Reservoir

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This article is about an artificial body of water or a natural lake. For other uses, see Reservoir
(disambiguation).

Kardzali Reservoir in Bulgaria is a reservoir in the Rhodope Mountains.

A reservoir (from French réservoir – a "tank") is, most commonly, an enlarged natural or artificial
lake, pond or impoundment created using a dam or lock to store water.
Reservoirs can be created in a number of ways, including controlling a watercourse that drains
an existing body of water, interrupting a watercourse to form an embayment within it, through
excavation, or building any number of retaining walls or levees.
Defined as a storage space for fluids, reservoirs may hold water or gasses,
including hydrocarbons. Tank reservoirs store these in ground-level, elevated, or buried tanks.
Tank reservoirs for water are also called cisterns. Most underground reservoirs are used to store
liquids, principally either water or petroleum, below ground.

Contents

 1Types
o 1.1Dammed valleys
o 1.2Coastal
o 1.3Bank-side
o 1.4Service
 2History
 3Uses
o 3.1Direct water supply
o 3.2Hydroelectricity
o 3.3Controlling watersources
o 3.4Flow balancing
o 3.5Recreation
 4Operation
o 4.1Terminology
o 4.2Modelling reservoir management
 5Safety
 6Environmental impact
o 6.1Whole life environmental impact
o 6.2Climate change
 6.2.1Reservoir greenhouse gas emissions
 6.2.2Hydroelectricity and climate change
o 6.3Biology
o 6.4Human impact
o 6.5Limnology
 o 6.6Seismicity
o 6.7Microclimate
 7List of reservoirs
o 7.1List of reservoirs by area
o 7.2List of reservoirs by volume
 8See also
 9References
 10External links

Types[edit]
Dammed valleys[edit]

Lake Vyrnwy Reservoir. The dam spans the Vyrnwy Valley and was the first large
stone dam built in the United Kingdom.

The East Branch Reservoir, part of the New York City water supply system, is
formed by impounding the eastern tributary of the Croton River.
A dam constructed in a valley relies on the natural topography to provide most of the basin of the
reservoir. Dams are typically located at a narrow part of a valley downstream of a natural basin.
The valley sides act as natural walls, with the dam located at the narrowest practical point to
provide strength and the lowest cost of construction. In many reservoir construction projects,
people have to be moved and re-housed, historical artifacts moved or rare environments
relocated. Examples include the temples of Abu Simbel[1] (which were moved before the
construction of the Aswan Dam to create Lake Nasser from the Nile in Egypt), the relocation of
the village of Capel Celyn during the construction of Llyn Celyn,[2] and the relocation of Borgo
San Pietro of Petrella Salto during the construction of Lake Salto.
Construction of a reservoir in a valley will usually need the river to be diverted during part of the
build, often through a temporary tunnel or by-pass channel.[3]
In hilly regions, reservoirs are often constructed by enlarging existing lakes. Sometimes in such
reservoirs, the new top water level exceeds the watershed height on one or more of the feeder
streams such as at Llyn Clywedog in Mid Wales.[4] In such cases additional side dams are
required to contain the reservoir.
Where the topography is poorly suited to a single large reservoir, a number of smaller reservoirs
may be constructed in a chain, as in the River Taff valley where the Llwyn-
on, Cantref and Beacons Reservoirs form a chain up the valley.[5]
Coastal[edit]
Main article: Coastal reservoir
Coastal reservoirs are fresh water storage reservoirs located on the sea coast near the river
mouth to store the flood water of a river.[6] As the land based reservoir construction is fraught
with substantial land submergence, coastal reservoir is preferred economically and technically
since it does not use scarce land area.[7] Many coastal reservoirs were constructed in Asia and
Europe. Saemanguem in South Korea, Marina Barrage in Singapore, Qingcaosha in China,
and Plover Cove in Hong Kong, etc are few existing coastal reservoirs.[8]

Aerial view of Plover Cove coastal reservoir.

Bank-side[edit]
Where water is pumped or siphoned from a river of variable quality or size, bank-side reservoirs
may be built to store the water. Such reservoirs are usually formed partly by excavation and
partly by building a complete encircling bund or embankment, which may exceed 6 km (4 miles)
in circumference.[9] Both the floor of the reservoir and the bund must have an impermeable lining
or core: initially these were often made of puddled clay, but this has generally been superseded
by the modern use of rolled clay. The water stored in such reservoirs may stay there for several
months, during which time normal biological processes may substantially reduce many
contaminants and almost eliminate any turbidity. The use of bank-side reservoirs also allows
water abstraction to be stopped for some time, when the river is unacceptably polluted or when
flow conditions are very low due to drought. The London water supply system is one example of
the use of bank-side storage: the water is taken from the River Thames and River Lee; several
large Thames-side reservoirs such as Queen Mary Reservoir can be seen along the approach
to London Heathrow Airport.[9]
Service[edit]
Service reservoirs[10] store fully treated potable water close to the point of distribution. Many
service reservoirs are constructed as water towers, often as elevated structures on concrete
pillars where the landscape is relatively flat. Other service reservoirs can be almost entirely
underground, especially in more hilly or mountainous country. In the United Kingdom, Thames
Water has many underground reservoirs, sometimes also called cisterns, built in the 1800s, most
of which are lined with brick. A good example is the Honor Oak Reservoir in London, constructed
between 1901 and 1909. When it was completed it was said to be the largest brick built
underground reservoir in the world[11] and it is still one of the largest in Europe.[12] This reservoir
now forms part of the southern extension of the Thames Water Ring Main. The top of the
reservoir has been grassed over and is now used by the Aquarius Golf Club.[13]
Service reservoirs perform several functions, including ensuring sufficient head of water in
the water distribution system and providing water capacity to even out peak demand from
consumers, enabling the treatment plant to run at optimum efficiency. Large service reservoirs
can also be managed to reduce the cost of pumping, by refilling the reservoir at times of day
when energy costs are low.

History[edit]
Circa 3000 BC, the craters of extinct volcanoes in Arabia were used as reservoirs by farmers for
their irrigation water.[14]
Dry climate and water scarcity in India led to early development of stepwells and water resource
management techniques, including the building of a reservoir at Girnarin 3000 BC.[15] Artificial
lakes dating to the 5th century BC have been found in ancient Greece.[16] The artificial Bhojsagar
lake in present-day Madhya Pradesh state of India, constructed in the 11th century, covered 650
square kilometres (250 sq mi).[15]
In Sri Lanka large reservoirs were created by ancient Sinhalese kings in order to save the water
for irrigation. The famous Sri Lankan king Parākramabāhu I of Sri Lanka said "Do not let a drop
of water seep into the ocean without benefiting mankind". He created the reservoir
named Parakrama Samudra (sea of King Parakrama).[17] Vast artificial reservoirs were also built
by various ancient kingdoms in Bengal, Assam and Cambodia.

Uses[edit]
Direct water supply[edit]

Gibson Reservoir, Montana

Many dammed river reservoirs and most bank-side reservoirs are used to provide the raw
water feed to a water treatment plant which delivers drinking water through water mains. The
reservoir does not merely hold water until it is needed: it can also be the first part of the water
treatment process. The time the water is held before it is released is known as the retention time.
This is a design feature that allows particles and silts to settle out, as well as time for natural
biological treatment using algae, bacteria and zooplankton that naturally live in the water.
However natural limnological processes in temperate climate lakes produce
temperature stratification in the water, which tends to partition some elements such
as manganese and phosphorusinto deep, cold anoxic water during the summer months. In the
autumn and winter the lake becomes fully mixed again. During drought conditions, it is
sometimes necessary to draw down the cold bottom water, and the elevated levels of
manganese in particular can cause problems in water treatment plants.
Hydroelectricity[edit]

Hydroelectric dam in cross section.

In 2005 about 25% of the world's 33,105 large dams (over 15  metres in height) were used for
hydroelectricity.[18] However of 80,000 dams of all sizes in the U.S., only 3% produce
electricity.[19] A reservoir generating hydroelectricity includes turbinesconnected to the retained
water body by large-diameter pipes. These generating sets may be at the base of the dam or
some distance away. In a flat river valley a reservoir needs to be deep enough to create
a head of water at the turbines; and if there are periods of drought the reservoir needs to hold
enough water to average out the river's flow throughout the year(s). Run-of-the-river hydro in a
steep valley with constant flow needs no reservoir.
Some reservoirs generating hydroelectricity use pumped recharge: a high-level reservoir is filled
with water using high-performance electric pumps at times when electricity demand is low, and
then uses this stored water to generate electricity by releasing the stored water into a low-level
reservoir when electricity demand is high. Such systems are called pump-storageschemes.[20]
Controlling watersources[edit]

Bankstown Reservoir in Sydney.

Recreational-only Kupferbach reservoir near Aachen/Germany.

Reservoirs can be used in a number of ways to control how water flows through downstream
waterways:
Downstream water supply – water may be released from an upland reservoir so that it
can be abstracted for drinking water lower down the system, sometimes hundred of miles
further downstream.
Irrigation – water in an irrigation reservoir may be released into networks of canals for
use in farmlands or secondary water systems. Irrigation may also be supported by
reservoirs which maintain river flows, allowing water to be abstracted for irrigation lower
down the river.[21]
Flood control – also known as an "attenuation" or "balancing" reservoirs, flood control
reservoirs collect water at times of very high rainfall, then release it slowly during the
following weeks or months. Some of these reservoirs are constructed across the river
line, with the onward flow controlled by an orifice plate. When river flow exceeds the
capacity of the orifice plate, water builds up behind the dam; but as soon as the flow rate
reduces, the water behind the dam is slowly released until the reservoir is empty again.
In some cases, such reservoirs only function a few times in a decade, and the land
behind the reservoir may be developed as community or recreational land. A new
generation of balancing dams are being developed to combat the possible consequences
of climate change. They are called "Flood Detention Reservoirs". Because these
reservoirs will remain dry for long periods, there may be a risk of the clay core drying out,
reducing its structural stability. Recent developments include the use of composite core
fill made from recycled materials as an alternative to clay.
Canals – Where a natural watercourse's water is not available to be diverted into a canal,
a reservoir may be built to guarantee the water level in the canal: for example, where a
canal climbs through locks to cross a range of hills.[22]
Recreation – water may be released from a reservoir to create or supplement white
water conditions for kayaking and other white-water sports.[23] On salmonidrivers special
releases (in Britain called freshets) are made to encourage natural migration behaviours
in fish and to provide a variety of fishing conditions for anglers.
Flow balancing[edit]
Reservoirs can be used to balance the flow in highly managed systems,
taking in water during high flows and releasing it again during low flows. In
order for this to work without pumping requires careful control of water levels
using spillways. When a major storm approaches, the dam operators
calculate the volume of water that the storm will add to the reservoir. If
forecast storm water will overfill the reservoir, water is slowly let out of the
reservoir prior to, and during, the storm. If done with sufficient lead time, the
major storm will not fill the reservoir and areas downstream will not
experience damaging flows. Accurate weather forecasts are essential so
that dam operators can correctly plan drawdowns prior to a high rainfall
event. Dam operators blamed a faulty weather forecast on the 2010–2011
Queensland floods. Examples of highly managed reservoirs are Burrendong
Dam in Australia and Bala Lake (Llyn Tegid) in North Wales. Bala Lake is a
natural lake whose level was raised by a low dam and into which the River
Dee flows or discharges depending upon flow conditions, as part of
the River Dee regulation system. This mode of operation is a form of
hydraulic capacitance in the river system.
Recreation[edit]
Many reservoirs often allow some recreational uses, such
as fishing and boating. Special rules may apply for the safety of the public
and to protect the quality of the water and the ecology of the surrounding
area. Many reservoirs now support and encourage less formal and less
structured recreation such as natural history, bird watching, landscape
painting, walking and hiking, and often provide information boards and
interpretation material to encourage responsible use.

Operation[edit]
Water falling as rain upstream of the reservoir, together with
any groundwater emerging as springs, is stored in the reservoir. Any excess
water can be spilled via a specifically designed spillway. Stored water may
be piped by gravity for use as drinking water, to generate hydro-electricity or
to maintain river flows to support downstream uses. Occasionally reservoirs
can be managed to retain water during high rainfall events to prevent or
reduce downstream flooding. Some reservoirs support several uses, and the
operating rules may be complex.
 Spillway of Llyn Briannedam in Wales.
Most modern reservoirs have a specially designed draw-off tower that can
discharge water from the reservoir at different levels, both to access water
as the water level falls, and to allow water of a specific quality to be
discharged into the downstream river as "compensation water": the
operators of many upland or in-river reservoirs have obligations to release
water into the downstream river to maintain river quality, support fisheries, to
maintain downstream industrial and recreational uses or for a range of other
purposes. Such releases are known as compensation water.
Terminology[edit]

Water level marker in a reservoir

The units used for measuring reservoir areas and volumes vary from
country to country. In most of the world, reservoir areas are expressed in
square kilometres; in the United States, acres are commonly used. For
volume, either cubic metres or cubic kilometres are widely used, with acre-
feet used in the US.
The capacity, volume, or storage of a reservoir is usually divided into
distinguishable areas. Dead or inactive storage refers to water in a reservoir
that cannot be drained by gravity through a dam's outlet works, spillway, or
power plant intake and can only be pumped out. Dead storage allows
sediments to settle, which improves water quality and also creates an area
for fish during low levels. Active or livestorage is the portion of the reservoir
that can be used for flood control, power production, navigation, and
downstream releases. In addition, a reservoir's "flood control capacity" is the
amount of water it can regulate during flooding. The "surcharge capacity" is
the capacity of the reservoir above the spillway crest that cannot be
regulated.[24]
In the United States, the water below the normal maximum level of a
reservoir is called the "conservation pool".[25]
In the United Kingdom, "top water level" describes the reservoir full state,
while "fully drawn down" describes the minimum retained volume.
Modelling reservoir management[edit]
There is a wide variety of software for modelling reservoirs, from the
specialist Dam Safety Program Management Tools (DSPMT) to the
relatively simple WAFLEX, to integrated models like the Water Evaluation
And Planning system (WEAP) that place reservoir operations in the context
of system-wide demands and supplies.

Safety[edit]
In many countries large reservoirs are closely regulated to try to prevent or
minimise failures of containment.[26][27]
While much of the effort is directed at the dam and its associated structures
as the weakest part of the overall structure, the aim of such controls is to
prevent an uncontrolled release of water from the reservoir. Reservoir
failures can generate huge increases in flow down a river valley, with the
potential to wash away towns and villages and cause considerable loss of
life, such as the devastation following the failure of containment at Llyn
Eigiau which killed 17 people.[28](see also List of dam failures)
A notable case of reservoirs being used as an instrument of war involved
the British Royal Air Force Dambusters raid on Germany in World War II
(codenamed "Operation Chastise"[29]), in which three German reservoir
dams were selected to be breached in order to damage German
infrastructure and manufacturing and power capabilities deriving from
the Ruhr and Eder rivers. The economic and social impact was derived from
the enormous volumes of previously stored water that swept down the
valleys, wreaking destruction. This raid later became the basis for several
films.

Environmental impact[edit]
Main article: Environmental impacts of reservoirs

Brushes Clough Reservoir, located above Shaw and Crompton,

England.

Whole life environmental impact[edit]

All reservoirs will have a monetary cost/benefit assessment made before
construction to see if the project is worth proceeding with.[30] However, such
analysis can often omit the environmental impacts of dams and the
reservoirs that they contain. Some impacts, such as the greenhouse gas
production associated with concrete manufacture, are relatively easy to
estimate. Other impact on the natural environment and social and cultural
effects can be more difficult to assess and to weigh in the balance but
identification and quantification of these issues are now commonly required
in major construction projects in the developed world[31]
Climate change[edit]
Reservoir greenhouse gas emissions[edit]
Naturally occurring lakes receive organic sediments which decay in
an anaerobic environment releasing methane and carbon dioxide. The
methane released is approximately 8 times more potent as a greenhouse
gas than carbon dioxide.[32]
As a man-made reservoir fills, existing plants are submerged and during the
years it takes for this matter to decay, will give off considerably more
greenhouse gases than lakes do. A reservoir in a narrow valley or canyon
may cover relatively little vegetation, while one situated on a plain may flood
a great deal of vegetation. The site may be cleared of vegetation first or
simply flooded. Tropical flooding can produce far more greenhouse gases
than in temperate regions.
The following table indicates reservoir emissions in milligrams per square
meter per day for different bodies of water.[33]

Location Carbon Dioxide Methane

Lakes 700 9

Temperate reservoirs 1500 20

Tropical reservoirs 3000 100

Hydroelectricity and climate change[edit]

Depending upon the area flooded versus power produced, a reservoir built
for hydro-electricity generation can either reduce or increase the net
production of greenhouse gases when compared to other sources of power.
A study for the National Institute for Research in the Amazon found that
hydroelectric reservoirs release a large pulse of carbon dioxide from decay
of trees left standing in the reservoirs, especially during the first decade after
flooding.[34] This elevates the global warming impact of the dams to levels
much higher than would occur by generating the same power from fossil
fuels.[34] According to the World Commission on Dams report (Dams And
Development), when the reservoir is relatively large and no prior clearing of
forest in the flooded area was undertaken, greenhouse gas emissions from
the reservoir could be higher than those of a conventional oil-fired thermal
generation plant.[35] For instance, In 1990, the impoundment behind
the Balbina Dam in Brazil (inaugurated in 1987) had over 20 times the
impact on global warming than would generating the same power from fossil
fuels, due to the large area flooded per unit of electricity generated.[34]
The Tucuruí Dam in Brazil (completed in 1984) had only 0.4 times the
impact on global warming than would generating the same power from fossil
fuels.[34]
A two-year study of carbon dioxide and methane releases in Canada
concluded that while the hydroelectric reservoirs there do emit greenhouse
gases, it is on a much smaller scale than thermal power plants of similar
capacity.[36] Hydropower typically emits 35 to 70 times less greenhouse
gases per TWh of electricity than thermal power plants.[37]
A decrease in air pollution occurs when a dam is used in place of thermal
power generation, since electricity produced from hydroelectric generation
does not give rise to any flue gas emissions from fossil fuel
combustion (including sulfur dioxide, nitric oxide and carbon
monoxide from coal).
Biology[edit]
Dams can produce a block for migrating fish, trapping them in one area,
producing food and a habitat for various water-birds. They can also flood
various ecosystemson land and may cause extinctions.
Human impact[edit]
Dams can severely reduce the amount of water reaching countries
downstream of them, causing water stress between the countries, e.g.
the Sudan and Egypt, which damages farming businesses in the
downstream countries, and reduces drinking water.
Farms and villages, e.g. Ashopton can be flooded by the creation of
reservoirs, ruining many livelihoods. For this very reason, worldwide 80
million people (figure is as of 2009, from the Edexcel GCSE Geography
textbook) have had to be forcibly relocated due to dam construction.
Limnology[edit]
The limnology of reservoirs has many similarities to that of lakes of
equivalent size. There are however significant differences.[38] Many
reservoirs experience considerable variations in level producing significant
areas that are intermittently underwater or dried out. This greatly limits the
productivity or the water margins and also limits the number of species able
to survive in these conditions.
Upland reservoirs tend to have a much shorter residence time than natural
lakes and this can lead to more rapid cycling of nutrients through the water
body so that they are more quickly lost to the system. This may be seen as
a mismatch between water chemistry and water biology with a tendency for
the biological component to be more oligotrophic than the chemistry would
suggest.
Conversely, lowland reservoirs drawing water from nutrient rich rivers, may
show exaggerated eutrophic characteristics because the residence time in
the reservoir is much greater than in the river and the biological systems
have a much greater opportunity to utilise the available nutrients.
Deep reservoirs with multiple level draw off towers can discharge deep cold
water into the downstream river greatly reducing the size of
any hypolimnion. This in turn can reduce the concentrations of phosphorus
released during any annual mixing event and may therefore
reduce productivity.
The dams in front of reservoirs act as knickpoints-the energy of the water
falling from them reduces and deposition is a result below the dams.[clarification
needed]

Seismicity[edit]
The filling (impounding) of reservoirs has often been attributed to reservoir-
triggered seismicity (RTS) as seismic events have occurred near large dams
or within their reservoirs in the past. These events may have been triggered
by the filling or operation of the reservoir and are on a small scale when
compared to the amount of reservoirs worldwide. Of over 100 recorded
events, some early examples include the 60 m (197 ft) tall Marathon Dam in
Greece (1929), the 221 m (725 ft) tall Hoover Dam in the U.S. (1935). Most
events involve large dams and small amounts of seismicity. The only four
recorded events above a 6.0-magnitude (Mw) are the 103 m (338 ft)
tall Koyna Dam in India and the 120 m (394 ft) Kremasta Dam in Greece
which both registered 6.3-Mw, the 122 m (400 ft) high Kariba
Dam in Zambia at 6.25-Mw and the 105 m (344 ft) Xinfengjiang Dam in
China at 6.1-Mw. Disputes have occurred regarding when RTS has occurred
due to a lack of hydrogeological knowledge at the time of the event. It is
accepted, though, that the infiltration of water into pores and the weight of
the reservoir do contribute to RTS patterns. For RTS to occur, there must be
a seismic structure near the dam or its reservoir and the seismic structure
must be close to failure. Additionally, water must be able to infiltrate the
deep rock stratum as the weight of a 100 m (328 ft) deep reservoir will have
little impact when compared the deadweight of rock on a crustal stress field,
which may be located at a depth of 10 km (6 mi) or more.[39]

Liptovská Mara in Slovakia (built in 1975) – an example of an

artificial lake which significantly changed the local microclimate.

Microclimate[edit]
Reservoirs may change the local micro-climate increasing humidity and
reducing extremes of temperature, especially in dry areas. Such effects are
claimed also by some South Australianwineries as increasing the quality of
the wine production.

List of reservoirs[edit]
Main article: List of reservoirs
In 2005 there were 33,105 large dams (≥15 m height) listed by the
International Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD).[18]
List of reservoirs by area[edit]
 Lake Volta from space (April 1993).
Main article: List of reservoirs by surface area

show

List of reservoirs by volume[edit]

Lake Kariba from space.

Main article: List of reservoirs by volume

The world's ten largest reservoirs by volume

Volume
Rank Name Country Notes
km3 cu mi

1 Lake Kariba Zimbabwe, Zambia 180 43

Bratsk
2 Russia 169 41
Reservoir
 3 Lake Nasser Egypt, Sudan 157 38

4 Lake Volta Ghana 148 36

Manicouagan [47]
5 Canada 142 34
Reservoir

6 Lake Guri Venezuela 135 32

[48]
7 Williston Lake Canada 74 18

Krasnoyarsk
8 Russia 73 18
Reservoir

9 Zeya Reservoir Russia 68 16

See also[edit]

 Water portal

 Ab Anbar
 Coastal sediment supply
 Colourful lakelets (in Poland)
 Dam failure
 Drainage basin
 Forebay
 Head of the reservoir
 Mill pond
 Multipurpose reservoir
 Quarry lake

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