (considering electron
attachment)

In air : 26 kV/cm (~ 30 kV / cm)

In SF6 : 88.4 kV/cm

47
 Time lags of Spark breakdown

On the application of a voltage, a certain time

elapses before actual breakdown occurs even
though the applied voltage may be much more
than sufficient to cause breakdown.

48
 Statistical time lag, ts
The average time required for an electron to appear in the gap
in order that breakdown may be initiated. It depends upon:

• The amount of pre-ionization present in between the gap

• Size of the gap
• The amount of over voltage applied to the gap

Formative time lag, tf

The additional time lag required for the breakdown process to

form.
• increases with increase in gap length and field non-
uniformity,
• decreases with increase in over voltage applied.

49
•Arises due to the added effect of the space-
charge field of an avalanche and photo-electric
ionization in the gas volume.

•Predicts the development of a spark discharge

directly from a single avalanche

•As the electrons advance rapidly, the positive

ions are left behind in a relatively slow-moving
tail.

•The field will be enhanced in front of the head.

•Just behind the head the field between the

•electrons and the positive ions is in the opposite
direction to the applied field and hence the
resultant field strength is less

50
Electron
Avalanche
A – Photon triggers
avalanche

B – Posi(ve ions strikes

cathode and starts
avalanche

C – Electron avalanche

D – Avalanche (p reaches
anode

E – Photon from avalanche

produce fee electrons

F – Posi(ve charges close to

anode increase the electric
field 52
G – Plasma of posi(ve
ions and electrons
forms the streamer
channel

H – Streamer (p

I – Produc(on of free
electrons by photon

J – Streamer propaga(ng
close to cathode

53
 Depends on primary
Formative time avalanche reaching
lags of <= 50 ns a critical size

Local electric field high

enough to generate
䇺streamers䇻 which
propagate towards
electrode
Breakdown criterion;
Er = 4/3πrNε where N

– ion density

55
56
57
58
Given α = pf1(E/p) and γ = f2(E/p). Under uniform field
distribution, E = V/d. According to Townsend
criteria;
breakdown Breakdown voltage is
αd
γ (e – 1) = 1 an implicit function of
䇺pd䇻
f2(V/dp)(epdf1(V/dp)-1)
=1
So the break
down voltage can be
written
V= f(pd) ; p=as
pressure while d=gap distance

59
Under constant atm. condi(on, breakdown voltage for uniform
field is given as:
V = A.d + B√d
where A= 24.4kV/cm and B = 6.29kV/cm1/2

Since breakdown voltage can vary depending on the gap

distance, a correc(on factor has to be considered.
V= A(ρd) + B√(ρd)

Where ρ = gas density correction factor

60
 Consider fixed spacing, pressure
decrease from a point to the right of
the minimum
0.3kV
Density decreases and an
electron makes fewer collisions
10-2
bar.mm
schen Each collision results in a loss of energy, a
Pa lower electric stress suffices to impart to
䇻
s electrons the kinetic energy
minim um
air
in If the number of collisions is decreased,
breakdown can occur only if the chance of
ionising is increased, and this accounts for the
increase in voltage to the left of the
minimum

61
 Valid for
temperatures below At very low
about 11000C – above pressures, and at
that thermal very high pressures
ionization takes (compared with
place. atmospheric),
Paschen's Law fails

Typically the voltage

minimum is 300 V and
occurs at a product or
p.d of 5 torr mm, or at a
gap of about 0.06 mm
Breakdown in Liquid Dielectrics

Mineral oils
Synthetic Biodegradable/
(petroleum
based) ester natural ester

Standard used : IEC 60256 (oxidation, viscosity etc.) and IEC60156 (for
determining breakdown voltage in insulating oils)

Higher dielectric strength (in the order of 10 MV/cm) in comparison to

gas (30kV/cm)

More useful as insulating materials than solid or gases

63
Breakdown in Liquid Dielectrics
Petroleum oils, synthetic hydrocarbons and
halogenated hydrocarbons and for very high
temperature applications silicone oils and
fluorinated hydrocarbons

Used for filling transformers, circuit

breakers and as impregnates in high
voltage cables and capacitors

Circuit breaker Insulate Transformer

the live parts and the grounded Insulate the live parts of the transformer
parts, quench the arc developed and the grounded parts, carrying out the heat
between the breaker from the transformer to the atmosphere thus
contacts providing cooling effect

64
 Breakdown in Liquid Dielectrics
Good dielectric properties

• Carbon - free
Natural ester (Renewable
vegetable oils, ex. • Fire safety – higher
fire point
Envirotemp FR3)– New age
• Full
dielectric coolant to biodegradability
replace mineral oil
• Lesser aging rate
of cellulose
• Compatible to high
temperature,
allowing footprint
reduction
65
Fire point comparison of mineral
oil and ester liquid

66
 Important dielectric proper(es of
liquid insula(on
There has been great interest in using esters for transmission an
generation projects, but in order to use these liquids at higher
voltages their dielectric and thermal behaviour must be
understood.

Dissipation Breakdown Voltage

factor (BDV)

Permittivity Viscosity

DC resistivity Electrostatic
charging

67
 Breakdown Voltages (BDV)
• The ability to withstand electric stress – it is the voltage at which
breakdown occur between two electrodes
• Provides primary indication about the condition of insulating liquids
• Indicate the presence of contaminating agent such as water, dirt or
conducting articles

68
Breakdown in Transformer Oil

Discharge between Transformer oil put

anode and cathode into testing inside a
test cell / Oil test set

69
 Viscosity
Source : R. Kurniato, Z. Nawawi, M. Nagao, N. Hozumi. ‘Breakdown
Strength of Biodegradable Dielectric Liquid: The effect of
temperature and viscosity, IEEE Publica(on.

As the temperature is increased, the fat

contents in liquid would be decrease. The lower the viscosity, the beler the flow
velocity, thus improving convec(ve heat
The decrease of fat content in liquid would transfer
result in higher breakdown field strength and
lower viscosity.

70
Viscosity

71
 Viscosity

Adapted from D.M.Mehra et al.

2016
72
 Permittivity
Determines how much electrostatic
energy can be stored per unit of
volume when unit voltage is applied.

Should be as high as possible

Inversely proportional to the

frequency of supply

73
 Factors that affect dielectric
strength (1)
•Liquid dielectric must free from moisture, oxidation products and
contamination

•Factor that affect liquid dielectric strength is the presence of fine

water droplets suspended in oil

•The presence of 0.01% water in transformer oil reduces it’s

dielectric strength by 20% of the dry oil value, increase loss (tan δ)
and speed up ageing process.

PRECAUTION !!!!!
Whenever these oils are used for providing electrical
insulation, these should be free from moisture, products of oxidation and
other contaminants.

74
 Breakdown voltage vs.
moisture content
Water content in esters is higher than in mineral oil. However, water content in
paper aged inside the vegetable oil (ester) was much lower than that in paper
aged inside mineral oil.

This is because hygroscopicity

of esters is greater than the
hygroscopicity of mineral oil, -
due to the greater ability of the
ester group (COOR) in the
molecular chain structure of
esters to participate in hydrogen
bonding.

75
Factors that affect dielectric
strength (2)
Temperatur
e

✓✓Increased temperature causes an

increase in kinetic energy.

✓✓The higher kinetic energy causes

more motion in molecules which break
intermolecular bonds and escape from
solution.

76
Factors that affect dielectric
strength (3)
Pressure
❖❖If the pressure is increased, the gas
molecules are "forced" into the solution.

❖❖The number of gas molecules is

decreased.

❖❖The number of gas molecules

dissolved in solution has increased

77
 Breakdown in Liquid Dielectrics
How does it happened???
✓✓The electrostatic forces on the bubble cause it to get elongated in the
direction of the electric field.

✓✓When sufficient electric field is applied, and at a critical length the gas
inside the bubble (which has a lower breakdown strength) breaks down.

✓✓This discharge causes decomposition of the liquid molecules and leads

to total breakdown.

78
 Breakdown in Liquid Dielectrics
Due to liquid globules
Breakdown due to instability of the globule in the electric field. HOW???
The electrostatic forces cause the globule to elongate and take the shape of a
prolate spheroid. As the field is increased, the globule elongates so that the ratio
γ of the longer to the shorter diameter of the spheroid increases.
Electrodes

Liquid globules elongating as the

field increase. When it bridge the
electrodes, breakdown will occur.

Prolate spheroid

79
Breakdown in Liquid Dielectrics

When ε2 >> ε1 (generally when ε2/ε1 > 20), and the field
exceeds a critical value, no stable shape exists, and the
globule keeps on elongating eventually causing bridging
of the electrodes, and breakdown of the gap.

80
 Breakdown in Liquid Dielectrics
Due to solid particles
In commercial liquids, solid impurities cannot be
avoided and will be present as fibers or as dispersed
solid particles.

If permittivity of impurities ε2 is larger than permittivity

of liquid dielectric ε1 , then ……

A force would move the particle towards the regions of

stronger field and will line up in the direction of the field

A stable chain of particles would be produced,

which at a critical length may cause breakdown

81
 Breakdown in Liquid Dielectrics
Purification Process

1.Removal of dust – Small dust particles can become charged and cause local
stresses which can initiate breakdown. Filtration can remove dust particles
greater in size than 1µm. The strength of the liquid then increases and greater
stability is achieved.

2.Removal of dissolved gasses - to control the amount of oxygen and C02

through degassing and distillation

3.Removal of ionic impurities – Ionic impurities in the liquid (ex. water) leads to
abnormal conductivity and heating of the liquid. Water can be removed by
drying agents, vacuum drying, and by freezing out in low temperature
distillation.

82