DELHI TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

Shahbad Daulatpur, Main Bawana Road,

Delhi-110042

REPORT ON
SMART BRAKING SYSTEM

PREPARED AND SUBMITTED BY

AKASH SINGH RAJPUT 2K16/AE/501
BHARAT 2K16/AE/502
HIMANSHU 2K16/AE/503
VISHWAJEET KUMAR 2K16/AE/506

SUBMITTED TO :-

RAJESH AGGARWAL

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 Certificate

Certified that the Project entitled “SMART BRAKING SYSTEM”

is prepared and submitted by

AKASH SINGH RAJPUT 2K16/AE/501

BHARAT 2K16/AE/502
HIMANSHU 2K16/AE/503
VISHWAJEET KUMAR 2K16/AE/506

This is the record of the work carried out by the group

Under our supervision and guidance.

This is further certified that, they have worked with zeal for the
complete semester for preparing this project.

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 Acknowledgement

After completing our project “SMART BRAKING

SYSTEM”, we wish to express my obligations to the
college staff. We wish to express our obligations to our
fellow project markers.

We would like to thank and pay our obligations

[Link] (H.O.D)
for his guidance
regarding the project.
&
We would also like to pay our special gratitude to MR.
RAJESH AGGARWAL sir (Project Incharge) for her every ready
helps.
We are also grateful to our family and friends for
tolerating our infrequent appearances over the period of
realizing this project.

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 Foreword

The present project on “SMART BRAKING SYSTEM” is yet

another contribution by [Link] SINGH RAJPUT,
[Link], [Link], [Link] KUMAR,
students of 7th sem of DTU, in their efforts to develop basic
informative and instructive material for analysis and design
of “SMART BRAKING SYSTEM”. This report has been
written as a part of the program of minor project as
recommended by Delhi Technological University as a part of
curriculum in the starting of 7th semester 2018-19.

Writing a report on technical aspect is indeed a very challenging

task. The student has to possess not only expertise in the subject
matter but also the technique of selecting appropriate material
from the vast fund of knowledge they have to have regarding the
subject of project and present it in a way which the readers can
easily understand. Judging from the remarks of the experts who
reviewed the report and also on the basis of earlier projects by
these students in the Mechanical field. I have no doubt in my mind
that they had done an excellent job.

The institute will, therefore fell amply rewarded if the other

students and teachers may go through this report for enlarging
their knowhow of the “SMART BRAKING SYSTEM”. Any
suggestions for the improvement of this project and the report from
all quarters will be most welcome.

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 Contents

1. CERTIFICATE............................................................................2

2. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT…………………………… ...............…..3

3. FOREWORD................………………….....................................4

4. ABSTRACT AND KEY WORDS...........................………..........5

5. REFERENCES………………………………..…………….……..6

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Smart braking means reduce losses and regenerate power by using mechanical
structure.

Systems use friction to counteract the forward momentum of a moving car. As the brake
pads rub against the wheels (or a disc connected to the axle), excessive heat energy is also
created. This heat energy dissipates into the air, wasting up to 30% of the car's generated
power. Over time, this cycle of friction and wasted heat energy reduces the car's fuel
efficiency. More energy from the engine is required to replace the energy lost by braking.

Hybrid gas/electric automobiles now use a completely different method of braking at

slower speeds. While hybrid cars still use conventional brake pads at highway speeds,
electric motors help the car brake during stop-and-go driving. As the driver applies the
brakes through a conventional pedal, the electric motors reverse direction. The torque
created by this reversal counteracts the forward momentum and eventually stops the car.

But regenerative braking does more than simply stop the car. Electric motors and electric
generators (such as a car's alternator) are essentially two sides of the same technology.
Both use magnetic fields and coiled wires, but in different configurations. Regenerative
braking systems take advantage of this duality. Whenever the electric motor of a hybrid
car begins to reverse direction, it becomes an electric generator or dynamo. This
generated electricity is fed into a chemical storage battery and used later to power the car
at city speeds.

Regenerative braking takes energy normally wasted during braking and turns it into
usable energy. It is not, however, a perpetual motion machine. Energy is still lost through
friction with the road surface and other drains on the system. The energy collected during
braking does not restore all the energy lost during driving. It does improve energy
efficiency and assist the main alternator.

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Working of Regenerative braking system:-

In regenerative braking system, the motor; which drives an electric vehicle, also
performs the function of braking. The system consists of an electric motor with dual
function. It works as a motor, in one direction and also as a generator, in the opposite
direction. When it runs as a motor, it converts electrical energy into mechanical energy
and drives the wheels. However, while braking; it runs in the opposite direction and
becomes an electric generator. Applying the brakes of an electric or hybrid vehicle causes
the electric motor to run in reverse direction i.e. in generator mode, thereby; slowing
down the wheels. Regenerative braking is implemented in conjunction with anti locking
braking system (ABS), so the regenerative braking controller is similar to an ABS
controller, which monitors the rotational speed of the wheels and the difference in that
speed from

During this time, the wheels transfer the kinetic energy or momentum; back to the
generator. While rotating, the generator converts this kinetic energy into electrical energy.
Later, it transfers the electricity generated back to the batteries, thereby; charging them.

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Electric motor when used in reverse function as generators, convert mechanical energy
into electrical energy. Vehicles propelled by electric motors use them as generators when
using regenerative braking, braking by transferring mechanical energy from the wheels to
an electrical load.
In electric vehicle there is an induction motor works when rotor speed is less than r.m.f
speed when regenerative brakes comes into action electrical supply to the armature is
stopped but electric to the stator is still continuous which cause in the generation of e.m.f.
But because wheel are still moving provides rotary action to the rotor which provide
rotation to the armature and this cut of the magnetic field generated by the stator back
e.m.f is generated. According to the law of electromagnetic induction voltage starts to
develop in the armature. The developed current is not of the same quality that is been
transferred by the battery system. So before storing to the battery it needs to be purified.

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 Regenerative Braking Diagram
This simple diagram shows how a regenerative braking system is able to recapture some
of the vehicle's kinetic energy and convert it into electricity. This electricity is then used
to recharge the vehicle's batteries.

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 THE MOTOR AS A GENERATOR
Vehicles driven by electric motors use the motor as a generator when using regenerative
braking: it is operated as a generator during braking and its output is supplied to an
electrical load; the transfer of energy to the load provides the braking effect.

Early examples of this system were the front-wheel drive conversions of horse-drawn
cabs by Louis Antoine Krieger (1868-1951). The Krieger electric landaulet had a drive
motor in each front wheel with a second set of parallel windings (bifilar coil) for
regenerative braking.

An Energy Regeneration Brake was developed in 1967 for the AMC [Link] was a
completely battery powered urban concept car whose batteries were recharged by
regenerative braking, thus increasing the range of the automobile.

Many modern hybrid and electric vehicles use this technique to extend the range of the
battery pack. Examples include the hybrids Toyota Prius, Honda Insight, and the Vectrix
electric maxi-scooter.

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 LIMITATIONS
Traditional friction-based braking is used with mechanical regenerative braking for the
following reasons:

 Despite the amount of research and development that has been placed into
regenerative braking there are still various issues to tackle. For one, regenerative
braking is limited the physical capabilities of various parts of the braking system.
For example, if the drive motor is used to regenerate power, then it is still
restricted by the same limits as if it were acting as a motor. Another issue is it that
it is virtually impossible and actually impractical to recover all braking energy at
high speeds or high deceleration rates. Imagine cars driving on a highway. When
these cars need to brake quickly, high amounts of energy is required to get the
cars to safely stop. In turn, some of the braking energy must be applied directly to
the brakes and not into the regenerative system.
 A third issue is that issue of variable control. The amount of energy recouped
from regenerative braking is highly dependent on various variables such as wind,
motor torque variations, temperature changes, vehicle age, terrain, weight
transfer, rolling resistance, etc. Motor torque variations cause another issue for
regenerative braking. Drivers tend to vary the amount of braking. For example,
driver might increase their pressure on the brake as they slow down. This
variation in torque causes inefficiencies since the regenerative braking must take
into account the variations in torque as it calculates the amount of energy to
recoup.

 A more serious issue arises when regenerative braking is applied to a two-wheel-

drive brake system. When regenerative brakes kick in, negative torque is applied
to the drive wheels. Therefore, in a two-wheel- drive vehicle, negative torque is
applied to the wheels with brakes while the wheels with no brakes are able to spin
freely. This uneven distribution of negative torque cases uneven tire and brake
wear. This could potentially cause skidding on the wheels with brakes.

 The regenerative braking effect drops off at lower speeds, therefore the friction
brake is still required in order to bring the vehicle to a complete halt, although
malfunction of a dynamo can still provide resistance for a while. Physical locking
of the rotor is also required to prevent vehicles from rolling down hills.
 The friction brake is a necessary back-up in the event of failure of the
regenerative brake.
 Most road vehicles with regenerative braking only have power on some wheels
(as in a 2WD car) and regenerative braking power only applies to such wheels, so

11
 in order to provide controlled braking under difficult conditions (such as in wet
roads) friction based braking is necessary on the other wheels.
 The amount of electrical energy capable of dissipation is limited by either the
capacity of the supply system to absorb this energy or on the state of charge of the
battery or capacitors. No regenerative braking effect can occur if another
electrical component on the same supply system is not currently drawing power
and if the battery or capacitors are already charged. For this reason, it is normal to
also incorporate dynamic braking to absorb the excess energy.
 Under emergency braking it is desirable that the braking force exerted be the
maximum allowed by the friction between the wheels and the surface without
slipping, over the entire speed range from the vehicle's maximum speed down to
zero. The maximum force available for acceleration is typically much less than
this except in the case of extreme high-performance vehicles. Therefore, the
power required to be dissipated by the braking system under emergency braking
conditions may be many times the maximum power which is delivered under
acceleration. Traction motors sized to handle the drive power may not be able to
cope with the extra load and the battery may not be able to accept charge at a
sufficiently high rate. Friction braking is required to absorb the surplus energy in
order to allow an acceptable emergency braking performance.

For these reasons there is typically the need to control the regenerative braking and match
the friction and regenerative braking to produce the desired total braking output. The GM
EV-1 was the first commercial car to do this. Engineers Abraham Farag and Loren
Majersik were issued two patents for this 'Brake by Wire' technology.

ELECTRIC RAILWAY VEHICLE OPERATION

During braking, the traction motor connections are altered to turn them into electrical
generators. The motor fields are connected across the main traction generator (MG) and
the motor armatures are connected across the load. The MG now excites the motor fields.
The rolling locomotive or multiple unit wheels turn the motor armatures, and the motors
act as generators, either sending the generated current through onboard resistors (dynamic
braking) or back into the supply (regenerative braking).

For a given direction of travel, current flow through the motor armatures during braking
will be opposite to that during motoring. Therefore, the motor exerts torque in a direction
that is opposite from the rolling direction.

Braking effort is proportional to the product of the magnetic strength of the field
windings, times that of the armature windings.

Savings of 17% are claimed for Virgin Trains [Link] is also less wear on
friction braking components. The Delhi Metro saved around 90,000 tons of carbon

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dioxide (CO2) from being released into the atmosphere by regenerating 112,500
megawatt hours of electricity through the use of regenerative braking systems between
2004 and 2007. It is expected that the Delhi Metro will save over 100,000 tons of CO2
from being emitted per year once its phase II is complete through the use of regenerative
braking.

Many stations on the London Underground are built so that the tracks entering the
platform are on a slight incline, and those leaving it on a decline. These saves energy by
letting gravity slow the train on its entry to the station without expending (as much)
energy and, help it accelerate on departure. This could be seen as a form of regenerative
braking where the energy is stored as potential energy (using gravity) instead of electrical
energy.

COMPARISON OF DYNAMIC AND

REGENERATIVE BRAKES
Dynamic brakes ("rheostatic brakes" in the UK), unlike regenerative brakes, dissipate the
electric energy as heat by passing the current through large banks of variable resistors.
Vehicles that use dynamic brakes include forklifts, Diesel-electric locomotives and
streetcars. If designed appropriately, this heat can be used to warm the vehicle interior. If
dissipated externally, large radiator-like cowls are employed to house the resistor banks.

The main disadvantage of regenerative brakes when compared with dynamic brakes is the
need to closely match the generated current with the supply characteristics. With DC
supplies, this requires that the voltage be closely controlled. Only with the development
of power electronics has this been possible with AC supplies, where the supply frequency
must also be matched (this mainly applies to locomotives where an AC supply is rectified
for DC motors).

A small number of mountain railways have used 3-phase power supplies and 3-phase
induction motors. This results in a near constant speed for all trains as the motors rotate
with the supply frequency both when motoring and braking.

KINETIC ENERGY RECOVERY SYSTEMS

Kinetic Energy Recovery Systems (KERS) are currently in use for the motor sport
Formula One's 2009 season, and under development for road vehicles. The Formula One
Teams that used Kinetic Energy Recovery Systems in the 2009 season are Ferrari,
Renault, BMW Sauber and McLaren. One of the main reasons that not all cars use KERS
is because it adds an extra 25 kilograms of weight, while not adding to the total car
weight, it does incur a penalty particularly seen in the qualifying rounds, as it raises the
car's center of gravity, and reduces the amount of ballast that is available to balance the

13
car so that it is more predictable when [Link] rules also limit the exploitation of the
system. Eventually, during the season, Renault and BMW stopped using the system.
Williams is developing KERS based on flywheel. The concept of transferring the
vehicle’s kinetic energy using Flywheel energy storage was postulated by physicist
Richard Feynman in the 1950s and is exemplified in complex high end systems such as
the Zytek, Flybrid, Torotrak and Xtrac used in F1 and simple, easily manufactured and
integrated differential based systems such as the Cambridge Passenger/Commercial
Vehicle Kinetic Energy Recovery System (CPC-KERS)

Xtrac and Flybrid are both licensees of Torotrak's technologies, which employ a small
and sophisticated ancillary gearbox incorporating a continuously variable transmission
(CVT). The CPC-KERS is similar as it also forms part of the driveline assembly.
However, the whole mechanism including the flywheel sits entirely in the vehicle’s hub
(looking like a drum brake). In the CPC-KERS, a differential replaces the CVT and
transfers torque between the flywheel, drive wheel and road wheel.

KERS FLYWHEEL

The energy of a flywheel can be described by this general energy equation,

assuming the flywheel is the system:

Where:

 Ein is the energy into the flywheel.

 Eout is the energy out of the flywheel.

 Esystem is the change in energy of the flywheel .

14
 An assumption is made that during braking there is no change in the
potential energy, enthalpy of the flywheel, pressure or volume of the
flywheel, so only kinetic energy will be considered. As the car is braking,
no energy is dispersed by the flywheel, and the only energy into the
flywheel is the initial kinetic energy of the car. The equation can be
simplified to:

Where:

 m is the mass of the car.

 v is the initial velocity of the car just before braking .

The flywheel collects a percentage of the initial kinetic energy of the car, and this
percentage can be represented by fly efficiency. The flywheel stores the energy
as rotational kinetic energy. Because the energy is kept as kinetic energy and not
transformed into another type of energy this process is efficient. The flywheel can
only store so much energy, however, and this is limited by its maximum amount
of rotational kinetic energy. This is determined based upon the inertia of the
flywheel and its angular velocity. As the car sits idle, little rotational kinetic energy
is lost over time so the initial amount of energy in the flywheel can be assumed to
equal the final amount of energy distributed by the flywheel. The amount of
kinetic energy distributed by the flywheel is therefore:

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Regenerative brakes

Regenerative braking has a similar energy equation to the equation for

the mechanical flywheel. Regenerative braking is a two-step process
involving the motor/generator and the battery. The initial kinetic
energy is transformed into electrical energy by the generator and is
then converted into chemical energy by the battery. This process is
less efficient than the flywheel. The efficiency of the generator can be
represented by:

ngen = Wout
Win

Where:

 Win is the work into the generator.

 Wout is the work produced by the generator.

The only work into the generator is the initial kinetic energy of the car
and the only work produced by the generator is the electrical energy.
Rearranging this equation to solve for the power produced by the
generator gives this equation:

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 Pgen = ngen mv2
2T
Where:

 T is the amount of time the car brakes.

 m is the mass of the car.

 v is the initial velocity of the car just before braking.

The efficiency of the battery can be described as:

nbatt = Pout
Pin
Where:

 Pin = Pgen
 Pout = Wout

The work out of the battery represents the amount of energy produced
by the regenerative brakes. This can be represented by:

Wout = nbatt ngen mv2

2

17
CARS

Energy efficiency of cars in towns and on motorways according to the DoE

18
In the case of internal combustion engines, the sketch of the DoE
shows that average car efficiency amounts to less than 20%. We can
see for ourselves that braking in proportion to the useful mechanic
energy amounts to 6/13 i.e. 46% in towns, and 2/20 i.e. 10% on
motorways.
In regards to electric cars, the DoE explains that the efficiency between
the electric motor and the wheels amounts to 60%.
Let us consider the electric motor efficiency and the braking
proportion in towns and on motor ways.

Let us introduce which is the recuperated proportion of braking energy.

Theoretically, it can reach up to 80%. Thus in the best case.

Description of the energy flux in the case of regenerative braking.

Under these circumstances, E being the energy flux arriving at the

electric engine, Braking the
energy flux lost while braking and Recup the recuperated energy flux,
an equilibrium is reached according to the equations
Braking = (E + Recup).neng.p and Recup = [Link]

thus Braking = [Link].p

1- neng.p. nrecup
It is as though the old energy flux E was replaced by a new one
E(1 - neng.p. nrecup)
The expected gain amounts to neng.p. nrecup
The higher the recuperation efficiency, the higher the recuperation.

The higher the efficiency between the electric motor and the wheels,
the higher the recuperation.

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The higher the braking proportion, the higher the recuperation.

USE IN MOTOR SPORT

FIA

A KERS flywheel

F1 teams have said they must respond in a responsible way to the world's environmental
challenges,and the FIA allowed the use of 60 kW KERS in the regulations for the 2009
Formula One [Link] began testing systems in 2008: energy can either be stored as
mechanical energy (as in a flywheel) or as electrical energy (as in a battery or
supercapacitor).Due to high cost, FOTA teams agreed to drop KERS from the 2010
season onwards, but this is still an open issue as Williams F1 said it will use KERS in
2010 and changes to the regulations must be agreed by all [Link] McLaren
Mercedes became the first team to win a F1 GP using a KERS equipped car when Lewis
Hamilton won the Hungarian Grand Prix July 26 2009. Their second KERS equipped car
finished fifth. At the following race Lewis Hamilton became the first driver to take pole
position with a KERS car, his team mate qualifying second. This was also the first
instance of an all KERS front row. Kimi Räikkönen won the Belgium Grand Prix August
30 2009 with his KERS equipped Ferrari. It was the first time that KERS contributed
directly to a race victory, with second placed Fisichella claiming "Actually, I was quicker
than Kimi. He only took me because of KERS at the beginning".

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 MOTORCYCLES
KTM racing boss Harald Bartol has revealed that the factory raced with a secret Kinetic
Energy Recovery System (KERS) fitted to Tommy Koyama's motorcycle during the 2008
season-ending 125cc Valencian Grand Prix. This was illegal and against rules

RACES
Automobile Club de l'Ouest, the organizer behind the annual 24 Hours of Le Mans event
and the Le Mans Series is currently "studying specific rules for LMP1 which will be
equipped with a kinetic energy recovery system."Peugeot was the first manufacturer to
unveil a fully functioning LMP-1 car in the form of the 908 HY at the 2008 Autosport
1000 km race at Silverstone.

AUTOPART MAKERS
Bosch Motorsport Service (part of the subsidiary Bosch Engineering GmbH) is
developing a KERS for use in motor racing. Hybrid systems by Bosch Motorsport
comprise an electricity storage system (a lithium-ion battery with scalable capacity or a
flywheel), the electric motor (weigh between four and eight kilograms with a maximum
power level of 60 kW) and the KERS controller, containing the power electronic, battery
management, and management system for hybrid and engine functions . The Bosch
Group offers a range of electric hybrid systems for commercial and light-duty
applications.

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CARMAKERS
BMW and Honda are testing it. At the 2008 1000 km of Silverstone, Peugeot Sport
unveiled the Peugeot 908 HY, a hybrid electric variant of the diesel 908, with KERS.
Peugeot plans to campaign the car in the 2009 Le Mans Series season, although it will not
be capable of scoring championship points.

Vodafone McLaren Mercedes began testing of their KERS in September 2008 at the Jerez
test track in preparation for the 2009 F1 season, although at that time it was not yet
known if they would be operating an electrical or mechanical system. In November 2008
it was announced that Freescale Semiconductor would collaborate with McLaren
Electronic Systems to further develop its KERS for McLaren's Formula One car from
2010 onwards. Both parties believed this collaboration would improve McLaren's KERS
system and help the system filter down to road car technology .

Toyota has used a supercapacitor for regeneration on Supra HV-R hybrid race car that
won the 24 Hours of Tokachi race in July 2007.

Use in compressed air cars Regenerative brakes are being used in compressed air cars to
refuel the tank during braking.

ABOUT OUR PROJECT

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IN THIS PROJECT WE ARE USING OUR VEHICLE MOMENTAN FORCE INTO
ELECTRIC ENERGY AT THE TIME OF APPLING BRAKING SYSTEM.

CONSTRUCTION

STEP-1
WE ARE USING SIMPLE WHEEL IN OUR PROJECT AND FIXED ON
WOODEN FRAME WITH HELP OF BEARING.

STEP-2

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WE FIX ONE ELECTROMAGNATIC CLUTCH ON THE SIDE OF WHEEL
SHAFT AND ONE GEAR ON OTHER SIDE OF SHAFT AS SHOWN
BELOW DIAGRAM.

STEP-3
NOW WE FIX ONE DYNAMO ATTACH WITH ELECTROMAGNATIC
CLUTCH AS SHOWN BELOW.

STEP-4

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ON THE OTHER SIDE OF WHEEL WE ATTACH ONE DC GEAR MOTOR
WITH CHAIN ASSAMBLY. WE USE DC GEAR MOTOR AS ENGINE IN
OUR MODEL.

STEP-5
WE CONTROL DC MOTOR WITH SIMPLE SLIDING TWO WAY SWITCH
(SLIDING SWITCH CAN STOPAND PLAY TWO DEVICE AT THE SAME
TINE) AS SHOWN BELOW.

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STEP-6
SYSTRM DRIVE
DC MOTOR DRIVE WHEEL WITH THE HELP OF GEAR ASSAMBLY

STEP-7
POWER REGENERATE AT THE TIME OF BRAKING
WHEN WE SLIDING SWITCH OFF TO MOTOR SUPPLY THEN SWITCH ON
ELECTROMAGNATIC CLUTCH POWER SUPPLY.

ELECTROMAGNATIC CLUTCH ENGAGES WITH WHEEL SHAFT AND TRANSFURE

WHEEL ROTATION IN THE DYNAMO FOR STOPPING WHEEL ROTATION.
WHEN DYNAMO ROTATES IT APPLIED BRAKE TO THE WHEEL SHAFT AND
PRODUCE ENERGY, WHICH IS STORING IN BATTERY AS SHOWN BELOW.

26
WORKING BLOCK DIAGRAM

27
CONPONENT USED

28
 1. ELECTROMAGNATIC CLUTCH
2. DYNAMO
3. DC GEAR MOTOR
4. TRANSFORMER
5. MANUAL WOODEN HANDLE
6. BEARING
7. WHEEL
8. CHAIN ASSAMBLY
9. WOODEN FRAME
Many more as per requirement…

Specifications (material used)

 TRANSFORMER -
STEPDOWN TRANSFROMER (220V TO 12V)

 RECTIFIER- BRIDGE TYPE

 CLUTCH- MAGNETIC (12V)

 SWITCH- LEAF

 DYNAMOMOTOR- 1V-35V

 METER- VOLTMETER

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HOW ELECTROMAGNETIC CLUTCH WORK?

ELECTROMAGNETIC CLUTCH (EMC)– WHEN WE PROVIDE POWER TO EMC, IT

PERFORM AS A MAGNET AND ATTRACT IROM GEAR AS SHOWEN BELOW PIX.

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 Step-2

AS WE SEE ABOVE GEAR IS FIXED WITH IRON DICE, WHEN WE PROVIDE

POWER SUPPLY TO EMC IT ATTRACT IRON DICE WHEN DICK ATTACH WITH
ELECTROMAGNATIC IT TRANFORE SHAFT ROTATION TO THE ATTACHED
DEVICE

1. ELECTROMAGNETIC CLUTCH
Electromagnetic clutches operate electrically, but transmit torque mechanically. This is
why they used to be referred to as electro-mechanical clutches. Over the years EM
became known as electromagnetic versus electro mechanical, referring more about their
actuation method versus physical operation. Since the clutches started becoming popular
over sixty years ago, the variety of applications and clutch designs has increased
dramatically, but the basic operation remains the same.

Single-face clutches make up approximately 90% of all electromagnetic clutch sales. This
article mainly deals with this type of clutch.

When considering torque, is dynamic or static torque more important? For example, if a
machine is running at a relatively low rpm (5 – 50 depending upon size) then dynamic
torque is not a consideration since the static torque rating of the clutch will come closest
to where the application is running. However, if a machine is running at 3,000rpm and
the same full torque is required the result will not be the same because of the difference
between static and dynamic torques. Almost all manufacturers put the static rated torque
for their clutches in their catalog. If a specific response time is needed the dynamic torque
rating for a particular clutch at a given speed is required. In many cases, this can be
significantly lower. Sometimes it can be less than half of the static torque rating. Most

31
manufacturers publish torque curves showing the relationship between dynamic and static
torque for a given series of clutch. (T-1).

2. DC MOTOR

32
A simple DC electric motor. When the coil is powered, a magnetic field is generated
around the armature. The left side of the armature is pushed away from the left magnet
and drawn toward the right, causing rotation. The armature continues to rotate.

When the armature becomes horizontally aligned, the commutator reverses the direction
of current through the coil, reversing the magnetic field. The process then repeats.

33
 3. DYNAMO
.

DESCRIPTION
The dynamo uses rotating coils of wire and magnetic fields to convert mechanical
rotation into a pulsing direct electric current through Faraday's law. A dynamo machine
consists of a stationary structure, called the stator, which provides a constant magnetic
field, and a set of rotating windings called the armature which turn within that field. On
small machines the constant magnetic field may be provided by one or more permanent
magnets; larger machines have the constant magnetic field provided by one or more
electromagnets, which are usually called field coils.

34
 .4. Transformer

A transformer is an electrical device that transfers energy from one circuit to another by
magnetic coupling with no moving parts. A transformer comprises two or more coupled
windings, or a single tapped winding and, in most cases, a magnetic core to concentrate
magnetic flux. A changing current in one winding creates a time-varying magnetic flux in
the core, which induces a voltage in the other windings. Michael Faraday built the first
transformer, although he used it only to demonstrate the principle of electromagnetic
induction and did not foresee the use to which it would eventually be put.

A historical Stanley transformer.

35
 5. BEARING
Have you ever wondered how things like inline skate wheels and electric motors spin so
smoothly and quietly? The answer can be found in a neat little machine called a bearing.

A tapered roller bearing from a manual transmission

The bearing makes many of the machines we use every day possible. Without bearings,
we would be constantly replacing parts that wore out from friction. In this article, we'll
learn how bearings work, look at some different kinds of bearings and explain their
common uses, and explore some other interesting uses of bearings.

The Basics
The concept behind a bearing is very simple: Things roll better than they slide. The
wheels on your car are like big bearings. If you had something like skis instead of wheels,
your car would be a lot more difficult to push down the road.

That is because when things slide, the friction between them causes a force that tends to
slow them down. But if the two surfaces can roll over each other, the friction is greatly
reduced.

36
Bearings reduce friction by providing smooth metal balls or rollers, and a smooth inner
and outer metal surface for the balls to roll against. These balls or rollers "bear" the load,
allowing the device to spin smoothly.

BIKE TIMING CHAIN

DIAMENSION:
LENTH: 560MM
GROOVE: 84

BIKE TIMING GEAR

DIAMENSION:
TEETH: 28
LENTH: 60MM

37
 CONCLUSION

Driving is an extremely wasteful process. Large amounts of kinetic energy is turned into
heat and gone from the car. Thankfully, a regenerative braking system makes use of this
heat to regenerate the batteries of the electric vehicle. Despite the amount of research and
development that has gone into regenerative braking, there is still significant room for
improvement. Regenerative braking is still very limited and dependent on uncontrollable
variables. Also, danger can arise if regenerative braking is applied to two-wheel-drive
brake systems. However, regenerative braking does have various benefits. A proper
implementation of regenerative braking system extends driving range, improves braking
efficiency, reduces brake wear, and improves energy conservation.

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April 2009.

38
4. ^ GM patent 5775467 –Floating electromagnetic brake system.
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25. ^ [Link]
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