BENJAMIN BRITTEN'S USE OF THE PASSACAGt.

IA

Bernadette de VilXiers

A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of Arts

University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg

for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy

Johannesburg 1985
 ABSTRACT

Benjamin Britten (1913-1976) was perhaps the most prolific cooposer

of passaca'?' las in the twentieth century. Die present study of his
use of tli? passac^.gl ta font is based on thirteen selected -assacaalias
which span hin ire rryi:ivc career and include all genre* of his
music. The passacaglia? *r- occur i*' the follovxnc works:

- Piano Concerto, Op. 13, III

- Violin Concerto, Op. 15, III
- "Dirge" from Serenade, op. 31
- Peter Grimes, Op. 33, Interlude IV
- "Death, be not proud!1' from The Holy Sonnets o f John Donne , Op. 35
- The Rape o f Lucretia, op. 37, n , ii
- Albert Herring, Op. 39, III, Threnody
- Billy Budd, op. 50, I, iii
- The Turn o f the Screw, op . 54, II, viii
- Noye '8 Fludde, O p . 5 9 , Storm
- "Agnu Dei" from War Requiem, Op. 66
- Syrrvhony fo r Cello and Orchestra, Op. 68, IV
- String Quartet no. 3, Op. 94, V

The analysis includes a detailed investigation into the type of

ostinato themes used, namely their structure (lengUi, contour,
characteristic intervals, tonal centre, metre, rhythm, use of sequence,
derivation hod of handling the ostinato (variations in length,
tone colouJ -< <>e register, ten$>o, degree of audibility) as well as
the influence of the ostinato theme on the conqposition as a whole
(effect on length, sectionalization).
The accompaniment material is then brought under scrutiny b^th
from the point of view of its type (thematic, motivic, unrelated
counterpoints) and its importance within the overall frarework of
the passacaglia. *
Hie factors responsible for the formation of the ovc .11 formal
profile of the passacaglias (density, range, dynamics and rhythm) are
discussed in relation to their contribution to the formal profile.
In conclusion it is found that Britten has abandoned the four or
 (iii.)

eight measure ostinato themes, alow triple metre, trochaic rhythmic

pattern and tetrachord influence) which characterized Baroque passacaglias.
During the course of his passacaglias the ostinato theme lengths,
ton® colour, rhythm and octave register are all subjected to variation.
The accompaniment generally has thu dominant role and tends to
distract from the repetitions of the ostinato theme.
The interactions of the parameters of density, dynamics, rhythm and
range create the formal profiles of the passacaglias. While in some
passacaglias there is a correlation of interaction amongst the parameters,
in other instances there are interesting contrasts especially with regard
to rhythm.
Motion in the accompaniment is of pt Juae importance in order to
counteract the monotony of the ostinato repetitions. In most cases, one
or mere of the parameters change, usually with each statement of the
ostinato.
In contrast to the Baroque period when the vast majority of
passacaglias were keyboard works, Britten has not confined his passa­
caglias to any particular genre. All the passacaglias in this study
form part of mult imovement works. This is contrary to the Baroque
preference of composing passacaglias as independent pieces.
Within the larger formal framework, Britten has favoured a central
or final position for the passacaglia movements. When used in a central
position, the passacaglia frequently ha;, a stabilizing influence fund
tends to function as a focal point, while when used as a final taovement,
it often has a confirming function.
Britten has based his approach to the passacaglia form on the text­
book definitions of the early part of the twentieth century. His
passacaglias are based on a melodic ostinato which i* adhered to fairly
strictly throughout.
During the Baroque period, the passacaglia was essentially a mono-
thematic form. Britten, however, juxtaposes contrasting thematic material
of equal importance against the ostinato. 11113 use of multiple themes
represents a radical departure from the mono th^.riatic practice of earlier

passacaglia composers.
The importance and variety of the material which he superimposes
above the ostiiiatr make any marked variation of the ostinato theme it­
self unnecessary. The tonal and rhythmic stability of the passacaglia
theme impart a unity, cohesion and symmetry tc the overall form.
 (iv)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to exprfc^ my gratitude to the following persons and

institutions:

- My promoter. Prof. C.A. van Wyk, for his constant guidance,

perceptive criticism and en;ouragement throughout this project;

- Prof. H. Teaamingh, for his many valuable suggestions?

- My colleague Dr. P.C, Stroux, for his excellent translation of

several French and German texts, as well as for the interest
he has shown throughout this research, and his willingness to
share his knowledge.

- Mr. C.M. Vels of Boosey and Hawkes publishers, for his

helpfulness in scores for me;

- The Human Sciences Research Council whose financial

assistance has made this research possible.
 (v)

CONTENTS

Page

ABSTRACT (US

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS (iv)

CHAi’TER 1

INTRODUCTION

1. THE P A S S A C A C U A IN TH8 TWttWTICTB CENTURY 1

1.1 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE !
1.2 TRADITIONAL PASSACACLIAS 2
1.3 FREE PASSACAGLIAS 11
1.4 CONCLUSION 26

CHAPTER 2
PIANO CONCERTO, OP. 13, 1938, revised 1945

1. BACKGROUND 29

2. THE NATURE O F THE OSTIHATO THEME 29

2.1 STRUCTURE 29
2.2 USE OP THE OSTINATO THEME 33
2.3 INFLUENCE O F THE OSTINATO THEME 35

3• THE ACCOMPANIMENT 36
3.1 TYPE OF ACCOMPANYINC, MATERIAL 36
3.2 THE ACCOMPANIMENT VARIED 37
3.3 ROLE OF THE ACCOMPANIMENT 38

4. MOTION FACTOHS 39
4.1 THE PARAMFTERS 39
4.2 INTERACTION OF PARAMETEkS 42
4.3 SENSE OF FINALITY 42
 (Vi)

Pag©

5. FORMAL PLAN 42
5.1 LARGER FORM 43

CHAPTER 3
VIOLIN CONCERTO OP. 15, 1939, r a v i u d 1950

i. BACKGROUND 44

2. THE NATURE OF THE OSTINATO THEME 44

2.1 STRUCTURE 44
2.2 USE OT THE OSTINATO THEME 48
2.3 INFLUENCE OF THE OSTINATO THEME 52

3. THE ACCOMPANIMENT 53
3.1 TYPE OF ACCOMPANYING MATERIAL 53
3.2 THE ACCOMPANIMENT VARIED 53
3.3 ROLE OF THE ACCOMPANIMENT 54

4. MOTION FACTORS 55
4.1 THE PARAMETERS 55
4.2 INTERACTION OF PARAMETERS 58

5. FORMAL PLAN 58
5.1 LARGER FORM 59

CHAPTER 4
"DIRGE" from SERENADE, OP. 31, 1943

1. BACKGROUND 60

2. THE NATURE OF THE OSTINATO THEME 60

2.1 STRUCTURE 60
2.2 USE OF THE OSTINATO THEME 63
2.3 INFLUENCE OF THE OSTINATO THEME 64

3. THE ACCOMPANIMENT 64
3.1 TYPE OF ACCOMPANYING MATERIAL 64
3.2 THE ACCOMPANIMENT VARIED 65
3.3 ROLE OF THE ACCOMPANIMENT 66

4. MOTION FACTORS ' 67

4.1 THE PARAMETERS 67

4.2 INTERACTION OF PARAMETERS 69
4.3 SENSE OF FINALITY 69

5. FORMAL PLAN 69
5.1 LARGER FORM 70
 (vii)

Page

CHAPTER 5
PETER GRIMES, OP. 33, 1945

1. BACKGROUND 71

2. THE NATURE OF THE OSTINATO THEME 72

2.1 STRUCTURE 72
2.2 USE OF THE OSTINATO THEME 76
2.3 IN?LUHfCE OF THE OSTINATO THEME 79

3. THE ACCOMPANIMENT SO
3.1 TYPE OF A TMPANYING MATERIAL 80
3.2 THE ACCOMPANIMENT VARIED 80
3.3 ROLE OF THE ACCOMPANIMENT 84

4. MOTION FACTORS 85
4.1 X E PARAMETERS 85
4.2 INTERACTION OF PARAMETERS 89
4.3 SENSE OF FINALITY 89

5. FORMAL PLAN 89
5.1 LARGER FORM 89

CHAPTER 6
THE HOLY SONNETS OF JOHN DONNE, OP. 35, 1945
No. "3FATH, Bf, NOT PROUD IN

1. BACKGROUND 90

2. THE NATURE OF THE OSTINATO THEME 90

2.1 STRUCTURE 90
2.2 USE OF THE OSTINATO THEME 93
2.3 INFLUENCE OF THE OSTINATO THEME 95

3. THE ACCOMPANIMENT
3.1 TYPE OF ACCOMPANYING MATERIAL 95
3.2 THE ACCOMPANIMQJT VARIED 96
3.3 ROLE OF THL ACCOMPANIMENT 97

4. MOTION FACTORS 98
4.1 THE PARAMETERS 98
4.2 INTERACTION OF PARAMETERS 100
4.3 SENSE OF FINALITY 101

5. FORMAL PLAN 101

5.1 LARGER FORM 102
1 CHAPTER 7
THE RAPE OF LUCRETIA, OP. 37, 1946
(viii)

Page

BACKGROUND 103

2 '-HE NATURE Ot THE OSTINATO THEME 104

? STRUCTURE 104
2 2 USE OF THE OSTINATO THEME 107
2 3 INFLUENCE OF THE OSTINATO THEME 110

3 THE ACCOMPANIMENT 110

3 1 TYPE OF ACCOMPANYING MATERIAL ilO
3 2 THE ACCOMPANIMENT VARIED 111
3 3 ROLE OP THE ACCOMPANIMENT 112

4 MOTION FACTORS 113

4 1 THE PARAMETERS 113
4 2 INTERACTION OF PARAMETERS 115
4 3 SENSE OF FINALITY 115

5 I ORMAL PLAN 116

5 1 LARGER FORM 116

CHAPTER 8
ALBERT HERRING, OP. 39, 1947

BACKGROUND 118

2 NATURE OF THE OSTINATO THEME 120

2 STRUCTURE 120
2 2 USE OF THE OSTINATC THEME 123
2 3 INFLUENCE OF THE OSTINATO THEh_ 124

3 THE ACCOMPANIMENT \2S

3 1 TYPE OF ACCOMPANYING MATERIAL i2S
3 2 THE ACCOMPANIMENT VARIED 125
3 3 ROLE OF TOE ACCOMPANIMENT 127

4 MOTION FACTORS 128

4 I THE PARAMETERS 128

4 2 INTERACTION OF PARAMETERS 130
4 3 SENSE OF FINALITY 131

5 FORMAL PLAN 1.11

S 1 LARGER FORM 131

 (ix)

Page

CHAPTER 9
BILLY BUDD, OP. 50, 1951 revised I960

1. BACKGROUND 132

2. THE NATURE OF THE OSTXNftTO THEME 133

2.1 STRUCTURE 13'
2.2 CSS OP THE OSTINATO THEME 137
2.3 INFLUENCE OF THE OSTINATO T H M 141

3. THE ACCOMPANIMENT 142

3.1 TYPE OF ACCOMPANYING MATERIAL 142
3.2 THE ACCOMPANIMENT VARIED 143
3.3 ROLE OF THE ACCQMPANIMeJT 145

4. MOTION FACTORS 146

4.1 THE PARAMETERS 146

4.2 INTERACTION OF PARAMETERS 149
4.3 SENSE OF FINALITY 150

5* FORMAL PLAN 150

5.1 LARGER FORM 150

CHAPTER 10
THE TURN OF THE SCREW, OP. 54, 1954

1. BACKGROUND 151

2. THE NATURE OF THE O S ' . :-TO THEME 153

2.1 STRUCTURE 153
2.2 USE OF THE OSTiNATO Tt, ^ 162
2.3 INFLUENCE OF THE OSTINATO THEME 164

3. THE ACCOMPANIMENT ■&%

3.1 TYPE OF ACCOMPANYING MAT^l^l. 165

3.2 THE ACCOMPANIMENT VARIED 165
3.3 ROLE OF THE ACCOMPANIMENT 166

4. MOTION FACTORS 160

4.1 THE PARAMETERS 168
4.2 INTERACTION OF PARAMETERS 170
4.3 SENSE OF FINALITY 171

5. FORMAL PROFILE 171

5.1 LARGER FORM 171
 (X)

Page

CHAPTER 1!
NOYE'S FLUDDS, OP. 59, 1957

1. BACKGROUND 173

2. THE NATURE OF THE OSTINATO THEME 174

2.1 STRUCTURE 174
2.2 USE OF THE OSTINATO THEME 178
2.3 INFLUENCE OF THE OSTINATO THEME 181

3. THE ACCOMPANIMENT 181

3.1 TYPE OF ACCOMPANYING MATERIAL 181
3.2 THE ACCOMPANIMENT VARIED 182
3.3 ’IDLE OF THE ACCOMPANIMENT 183

4. MOTION FACTORS 184

4.1 THE PARAMETERS 184
4.2 INTERACTION OF PARAMETERS 186
4.3 SENSE OF FINALITY 186

5. FORMAL PLAN 186

5.1 LARGER FORM 187

CHAPTER 12
WAR REQUIEM, OP. 66, 1961

1. BA OUND 188

7. T„. %TURE OF THE OSTINATO THEME 189

2.1 STRUCTURE 189
2.2 USE OF THE OSTINATO THEME 191
2.3 INFLUENCE OF THE OSTINATO THEME 194

3. THE ACCOMPANIMENT 195

3.1 TYPE OF ACCOMPANYING MATERIAL 195
3.2 ACCOMPANIMENT VARIED 196
3.3 ROLE OF THE ACCOMPANIMENT 198

4. MOTION FACTORS 199

4.1 THE PARAMETERS 199
4.2 INTERACTION OF PARAMETERS 201
4.3 SENSE OF FINALITY 201

5. FORMAL PROFILE 202

5.1 LARGER FORM 202
 (xi)

Page

CHAPTER 13
SYMPHONY FOR CELLO AND ORCHESTRA, OP. 68, 1963

1. BACKGROUND 204

7. THE NATURE OF THE OSTINATO TH&'flS 204

2.1 STRUCTURE
2.2 USE OF ''.’HE OSTINATO THEME 210
2.3 INFLUENCE OF THE OSTINATO THEME 212

3. THE ACCOMPANIMENT 213

3.1 TYPE OF ACCOMPANYING MATERIAL 213
3.2 THE ACCOMPANIMENT VARIED 217
3.3 ROLE OF THE ACCOMPANIMENT 218

4. MOTION FACTORS 219

4.1 THE PARAMETERS 219

4.2 INTERACTION OF PARAMETERS 222
4.3 SENSE OF FINALITY 222

S FORMAL PLAN 223

5.1 LARGER FORM 273

CHAPTER 14
STRING QUARTET NO. 3, OP. 94, 1975

1. BACKGROUND 225

2. THE NATURE OF THE OSTINATO THEME 225

2,1 STRUCTURE 225
2.2 USE OF THE OSTINATO THEME 229
2.3 INFLUENCE OF THE OSTINATO TH^4£ 232

3. THE ACCOMPANIMENT 232

3.1 TYPE OF ACCOMPANYING MATERIAL 232
3.2 THE ACCOMPANIMENT VARIED 234
3.3 ROLE OF THE ACCOMPANIMENT 235

4. MOTION FACTORS
4.1 THE PARAMETERS 236
4.2 INTERACTION OF PARAMETERS . 238
4.3 SENSE OF FINALITY . 238

5. FORMAL PLAN 239

5.1 LARGER FORM 239
 (xii)

Page

CHAPTER 15
FINDINGS

THE NATURE OF THE OSTINATO THEME 241

STRUCTURE 241
2 USE OF THE OSTINATO THEME 250
3 INFLUENCE OF THE OSTINATO THEME 255

2 THE ACCOMPANIMENT 256

2 1 1YPE OF ACCOK-ANYIKC MATERIAL 256

2 2 THE ACCOMPANIMENT VARIED 257
2 3 ROLE OF THE ACCOMPANIMENT 259

3 MOTION FACTORS 261

3 1 TT? PARAMETERS 261

3 2 INTERACTION OF PARAMETERS 263
3 3 SENSE OF FINALITY 264

4 FORMAL PLAN 266

4 1 LARGER FORM
4 2 RELATION OF LARGER FORM TO INTENSITY PROFILE 268
4 3 CONCLUSIONS 269

CHAPTER 16
CONCLUSION

1. REVIVAL or THE PAS5ACAGLIA IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 270

2. POSSIBLE REASONS FOR BRITTEN1S USE OF THE PASSACA&LiA 271

2.1 FREEDOM VflTHIN CLEARLY DEFINED LIMITS 271
2.2 LINK WITH TRADITION 271
2.3 NEED FOR UNITY AND COHESION 272
2.4 ACCESSIBILITY TO THE LISTENER 173

.
3. TRADITIONAL W R O A C H TO PASSACAGLIA 173

4 G EN R E 275

5. DEATH-ftELATEL PASSiiCACLIAS 275

6. CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE PASSACAGLIA fORM 277

6.1 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE OSTINATO THEME 277
6.2 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE TYPE Or ACCOMPANYING MATERIAL 278

7. POSITION WITHIN THE OVERALL FRAMEWORK

8. BRITTON'S ACHIEVEMENT 280

 (xiii)

APPENDIX A
THE PASSACAGLIA F COR TO THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

1. SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES 281

1.1 ORIGIN OF TERM 281

1.2 EARLY SOURCES 281
1.3 THE CHACONNE 283
1.4 THE BAROQUE VARIATION PASSACAGLIA AND CHACONNE 284

2. NINETEENTH CENTURY 302

APPENDIX B

EXTRACTS FROM SCORES

1. B. Britten, Violin Concerto, Op. 15 306

2. B. Britten, Symphony for C e l l o and O r c h e s t r a , fp. 68 309
3. B. Britten, String Quartet no. 3, Op. 94 312

WORKS CONSULTED

1. BOOKS 315
2. PERIODICAL ARTICLES 318
3. SCORES 320
4. RECORDINGS 323
 1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1. THE PASSACAGLIA IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

1.1 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE1

In the twentieth century there has been a general acceptance of

the distinction between the passacaglia and chaconne made by
2
P. Gjetschius in 1915, and reitera' sd by W. Apel. Apel bases his
definition on Bach's Passacaglia in C minor for organ (BWV 582)
and his Chaconne in D minor for unaccompanied violin (BWV 1004):

A passacaglia, then, is a continuous variation

based on a clearly distinguishable ostinato that
normally appears in the bass but that may occasion­
ally be transferred to an upper voice, as in Bach's
passacaglia. A chaconne, on the othsr hand, is a
continuous variation in which the "theme" is a scheme
of harmonies (e.g. I-VI-IV-V) usually treated so that
the first and last chords are fixed whereas the inter­
vening ones can be replaced by substitutes.^

4 5 6
Theorists such as W. Berry, L. Stein and J.T. Hutcheson
agree with Ap e l ’s distinction. D.M. Green distinguishes between
variations on a basso ostinato and variations on a succession of

The documentation throughout this thesis is based on:

Modern Language Association, MLA Handbook for Writers of Research
Papers, Theses, and Dissertations (New York: Modern Language
Association, 197?).

2 P. Goetschlus, The Larger Forms o f Musical Composition

(New York: Schirmer, 1915), pp 29-40.

" w. AD e l , H a z a r d Dictionary o f Music, 2nd ed. (London:

Heinemann, 1976), p. 141.

^ W. Berry, Form in Music (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall,

1966), pp. 279-290.

5 L. Stein, Structure and Style (Princeton: summy Birchard,

1979), pp. 142-145.

^ J.T. Hutcheson, Musical Form and Analysis (Boston: Allyr. &

Bacon, 1974), Vol. 11, pp. 172-195.
 2

harmonies.7
In recent years, this definition has once again been confirmed

by Hudson:

In the 20th century composers and musicologists,

using B a c h ’s passacaglia as a model, have defined
the form as a set of continuous variations on a
ground bass, with the ground occasionally appee*-ing
also in an upper voice. This has sometimes been
extended to include a pitch ostinato, in which
rhythm is not a constant factor.8

This chapter presents a brief discussion of representative

examples of twentieth-century passacaglias in order to illustrate
the context of Britten’s interest in this fora.

1.2 TRADITIONAL PASSACAGLIAS

Benjamin Britten (1913-1976) i., probably the most prolific composer

of passacaglias in the twentieth century. In the thirteen passacaglias
discussed in detail in the following chapters, he has, for the most
part, adhered to the traditional form of the passacaglia under the
influence of the Baroque composers and of H. Purcell (1659-1695)
in particular.

1.2.1 M. Reger UW73-1916)

In his Introduction, Passacaglia and Fugue. Op. 96 (1906) and his

Introduction, Passacaglia and Fugue, op. 127 (1913), Reger followed
the Baroque prototype and that of J.S. Bach (1685-1750) in particular.
He retained the basso ostinato theme relatively unchanged throughout
with variation in the upper voices.

1.2.2 P. Hindemith (1895-1963)

Following the German renewal of Baroque principles which was already

7 D.M. Green, Form in Tonal Music (New York: Holt, Rinehart s

Winston, 1965), pp. 115-123.

8 n. Hudson, "Passacaglia," The New Grove Dictionary of Music

and Mu8iaiari8t ed. S. Sadie (London: MacMillan, 1980), Vol. XIV, p. 270.
evident in the works of J. Brahms (1833-1697) and Reger, Hindemith
also adopted the traditional form of the passacaglia. Apart from
Britten, Hindemith is probably the most generally known composer
of passacaglias in the twentieth century. Four of his representative

passacaglias are briefly discussed here.

[Link] Das Marien lebet., Op. 27 (1922-1923, rev. 1936-1948)

The third in thi> cycle of fifteen jongs is a passacaglia. The seven

measure ostinato theme retains the traditional triple metre with a
preponderance of trochaic rhythm. The theme contains all twelve
notes of the chromatic scale with the last two notes forming tritone
intervals with the first two notes.

9
Ex. 1: P. Hindemith, Das Marienleben, no. 3, mm 1-7
(ostinato theme)

The theme is confined to the bass registers throughout except

for the climactic twelfth statement where it is split between the
bass and the soprano.

9 F. Hindemith, Das Marienleben, Op. 27, no. 3 (Mainz: Schott,

1951), p. 11.
 4

Ex. 2: p. Hindemith, Dae M a r i e n U b e n , i0 no. 3, mm. 78-84

(variation eleven; [Link] notes are marked *)

10 Hindemith, D a j M a r i e n l e b m , p. 16.
 5

The theme is frequently ornamented and rhythmically varied within

the seven measure rhythmic unit. However, a precedent for this type
of treatment can be found in the Passacaglia in C minor (BWV 582)
by J s. Bach.

[Link] String Quartet no. 4, Op. 32 (1923)

This passacaglia forms the final movement of the four movement work,
and is linked without a break to & fugato. Once again, Hindemith has
used a seven measure theme in triple metre, which xS stated twenty
eight times. T* e theme contains eleven of the twelve notes of the
chromatic scale.

Ex. 3: P. Hindemith, String Quartet no. 4 , 11 IV, mm. 1-7

(ostinato them®)

(I » 72-scn

As in the Bach Passacaglia, the initial presentation of the

theme is unaccompanied, and the ostinato is not confinec. to the
lower registers, but frequently moves into the and upper
voices. It is also frequently ornamented and rhythmically altered
while remaining within the original seven measure unit.

[Link] Nobilisaima Vieione (1938)

The passacaglia constitutes the final movement of this throe move­

ment suite, and it imparts a feeling of restlessness. The restless­
ness is created by the passacaglia theme itself which is characterized
by syncopation and quick changing harmonic suggestions. The constant

* * P. Hindemith, String Quartet no. 4, Op. 32, pocket score

(Mainz: Schott, 1952), p. 33.
 6

repetitions of this active theme impart an underlying vitality

to the entire movement.

Hindemith here uses a six measure ostinato theme, but retains
the traditional triple -ietre and unaccompanied first statement.
The first three measures of the theme are pantatonic but clearly
or. C.

12
Ex. 4: P. Hindemith, Nobilissima Visione 111, mm. 1-6
(ostinato theme)

F ie r H e h h#w#gt J j b iB 80

— t»-y v .

The ostinato theme is presented in its original form throughout

the passacaglia. It is not confined to the bass registers and is as

frequently presented in the middle and upper registers as in the ba s s .

[Link] Symphonic "Die Harmonie der Welt" (1951)

The third and final movement of this symphony is a passacaglia which

is prefaced by a forty seven measure fugue. The passacaglia itself
is in two sections separated by a passage of recitative. The ostinato
theme of the second section is a rhythmic variant of that of the first
section. The ostinato theme is closely related to that of the fugue
which precedes it.

P. Hindemith, N o h i l i s s i m a V i s i o n ? % 111 (1938), pocket score

(Mainz: Schott, 1939), p. 48.
Ex. 5: P. Hindemith, SytKphonie "Die Harmonie der Welt,**13 111,
rm. 1-53 {fugue theme)

Srhr 6 r * it (i bl« <01

f"

Ex. 6s P. Hindemith, Syaphoni# "Die Harmonie der Welt,"*4 111,

rasa. 4 8 - % (ostinato theme of first section)

Ex. 7*. p. Hindemith, Sytnphonie "Die Harmonie der W®lt,"lj 111,

ess.168-175 {ostinato them© of second section)

ttchr,« 1 , g e .i i h t i g ( i * W - iO C .,

^ P. Hindemith, Symphonic "Die Harraonie d©r Welt" U9S1),

pocket score (Mainz: Schott, 1952), p. 75.

14 Hindemith, Sytnphonie "Die Harmonte der Welt,” p. 81.

15
Hindemith, Symphonie "Die Harmonie der Welt," pp. 98-99.
m a t i

Through rt.; fir ft section of the passacaglia the ostinato is

presented un .x ®r e d . In the second section, the ostinato theme is also

pr*Rented unaltered throughout with a short interruption of free
•^velopaental material following statement six.

1.2.3 S. Barber {1910 --- )

The finale of Barber's Symphony no. 1 (1936) is a traditional

passacaglia. The six measure ostinato theme in triple m p vre is
stated thirteen times with only the slightest rhythmic alteration
in the twelfth and thirteenth statements.
The accompaniment consists of themes previously heard during
the course of the symphony.-

Ex. 3: S. Barber, Symphony no. I,16 score number 42, mm. 1-6
(ostinato theme)

Con ffloto J m 100

1.2.4 D. Shostakovich ( 1 9 0 6 --- )

Movement four, the penultimate movement of Shostakovich’s Symphony

no. B, Op. 65 (1943), takes the form of a traditional passacaglia.
The nine measure ostinato theme is stated twelve times in its exact
form. Tne initial presentation is strong and forceful, but thereafter
it is always stated in tne extreme bass register with a very low
dynamic level.

16 S. Barber, Symphony no. 1 (1936), study score (New York;

Schirmer, 1943), p. S 4 .
Ex. 9: D. Shostakovich, Symphony no. 8,*^ IV, rum, 3-12
{ostinato theme)

1.2.5 I. Stravinsky (1882-1971)

In Stravinsky's Septet (1953), the slow passacaglia functions as

a stabilizing movement between the two faster outer movements.
The varied textures of this passacaglia are built almost
exclusively from the ostinato theme itself. According to Stein,
every note of every part is thematic, apart from a two part
counterpoint in the first, fourth and seventh variations which is
18
not derived from the ostinato theme.

19
Ex. 10: I. Stravinsky, Septet, 11, nan. 1-8
(ostxnatc theme)

* ^ D. Shostakovich, Symphony no. 0, Op. 65, pocket score

(Wiesbaden: Breitkopf, 1947), pp. 109-110.

^ E. Stein, "Stravinsky's Set „et," Te>vpo, 31 (1954), p. 7.

19
I. Stravinsky, Septet (1953), full score (London: Boosey
& Hawkes, 1953), p. 12.
 10

The us# of an eight measure theme, triple metre and a pre­

dominantly trochaic rbvthmic pattern are all traditional features.
An unusual fea* of the opening statement is the use of
Klangfarbenme lodie, t'?. it, the motives arn distributed amongst
the different instrument*. This same type of motive distribution
also occurs in the final statement of the ostinato theme. While
Stravinsky has followed Bach's precedent of introducing the ostinato
theme unaccompanied, nevertheless, the constantly changing timbre
of the ostinato tends to weaken the coherency of the line.
Another interesting feature of the opening statement is the
wide leaps over which the intervals are strstched, encompassing more

than two octaves.

In the variations which follow, the ostinato theme is mainly
confined to the bass register, and above it

... the upper parts form canons which, how e v e r ,

do not adhere to the theme's rhythm and intervals,
but only to the sequence of its notes. The canons
are of many kinds, at various intervals, by in­
version, retrograde motion and inversion of the
retrogression; in fact, Strawinsky*s theme is
treated in many ways like Schoenberg's basic
sets of twelve notes.20

This close relationship between the ostinato theme and the

accompanying material shows a parallel vrith Schoenberg’s

passacaglia of "Nacht" from P i e r r o t L u n a i r e , Op. 21 (1912), and

demonstrates a tremenious economy of resources.
The ostinato theme is treated as a series of pitches rather
than of specific intervals. The original rhythm of the theme is
adhered to throughout, with the exception of the final two
variations which see some slight rhythmic changes. Nevertheless,
despite this adherence to the pitches and rhythm of the ostinato
theme, it lacks the coherence of line which is a feature of those
themes which retain a specific intervallic structure, and, in this
respect, one can see here a loosening of the bonds of the traditional
passacaglia.

20
Stein, "Stravinsky’s Septet," p, 7.
 11

1.2,6 J. Joubert ()9?7 --- )

the passacaglia of Joubert' * Passacaglia and Fugue, Op. 35 (1963)

is of the traditional t y p e . The eight measure ostinato theme is in
the traditional triple metre, but substitutes the trochaic metre
so popular in Baroque passacaglias with an iambic metve which is
used consistently throughout the theme.

21
Ex. 11 j J. Joubert, Passacaglia and Fugue, mss. 1-8
(ostinato theme)

In this work for organ, the ostinato theme is retained, with

only the slightest modifications, throughout all thirteen variations.
He has adopted Sach's plan of coupling a passacaglia with a fugue.

1.3 FREE PASSACAGLIAS

At the same time that Regor produced his Introduction, Passacaglia

and Fugue, Op. 96 (1906) for two pianos, and his Introduction,
Passacaglia and Fugue, Op. 127 (1913) for organ in which he
followed the [Link] passacaglia for® and was 'trongly influenced
by Bach's Passacaglia in C minor in particular, interesting new
methods were being developed by the Viennese composers A. Schoenoerg,
A. Webern and A. Berg.

1.3.1 A. Webern (1883-1945)

Webern's Passacaglia, op. 1 (1906) appeared slightly before

Schoenberg's introduction of free atonality, and fifteen years before
his introduction of the serial method.

At the time of th© composition of tnis passacaglia, b’ebern had

just completed his formal studies with Schoenberg. In view of the

J. Joubert, Passacaglia and Fugue, Op. 35 (London: Novello,

1963, , p. 1 ,
 12

generally acknowledged influence of Brahms on Schoenberg and the fact

that Schoenberg laid great emphasis on the analysis of the works of
Brahos in his teaching, it seems possible that Webern may have taken
the finale of Brahms's Fourth Symphony as his starting point.
However, he in no way copied his model, and, in fact, developed the
form 5n a highly personal way.
Webern's writing in this passacaglia is tonal and expressive
in the post-Romantic idiom. He draws from the traditional
passacaglia and, at the same time, introduces many progressive
elements. He follows tradition in using an eight measure ostinato
theme, however, the duple metre is a break with the traditional
triple metre of Baroque passacaglias. The ostinato theme is
tonal, both beginning and ending on tt:c toni-, and outlines D
minor. It open? with the harmonic progression I-V , and ends with
the strong cadential formula II-V-*.

22
Ex. 12: A. Webern, Passacaglia, mm. i-8
(ostinato theme)

An interesting feature of this ostinato theme is its use of

silence in the second half of each measure. The use of silence later
became an integral aspect of 'Webern's style.

Webern's adoption of traditional elements can be seen not only

in his use of an eight measure theme, but also in the conti: uousness
of the variations, and the retention of the identity of the ostinato
theme at least in the early stages of the composition. Furthermore,
he borrows the plan of J.S. Bach's Chaconne for solo violin (BWV 1004)
of contrasting two sections in the minor mode with a central section
in the ms ,or m o d e .

A. Webern, Passacaglia, Op. 1 (Vienna. Universal, 1950), p. 1.

 13

Nevertheless, the work presages a new freedom within the

passacaglia form because

a) the constituent notes of the theme are sometimes dispersed in

the harmony so that the theme's co\?rence as a line is under­
mined;
b) in the later stager of the passacaglia, the theme becomes
imperceptible apart from rootivic references to it.

Such departures from traditional practice foreshadowed a new type of

passacaglia writing, which could be described as the free passacaglia.
The first section in D minor, that is, the theme plus the first
eleven variations (mm. 1-104) is marked by a contrapuntal vitality.

While in <nany of these variations, the theme appears intact, never­

theless, alongside this conventional approach, there are several
examples of a greater freedom. In variation six (mm. 4C-48), for
example, the theme disappears as a line, and is replaced by imitating
figures which allude to it from time to time.

23 3 1
Ex. 13: A Webern, Passacaglia, mm. 49 -54
(variation six; theme notes are marked *)

Other examples of the breaking up of the line of the ostinato

theme occur in variations nine and ten.

23
Webern, pp. 5-6
 Hie second section consists of a brief interlude in D major
{variations twelve to fifteen). Hete, the theme is generally pre­
sented in a straightforward manner, the only exception being at the
opening of variation twelve (m. 105), where it is divided between
solo cello and first violin.
At the opening of the third section (variation sixteen, m. 137)
the theme appears in its original form, only slightly altered in that
the rests now occur on the first beats, and the notes of the theaa
occur on the second beats.

From this point, however, Webern treats the theme with ever-

increasing freedom, which includes chromatic alteration of the

theme while moving from part to part (variations seventeen -

24
Webern, pp. 13-14.

25 Webern, pp. 14-15.

English horn and oboe? eighteen - flute and clarinet,- nineteen -
cello and bass; twenty - trombones), incomplete appearance of the
theme {variation twenty one), fragmentation of the theme (variations
twenty two to twenty four). Thereafter, the theme becomes imper­

ceptible .
In such licences as these, Webern anticipates the new twentieth
century design of the free passacaglia. His suggestion of this form
in his Passacaglia, Op. 1, is mainly confined to the final section
of the work. However, more complete examples were soon to appear
in Schoenberg's "Nacht" from Pierrot lunaire (1912) slj well as
Berg's passacaglia in Act I. scene iv of Wazzenk (1917-1922).

1.3.2 A. Schoenberg (1874-1951)

Pierrot Lutuxim, Op. 21 (1912), is an atonal work scored for chamber

orchestra and Spreahstimrm. Number eight "Nacht", bears the subtitle
"Passacaglia” . It marks the beginning of the second of the three
sections into which the twenty one movements are divided.
From the outset, it is obvious that this is not a traditional
passacaglia. The ostinato theme consists, not of the traditional
phrase or pair of phrases, but of a three note motive. This motive
is extensively changed during the course of the passacaglia, and
both its original and modified forms permeate the entire texture
including the Sprecks>ti*me.

Even in this extremely experimental passacaglia, however, some

traditional elements are retained in the early stages, in that the
ostinato motive appears initially, following the introduction, in the
bass for several statements beginning on the same fundamental note,
and this engenders a certain harmonic repetitiveness often found in
earlier passacaglias. Nevertheless, the extreme brevity of the
ostinato theme, as well as the atonal and freely dissonant idiom are
unprecedented in the history of the passacaglia.
The treatment of the ostinato theme is marked by contrapuntal
intricacy throughout and intensive development of the basic motive.
As an example, one may cite the initial appearances of the ostinato
motive, consisting of five interlocked stretto statements.
Ex. 16s A. Schoenberg, "Nacht, B. 1-3 mm. 1-3
(ostinato theme)

Much of the iccompanying material :'.s also based on the three

note ostinato motive, and often consists of figuration around the
intervals of a minor third and a aajor third on which the ostinato
active is based. The following excerpt demonstrates the extent to
u*hich the ostinato motive permeates the entire fabric.

,27
Ex. 17: A. Schoenberg, "Nacht, i*. 14-15

The unprecedented features of this passacaglia include its

renunciation of tonality, its highly dissonant idiom, its. use of
Spreahatirrme, and, above all, its freedom of form. This freedom
is, according to Neloon, "... so complete as to make the piece

A. Schoenberg, “Nacht," from Pierrot Lunaire, Op. 2!,

study score (Vienna: Universal, 1941), p. 26.

Schoenberg, p. 27.
 17

more truly a set of free variations than a passacaglia in the

. * „ 28
accepted sense".

1.3.3 A. Berg (1885-1935)

[Link] "Hier ist Friede" from Funf Orcheaterlieder, op. 5 (1912)

This atonal song cycle dates from 1912. The fifth and final song
is a rather sombre passacaglia written in the same year as the
passacaglia of "Nacht" from Schoenberg’s Pierrot Lunaire.
This passacaglia is unusual in that it may be regarded \s
being built on three distinct themes. The first theme, which
occurs initially in the bass, is an ascending five note theme.
The second theme is generally considered to be the first twelve
note theme written by any of thi *hr«« composers of the Second
Viennese School. It is rhythmically more active than both the
first and third themes. The third theme, like the first, has a
rising contour, and is dominated by the interval of a perfect
fourth.

28 R.U. Nelson, "Schoenberg's Variation Seminar," H u e i c a l

Q uarterlyt 1, No. 2 (1964), p. 147.
 29
Ex. 18: A. Berg, "Hier 1st Fried®," 1-11
(ostinato themes)

This us© of multiple themes is an indication of a radical

departure from th* traditional, monothematic passacaglia. A
further break with tradition is Berg’s failure to establish a
genuine thematic ostinato at any point in this song. He does not
present the themes, either singly or combined, in any rigorously
ordered recurrence. Nelson sees him as combining the themes
"... into a rather loose five-measure structure that is defined
variously - now by on® theme, new by another, now by combined

29 1
A. Berg, "Hier ist Friede," from Funf Orahenterlieder,
Op. 4, study score (Vienna: Universal, 191:3) , p. 20.
30
R.U. Nelson, "Form and Fancy in the Variations of Berg,"
Muaia Review, 31 (1970), p. 56.
 It is perhaps the recurrence of this comparatively free
structure rather than the constant presence of any particular
theme or combination of themes, that justifies this song being

called a passacaglia.
Nelson goes still further and calls it a "fugal passacaglia"
referring to "its lugue-like use of multiple themes, to their
initially staggered entrances, and to their subsequent complex
interpenetration".
Despite this passacaglia's atonal idiom, it is in no way a
serial piece, as Berg uses the twelve note subject as a theme and
not as a row.
It is possible that Britten, in the passacaglia of his Violin
Concerto, Op. 15, 19?9, was influenced by Berg's crossing of the
two forms of passacaglia and fugue, in the initial presentation
of the ostinato th«sme in a fugato exposition (see Chapter 3).

[Link] Wo**eck, Op, 7 (1917-1922)

Act I, scene iv of this opera is a passacaglia. The ostinato

these is symbolic of the Doctor's obsession with achieving im­
mortality through his dietary experiments. The ostinato theme
consists of all t w e ! n o t e s of the chromatic scale.
It is possible that in his use of traditional forms in the
first two acts of this opera Berg was discovering the ole which
traditional forms and traditional stylistic details could play in
restoring the possibility of coherent large-scale structure which
the dissolution of the classical tonal system had destroyed.
Initially, the ostinato theme, which, like the second theme
m "Hier ist Friede" from Funf Oraheeterlieder, is a twelve note
theme, is presented in a recitative setting by the cellos over
seven measures. The theme begins on the tonic note E flat and
the last three notes outline the dominant seventh of E flat (with
root omitted).

31 Nelson, "Variations of Berg,” p. 56.

 32
Ex. 19s A. Berg, Wonaeck, 1, iv, mm. 1-7
(ostinato theme)

S«hr langsam - 3&-40 )

, t .. ~ i » ..111 r » lh « u I n Tunn n

In this passacaglia, Berg adopts liberties far in excess of

those he introduced in "Hier ist Fried®". There, although his
use of multiple themes was unprecedented, he nevertheless re-
ta .wd the melodic and rhythmic contour of each. In the
passacaglia from Wozzeekt however, the theme's melodic and
rhythmic contours are often totally disregarded. Despite the
rhythmic freedom, the ostinato is contained within seven
measures throughout the first eighteen variations, apart from
variations seven, ten, twelve and fifteen where the ostinato
is reduced to a single measure containing seven quarter notes.
This strictness of rhythmic units is counterbalanced by a
freedom of tempo. The i is a change of tempo for almost ©very
variation.
Berg has combined both strict and free elements in this
passacaglia, with the strict elements appearing in the <aarly
stages and the free elements becoming more apparent as the piece

32
A. Berg, Wonseak, study score (Vienna: Universal, 1955),
pp. 110-111.
 21

progresses. Nelson states that Berg’s "... free passacaglia in

Woazeok is the first important, large-scale example of the new
genre, a worthy successor of Schdnberg's "Nucht” in Pierrot
Lunatre
r • ".
„ 33

Au interesting feature of this, passacaglia is that the notes

of the theme j i g sometimes divided up with some occurring in the
melodic line vhile others occur in vertical pairs.
This combination of the line principle with the chord
principle was already apparent in Bach's Passacaglia where he some­
times used the notes of the ostinato to function as the roots of
arpeggiated chords. Here, however, Berg takes it a step further
and combines the notes of the ostinato in pairs, a procedure which
was not possible within the harmonic and tonal restrictions of the
Baroque period.

jmrg adopts many liberties in the treatment of his theme.

’
The earliest variations are the strictest. During the first three
variations, the line of the ostinato them® is preserved intact.
Gradually, however, the coherence of the theme as a line is under­
mined and eventually becomes rathei obscure. In variation five,
the simultaneous sounding of portions of the series appears for the
first time. This device attains an incredible symmetry in variation
seven.

Ex. 20: A. Berg, Wozreak, I , Iv, mm. 49-55

(variation seven)

33
Nelson, "Variations of Berg," p. 59.
^4
' terg, Wo zseek, p. 128.
 further Interesting feature is Berg's quick shifting of the
ostinato theme from one part to another within a single variation.
As an extreme form of this technique, Berg divides up th® notes of
the theme persistently and irregularly, and at the same time,
places them in new octave registers. Pn example of this occurs

in variation nine.

35
Ex. 21: A. Berg, Vosaeok, I, iv, 01m. 63*65
'variation nine; them© notes are marked *)

The result of such liberties in the handling of the ostinato

theme is that the line or structure of the theme is transformed so
that it is no longer easily perceptible.
Nelson sees Berg's writing as being "... at the opposite
pole from that of the classical passacaglia, even though his
writing has great inner logic and consistency*'.
He goes on to say that

Even today his handling is atypical. For to find

a comparable freedom in subsequent free passacaglias
one must turn to isolated examples from the serial
composers, such as Dallapiccola's Chaaonne, Intermezzo
and Adagio for solo celloi or Searle's Paesaaagliette
In Nomine Arnold Saboenberg for string quartet. Most
other writers of free passacaglias have shown a more
conservative attitude, e < "her by incorporating sections
/there the theme is followed strictly, as in the
Chaconne from Petrasse's Partita for orchestra; or by
elaborating the theme through the techniqus of motivic
development -[Link] theme transformation as in the ^
Passacaglia from Vaughan Williams' Fifth Symphony.

35 Berg, Wozseak, p. 130.

36
Nelson, "Variations of Berg," p. 60.
 A possible reason for the free treatment of the passacaglia on
the part of the Viennese composers was that they were opposed to
the principle of repetition as such. Thus, their passacaglia
variations eraphasize the element of change rather than of
riftition. The repetition becomes less obvious, but nevertheless
remains the cohesive and unifying force. They tend to emphasize
motivic uevelopment in which unity and cohesion is achieved
through the relationship to the fundamental m a terial, as was the
case in the late works of Beethoven and Brahms.

1.3.4 M. Havel (1875-1937)

There are also examples of free pa*sacaglias written b y composers

outside the Viennese school. The third movement passacaglia of

Ravel's Piano Trio (1914), written two years after Schoenberg's

revolutionary Pierrot Lunairet has an interesting combination of
strict and free elements. The eijht measure ostinato theme is
stated initially by the piano in the bass register. The second
and third statements are by the cello and violin respectively,
so that the ostinato theme moves by stages frou the bass
register to the upper registers.

37
Ex. 22: M. Ravel, Piano Trio, III, am. 1-8
(ostinato theme)

37
M. Ravel, Piano Trio (1914), study *core (Paris: Durand,
1915), p. 21.
 24

This ostinato theme has a distinctive melodic and rhythmic

character. An interesting feature Is that once the theme has

moved up into the higher registers, the accompaniment has a
preponderance of trochaic rhythm (so characteristic of the ostinato
themes of the Baroque) especially n variations three to six.
The ostinato theme is never abandoned antir*»iy at any stage
during this passacaglia, nevertheless, from statement three to

statement ®ight, and again in statements ten and eleven, is- not
present in its original form, and there is frequent repetition of
motives an well as sequential treatment. In variation five, for
example, the first four notes of the ostinato therce are transposed,

rhythmically altered and treated sequentially, with the upward leap

of a nerfect fourth filled in with stepwise movement.

Ex. 23: M. Ravel, Piano Trio,38 III, mg. 41-45

{variation five)

Having reached the upper registers in variation two, the

ostinato remains there until the end of variation six, when it
begins its descent back to the bass register for the final vari*'.ion.
The traditional elements in this passacaglia are, therefore,
the eight measure theme, triple metre and a constant ostinato
length. The progressive traits include the deviation from the
original outlines of the ostinato theme, and the repetition and
sequential trea ,..*»nt of motives of the theme. Thus, the ostinato
theme itself is subjected to a certain amount ot variation.

Ravel, pp. 2_-2 3 .

 25

1.3.5 R. Vaughan Williams (1872-1958)

A much later example of a free passacaglia within a tonal context

is the fourth movement of the Fifth Symphony (1938-1943) by
Vaughan Williams.

A variety of approaches to thematic handling appear. The

seven .measure ostinato is in the traditional triple metre.

Ex. 24; R. Vaughan Williams, Symphony no. 5, 39 iv , mm. 1-7

(ostinato t»\eme)

Nodemu* (i - 120;

The counter-theme is closely related to the ostinato theme.

Sx. 25: R. Vaughan Williams, Symphony no. 5,40 IV, mm. 1-7
(counter-theme)

Modento {J - 120)

R. Vaughan Williams, Symphony no. 5 (1938-1943), pocket

score (London: Oxford University Press, 1969), p. 90.
40
Vaughan Williams, pp. 90-91.
 Both these themes are flexible and capable of growth and

development.
Aiter ten statements of the ostinato, roost of which are
ornamented and rhythmically altered (and, as a result, some of
them are a measure or two longer or shorter than the original
presentation of the ostinato), the music begins to expand more
freely. The ostinato theme becomes less perceptible and is
itself subjected to variation. It is presented in a scherzo­
like character, it is fragmented, and if. is involved in
contrapuntal working out.
Thus, th,J..» passacaglia presents both the technique of
variation over the ostinato as well as that of variation of the
ostinato theme itself in a context in which it becomes
increasingly obscure.

1.4 CONCLUSION

The above examination of several twentieth-cemury passacaglias

has revealed that there are two main types or tendencies:

a) the "traditional" type, in whi h the melodic as well

as the rhythmic features of the ostinato theme are
retained more or less exactly:
b) the "free” type, in which the pitches of the theme may
be somewhat obscured by motivic development, chromatic
alteration, shitting from part to part, fragmentation,
distribution within the harmony. The rhythmic values
may also be freely varied.

Differences between twentieth-century passacaglias and

the earlier passacaglias include the following:

1) the theme lengths are not restricted to four or eight

measures;
2) triple metre Is not always used;
3) the passacaglia is no longer in general restricted to the

minor mode;
4) there are often deviations from the original starting

tempo!
5) the theme invades the upper registers more frequently;
6} stock basses are not used (see Appendix A ) .

The conspicuously frequent use of the passacaglia in the

twentieth century signifies a new insight into the importance of
the constructive elements of form at a time when tonality can
no longer guarantee formal cohesion.
Stein has made the following observation on the use of
the passacaglia in the twentieth century:

The aesthetic constructive principle of the

passacaglia is that of repetition, a repetition
which provides continuity, coherence, order and
symmetry. In the twentieth century these
elements become the more sought after in order
to compensate for the lack of that organization
which was previously provided by tonality and
adherence to established forms.41

Delone echoes this sentiment:

The appeal of ostinato technique to twentieth-

century composers ... lies in part in the
need for unity created by the virtual abandon­
ment of functional chord progressions to shape
phrases and define tonality. Secondly, many
composers particularly those associated with
neo-classicism, have found the use of ostinato

41
Stein, Structure an.i Style, p. 43.
 devices of the passacaglia type quite compatible
with their stylistic and aesthetic values; many
composers of the 1930's and '40's turned to
ostinato techniques almost as receptively as
had Baroque and Renaissance composers.42

42
R.P. Delone, "Timbre and Texture in Twentieth-Century
Music," in Aspects o f Tuentiet.h-Century Music, ed. G.W. Wittlich
(Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1975), p. 123.
 29

CHAPTER 2

PIANO CONCERTO, OP. 13, 1938, revised 1945

1. BACKGROUND

Ta b Piano Concerto, dedicated to Lennox Berkeley, was completed on

26 July 1938. Britten himself gave the first performance on 18 August

1938 with the BBC Symphony Orchestra conducted by Six Henry Woods in
the Queen's Hall, London.
The Concerto consists of four character movements:

- Toccata - Allegro roolto e con brio

- Waltz - Allegretto
- Impromptu 1-Andante lento
- March - Allegro moderato

2. THE NATURE OF THE OSTINATO THEME

2.1 STRUCTURE

This ostinato theme is presanted in the mid-range for most of the

passacaglia. In only two of the eight statements does it descend to
the low registers fstatements four and six).

2.1.1 Sequence

The descending passages of this ostinato theme are characterized

melodically by the sequential use of a falling augmented second/minor
third, repeated on each occasion a major third/diminished fourth lower.
Rhythmically there is also a very prominent use of sequence. The
rhythmic pattern throughout is i / , the only deviation occurring at
the end of each of the two phrases Where a half note substitutes for
the rhythmic pattern.
Both rhythmically and melodically, the second phrase is an exact
4 8
repetition of the firat, apart from a short interpolation (7^ ~ 7^).

In the original vet a ion of 1938, the Concerto consisted of the

following ncvements: Toccata, Waltz, Recitative and Aria, March. In
the revision of 1945, Britten substituted an Impromptu in the fora of
a passacaglia as the third movement.
 30

Furthermore, in the first phrase, apart from the final beat, the third
and fourth measures are rhythmically and melodically identical with
the first and second measures. The same is also true of the second

phrase which, however, deviates slightly by way of the central

interpolation.

2
Ex. 1 j Ostinato

Andants lento J
( - 46-50)
cantabil*

— F — T .~f'.
j ppp
piu •apr«a».

. f i ---- ik.j ' m j

A - .Z r - d l J i U *

T '
--- ' ------- — .. ... .

2.1.2 Characteristic intervals

The ostinato theme is dominated by minor third and semitone movement.

This predominance of certain intervals* together with the strong simil­
arity between each of the phrases, and, in addition, the repetition
within the phrases, makes for a hiyhly unified theme structure.

2.1.3 Chordal influence

'Triad influence in this ostinato theme is strorg. Th® triad of A minor

is clearly outlined several times, elaborated on occasions with chrom­
atic passing notes. Furthermore, the triad of E major is outlined
once in its entirety, and on two occasions it appears without the fifth.

2
B. Britten, Concerto for Piano and Orchestra, Op. 13, revised
edition, pocket score (London: Boosey & Hawkes, 1945), p. 102.
 31

Ex, 2 : Triad structure of ostinato theme J

2.1.4 Contour

Ex. 3: Contour of ostinato (one horizontal square equals one

quarter note? one vertical square equals one pitch class)

Each of the two phrases of the ostinato theme presents the profile of
a decline followed by an arch. In the second phrase, the peak of the
arch ia more prominent, rising as it does to a higher pitch leval and
occurring [Link] later than ia the case in phrase on®. Both the

3 Britten, Concerto for Piano and Orchestra, p . 102.

^ The registers throughout this* thesis have been numbered as follows:

 32

higher pitch level and the tension created by the longer time-span
required to reach it, make the peak of the second rise the overall

highpoint of the melodic contour.

I choose to regard the above contour as two phrases each repre­
senting a decline followed by an arch, rather than as two phrases each
representing an inverse arch followed by a decline. My reason for
this choice is that, in the case of an inverse arch followed by a
decline, the lowpoint of the arch in both phrases would be rhythmically
weak. On the othar hand, if each phrase is regarded as a decline
followed by an arch, the highpoint of the arch falls in a rhythmically
strong position in both phrases.
There is a fairly wiue interval, namely a perfect octave, between
the fi*.at and last notes of the ostinato theme. This wide interval is
created by the declining contour prior to the rise of the arch in each
phrase.
The fact that the ostinato theme begins and ends on the same pitch
class allows for smooth repetition. The rhythmic pause, however, at
the end of each of the phrases creates a strongly sectional effect.

The total range-span of the ostinato theme is fairly wide — an

octave plus a perfect fifth.

2.1.5 Length

The nine measure ostinato theme consists of two phrases. The seccnd
phrase is slightly longer than the first {4 + 5). This theme is there­
fore slightly longer than the favoured four or eight measures of the
Baroque ostinato themes.
There are eight statements of the ostinato theme.

2.1.6 Tonal centre

This ostinato theme is highly chromatic. Nevertheless, it does remain

tonally orientated with E as the tonal centre.

2.1.7 Metre and tempo

The metre is 2/2 or 4/4, with the metronome marking of "Andante lento
{ J ■ 46-50)". At no point is there any change m the metre in which
the ostinato theme is presented. The initial tempo of the theme ia
retained throughout the passacaglia, apart from a slight quickening
in statement six of the ostinato theme.
 w

33

2.1.8 Rhythm

The pattern A ^ is adhered to rigidly throughout the theme apart

from the final beat of each of the two phrases. This fairly active
rhythm can possibly be ascribed to the fact that this is a mid-range
and not a low-range ostinato.
The strict adherence to the above rhythmic pattern creates a
feeling of calm and predictability which helps to counteract the
tremendous tension created by the high degree of melodic chromaticism.

2.1.9 Melodic tension

The ostinato theme both bagins and [Link] on the tonic. It is therefore
a self-contained entity. Within the ostinato, however, the predominant
movement by minor thirds and semitones creates considerable melodic
tension due to t:.* resulting chromatic movement.

2.1.10 Derivation

This ostinato theme is not derived from any material previously used
in this Concerto.

2.2 USE OF THE OSTINATO THEME

2.2.1 First statement setting

The first statement of the ostinato theme is accompanied. In this cast,

however, the accompaniment is not contrapuntal in the sense of setting
another theme or counterpoint against the ostinato, but is instead, a
harmonization of the ostinato itself.
The harmonized first statement setting for solo piano sets the
first statement apart and gives it the quality of a theme being pre­
sented for subsequent variation.

2.2.2 Variations in length

Very slight lengthening of the final note of the ostinato occurs in

statements three and four.- However, the most significant variations
in length occur in statements seven and eight. In statement seven, the
ostinato is abandoned after the first beat of the sixth measure.
Statement eight, the final statement, by the use of frequent long,
sustained notes spread* the ostinato over fourteen measures, despite
 34

the omission of two measures (4j-62 , . Thxs spreading out of the

ostinato in the final statement serves as a method of broadening as

the passacaglia nears its conclusion.

2.2.3 Variations in tone colour

Ex. 4: Tone colour of ostinato

I II Ill IV V VI VII VIII

Pno. Cl. Picc. Bans. Harp Dbs. Urns. Vlns.

Bsn. Ob. Vcls • Vlns. (pizz.:i
Hn. Vlns . Dbs.
Vlas.
Vcls.

There is a change of tone colour for each statement of the ostinato

iherae, and at no point is the instrumentation repeated. The second
statement shows a crescendo over the first statement. Thereafter,
however, In statement three, thete is a drop in density and this is
followed by a formal arch profile which is supported by tne instru­
mentation of the ostiruto theme.
In statement six, the use of pizzicato articulation in the double
basses is an additional source of colour as the peak of the arch is
approached.

2.2.4 Tempo changes

There are no abrupt teupo changes in this passacaglia. There is a

gradual increase in speed In statement six as the peak of the arch is
approached, but the reduction of speed in the final measure of this
statement allows statement seven, which forms the peak of the arch,
to assume the original tempo.

2.2.5 Theme drop-out and theme fragmentation

At no point in this passacaglia is the ostinato theme fragmented. At

the peak of the arch in statement jeven, th*re is a slight drop-out of
the theme.

2.2.6 Degree of audibility

The ostinato theme is audible throughout. After occupying t e foreground

in statements one and two, it moves into the background during the rise
and peak of the arsh contour, and moves back to share the foreground
with the accompaniment during th«s antiphonal i n t e r p H y of the final

statement.

2.2.7 Oct register

Ex. 5t Octave register of ostinato

Cj
L
c-
C4
C3
C2
c1
I v

The above illustration shows that the ostinato them^ occupies a wide
variety of registers during the course of the [Link]. It is
stated initially in the middle register, and thereafter is presented
at various stages in all 'gistr*rs, high, middle and low.
Moreover, in only two statements, that is, statements four and six,
is the ostinato consistently the lowest sounding part. In statement
five the ostinato is at tiir i the lovast sounding part. In the remaining
five statements, however, the citinato is definitely not the lowest
sounding part.
This; ostinato theme can therefore be described as a full-range
ostinato, in that, during th& course of the passacaglia, all registers
are freely exploited.

2.3 INFLUENCE OF THE OSTINATO THEME

2.3.1 Effect on length; time-span

There are eight statements of the nine measure ostinato theme. However,
the short piano cadenzas which separate each statement of the ostinato,
lengthen the passacaglia. Excluding the cadenzas, the passacaglia is
seventy five measures long.
The overall time-span is ft.'7 minutes. ^

The measurement of the time-span has been based on the following

recording: B. Britten, Concerto for Piano and Orchestra, with
soloist Sviatoslav Richter, cond. Benjamin Written, English Chamber
Orchestra, Decca SXL 6512, 1971.
 36

2.3.2 Sectionalization

This ostinato theme crcates a high degree of sectionalization due to

the following factors:

- the high incidence of chromaticism within the theme;

- the fact that it both begins and ends on the tonic so that it
is a sdlf-contained entity, and no forward propulsion is
initiated >y the final note of each statement?
- the fact that the individual statements of the theme are
separated by piano cadenzas.

3. THE ACTTMPANiMENT

3.1 TYPE OF ACCOMPANYING MATERIAL

Following the initial state-sent ot the ostinato by the piano, the

ostinato is giv..'n sver to the orcnestra for all the subsequent statements,
whil® the piano provides interesting accompanying counterpoint at times
reinforced u y tl . orchestra. The piano provides a new counterpoint to
Che ostinato thesne in each variation except the final variation \n
[Link] Britten brings back previously used counterpoint**, that is, those
which accompanied statements seven, four, three and two respectively.
An important unifying factor among these various counterpoints is
the similarity of rhythm in the counterpoints to statements five, six
ta sever. The predominant rhythms in each of these counterpoints are
m follows:

- aement v : a2 n m j j j i i j j i j .] jj j jj j

v i = a2 i i j j. j j r i _ j j j~j ] j 3 ]_

Stat *»Enent VII : ” -J J J j J f~ ] ] ^ 1771 J J J

»© use of a different counterpoint for each statement of the

ostinato reflects the improvisations! character inherent in the . .le
"Impromptu" which is assigned to this movement.
 Statements two to eight of the ostinato are each preceded by a
free passage for the piano which at times anticipates the counterpoint
to the following ostinato statement, while at other times i3 simply an
extension of the counterpoint to the previous statement. In the case
of the cadenza-1 ike passage preceding statement four of the ostinato,
it is unrelated to anything which precedes or follows it.
All the counterpoints are characterized by a conspicuous use of
the minor thii1 and semitone intervals which predominat' in the ostinato
itself.

3.2 ''-?E ACCOMPANIMENT VARIED

3.2.1 : rave register

In statements two and three of the ostinato, the accompaniment is

interwoven both above and below it. During statements four to eight,
however, that is, during the course of the arch profile, the accom­
paniment remains predominantly above the ostinato.

3.2.2 Tone colour

The piano dominates the accompaniment throughout. In the first four

variations, that ic, statements two to five, the piano has only scant
orchestral support. In these variations, therefore, the changing tone
colour of the accompaniment is brought about by changes in the octave
register of the piano. In vari tion five, however (statement six),
the side drum and timpani add colour to the piano accompaniment. In
variation six (statement seven), the piano accompaniment is reinforced
by the antire woodwind and string sections as well as the tuba and
side drum.
Variations one to four, therefore, use the changing octave
registers of th«? piano to achieve tone colour variation. In variations
five aad six, at che approach t o , and during the peak of the a r c h ,
Britten uses the method of additive crescendo of changing tone colours.
It is interesting that during variations one and two (statements
two and three), while the piano is relying on changing octave registers
to achieve variety of tone colour, the ostinato itself is not confined
to low-range instruments and is freely interwoven with the accompaniment.
 38

Ex. 6s Tone colour of accompaniment and ostinato

{* equals reinforcing some of the notes)

S.D.*
Tuba*
Harp* Db.* Strings
Db.* Db.* an.* "imp.* *.W. Str ings
Pno. Pno. Pno. Pno. Pno. Pno, Pno.

I JI Ill IV V VI VII VIII

Pno. Cl. Picc. Bsn s. Harp Dbs, Tbns. Vlns.
Bsn. Oboe Vcls. Vlns.
Hn. Vlns. Dbs.
Vlas.
Vcls.

3.2.3 Texture

Throughout the passacaglia there are marked changes of texture in the-

piano part for each statement of the ostinato theme. This gives the
passacaglia a highly sectional character.

3.1 ROLE OF THE ACCOMPANIMENT

3.3.1 s>ct lonalizat ion

There is no at’ ot in the accompaniment to disguise the repetitions of

the ostinato. On the contrary, the piano cadenzas which separate each
appearance of the ostinato 'lerv...- to e»».phasizf each repeti tion. Further­
more, the change of counterpoint for each repetition of the ostinato
is a further sectionalizing factor.

3.3.2 Accompaniment versus ostinato theme

The relationship of the accompaniment to the ostinato theme is variable.

Initially, that is, in the second and third statements of the ostinato,
the accompaniment is subdued and the ostinato is very much in the
foreground. From statement four on, however, the accompaniment
assumes ever increasing "significance until the peak of the arch is
reached in statement seven. This gradual increase in the significance
of :.he accompaniment is used as a means to create the rioe of the arch
profile. In the final statement, which represents the decline of the
arch, both ostinato th a and accompaniment are on equal terms.
 A
39

3.3.3 Grouping

Following the change of metre to 12/8 in the accompaniment at the

beginning of statement five, there is a strong similarity between the
rhythms of statements five, six and seven:

Statement: V , “ F f F F R

— VI . » 7 m i n n ^ r r m m _

Statement VIE : ” , f f f l /“ T " ] 1 JT R f T l

This similarity of rhythms serves to create a feeling of continuity

and motion on the rise of the arch profilev

The final statement of the os*-.in^tn (statement eight) , recalls the
counterpoints and rhythms of statements seven, four, three and one
respectively. This recurrence of previously-used accompanying material
in the final statement is a unifying d**\'ice which summarizes much of
what nas gone before and creates a feeii g of rounding-off on the decline
of the arch profile.

4. MOTION FACTORS

4.1 THE PARAMETERS

4.1.1 Density

The textural changes occur in stages corresponding with the repetitions

of the ostinato. Following tha increased textural density in statement
two of the ostinato, there is a marked drop in statement three. From
statement four on there is a gradual increase in density culminating
in the peak of the arch contour in statement seven, after which there
is a marked decline in density.
The density, therefore, follows a contour of rise plus ar^h.
 40

Ex. 7: Density profile

I II III IV V VI VII VIII

4.1.2 Range

at. 8: Range { ® ostinato; :: ■ accompaniment)

The above illustration of the range shows that the greatest contrasts
in range-span are created during the piano interludes which occur
between each of the variations. The. result is that ti.e range is
subjected to judden widanings and narrowings which, in some instances,
as for exam;:le, in the interludes following statements three and six,
are extrene. This constant fluctuation of range in the accompaniment
is used as a means of creating contrasts of colour.

4.1.3 Dynamics

The growth of the dynamics occurs in stages. Vhe stages correspond with
the statements of the ostinato. Additional motion is given to the
dynamics through the use- of dynamic waves within each of the stages.
There is a marked drop in the dynamic level immediately following the
peak of the rise in statement two. The piano interlude makes a gradual
transition from the dynamic level of statement two to he dynamic level
of statement three. Statement three represents the ]'»wpoint of the
 41

r i s i n g arch p r o f i l e . From t h is p o i n t , the dynamics r i s e rea ch in g a

peak in statem ent se v e n , and d ro pp ing o f f in statem ent e ig h t fo r the

downward curv e o f the arch p r o f i l e .

The dynam ics, t h e r e fo r ® , fo llo w a r is e p lu s arch con to ur.

E x . 9s Dynamic p r o f i l e

4 .1 .4 Rhythm

The rhythmic changes als o o ccur in s t a g e s w ich corresp on d with the

re p e t it io n s o f the o s t i n a t o . H ie rhythm fo llo w s the contour o f r is e

p lu s a r c h . The peak o f the i n i t i a l r i s e is reached in statem ent two

with the h ig h ly rh y thm ica lly f l o r i d p ian o accom panim ent. Statement

four rep resents the lowpoint o f the rhythmic arch p r o f i l e which reaches

it s peak in statem ent s i x . Statement s e v e n , which re p re s e n ts the pe*.k

o f the o v e r a ll formal arch p r o f i l e , sees a s l ig h t drop in rhythmic

a c t iv it y a t a time when both the d e n s it y and dynam ics are at a h ig h o o in t .

Ex. 10: Rhythmic p r o f il e

Jlx-
j. j'

i ri h i iv VI V II V III
 42

There is an interesting contrast between the marked drop to the

slow thoughtful rhythm of the ostinato in statement eight and the

antiphonal riswers of the piano which change rhythms very rapidly,
creating a sense of finality by means of compression.

4 .2 I . <.ERACTXON OF PARAMETERS

The above discussion of the parameters shows that the density, dynamics
and rhythm a l l follow the contour of rise plus arch, with a slight
relaxation in th® rhythm at th* p*ak of che overall arch p ro file. The
range, on the hand, creates coloui :ontrasts and a feeling of
motion tty '*?' ~nstantly '■
’hanging registers.

4 .3 SENSE . If

The reversing of the rhythmic values of the ostinato from J- i to i* J-

and the spreading out of the ostinato by extremely long note values

such as or n . j 1. 1 j , has the effect of slowing

down the rhythm in the final statement of the ostinato. This effect
is heightened, by th* antiphonal writing for the strings and piano.
Finality is also created by the return o f thematic material from
the accoiopaniment j f earlier v a r ia t io n s in the final statement of the
ostinato.

5. FORMAL FLAW

T h is passacaglia presents the contour o f r is e plus a r c h . The rise

occurs during the fir s t two statements of the o s t in a t o . Statement three

sees the lowpoin - o f the arch p r o f i l e which reaches its peak in s t a t e ­

ment seven. The rise of the arch is thus spread over four statements
with the peak of the arch occurring in the following statement (state­
ment s e v e n ) . The incline of th© arch o cc u p ies a sin g le statement.
This arch profile thus has a late p e a k .

E x. 1 ': Formal p r o f i l e
 43

The rts® plus arch formal profile is supported by the density,

dynamics and rhythm.

5.1 LARGER FORM

This passacaglia is the third movement of a four movement work. It is

thus positioned just after the midpoint of the work as» a whole, it
has a transitional function and leads into the final movement without

a pause.
The tonal centres of the four movements are as follows (the tonal
centre of the passacaglia movement is underlJjned):

D a E D
B
 44

CHAPTER 3

VIOLIN CONCERTO, OP. 15, 1939, revised 1950

1. BACKGROUND

B rit t e n '3 Violin Concerto, dedicated to Henry Boys, was completed in

America during the summer of 1939. It was given its first performance

.'.n Carnegie H all, New York, on 27 March 1940, with the New York
Philharmonic Symphony orchestra conducted by Sir John Barbirolli with
soloist Antonio Brosa.
Britten made a slight revision of this work in 1950, and the
revised version was f irst performed by Gimpel and the Royal Philharmonic
Orchestra conducted by Sir Thomas Beecham at the Royal Festival Hall in
London, on 12 December 1951.
The work is in three movements:

- I Moderato con moto ( J * 80-84}

- II Vivace ( J « 104)
- II* P a s s a c a g lia — andante len to <un poco meno mosso) t J « 52-54)

The third movement is a passacaglia and represents Britten ’ s first

use of this form. The passacaglia of tr*! Piano Concerto, Op. 13,

dates from the revision of 1945.

2. THE NATURE OF THE OSTINATO THEME

2 .1 STRUCTURE

2 .1 .1 Sequence

Ifiere is extensive usi of sequence in this jingle phrased ostinato

them® The upward curve consists of a threefold repetition of the
interval of a rising whole tone, each repetition being a minor third
higher than the previous one. The downward curve, on the other hand,
consists of * pattern of two whole tones, repeated a perfect fourth
lower and followed by a partial sequence again a perfect fourth lower.
 45

Ex. i : Ostinato theme (melodic sequence bracketed) 1

Andante lento (ur» poco mane aoaao) ( i » 52-M)

Hie rising contour thus consists of an alternation of th® inter­

vals of a tone and semitone. The Calling contour, on the other hand,
consists of an alternation of a semitone followed by two whole tones.
Rhythmic sequence also occurs in measures two and three with the
final note of the sequence in measure three contracted from a half note
to a quarter note.

2 .1 .2 Characteristic intervals

The oattnato theme consists entirely of stepwise movement in tones and

s«mitones. It is thus- highly chromatic, and this chromaticism is
intensified in contrapuntal combination. Nine of the twelve notes of
the chromatic seal© are represented in this theme. The three missing
notes are those which constitute the triad of E -.inor {F G B) .
The narrow interval of a major third exists between th© final note
?nd the first note of the theme's repetition. This small interval
creates smoothness in the repetitions of Lhe theme.
Tha thee.1
® has the narrow range-sp-an of an augmented octave.

2 .1 .3 Chordal influence

A diminished seventh chord ii outlined on the upward curve of the arch.

* B. Britten, Concerto for Violin and Orchestra, Op. 15, pocket

score {Londons Boosey & Hawkes, 1940) , p . 8 0 .
 46

2
Ex. 2: Upward curve of ostinato the* (notes marked * form part
of the diminished seventh c)r i)

2 .1 .4 Contour

The ostinato theme has an arch contour which reaches its peak slightly
after the midpoint of the theme and thereafter drops to a point
slightly below that from which the upward curve was initiated .

Ex. 3: Contour of ostinato (one horizontal square equals one

quarter note; one vortical square equals one pitch class)

2 .1 .5 Length

Rounding o ff the length of the ostinato theme to the nearest half

measure it it five and a half measures long.

2 .1 .6 Tonal centre

Although highly chromatic in nature, this ostinato them® seems to

centre on D flat :ninor. A diminished triad on C is outlined by the
in itial notes of '.he sequence in measures one to three. The .‘ is©
culminates on A natural which forms the seventh of the diminished
seventh on C . This A natural resolves immediately to A f l a t , the
fifth of the D flat minor t r i a d .

2
B ritten, Concerto for Violin and Orchestra, p . 80.
 w

47

2 .1 .7 Metre and tempo

The ostinato is in itially presented in simple quadruple metre ( 4 /4 ) .

In sections four and five (score numbers 36 and 3 7 ), there is a change
to simple triple metre (3/4,’ . The march in section seven (score number
39) sees the simple quadruple metre reinstated. However, section
eight (score number 41) again reverts to simple triple nxatre (3 't
and this is retained until six measures before section nine (score
number 43) at which point the simple quadruple uietre (4/4) returns.
The coda in section ten (score number 45) sees a change to 3/2 metre
for the remainder of the passacaglia.

The only major tempo change occurs at the beginning of the coda
(score number 45) where there is a marked reduction in tempo.
The tempo indication given at the opening of the passacaglia is
slow: "Andante lento (un poco meno m o «o ) { j » 52- 54)".

2 .1 .8 Khythm

The use of syncopation at the peak of the arch contour of this ostinato
rheme ij a tension creating device. An Interesting feature of this
t’ '*me in the first two measures is the activity of the first half o':
the measure followed by a static second half of the measure.

2 .1 .9 Melodic tension

This ostinato theme ends on the dominant note, A fla t . The use of an
open-ended theme which ends on tha dominant has a very strong effect
of forward drive. Melodic tension is also created by the highly
chromatic nature of the theme. The semitone and whole tone movement
within a framework of D flat minor creates considerable unrest.

2 .1 .1 0 Derivation

There is a strong affin ity between the scalie preoccupation of the

ostinar^ theme ^nd that of the main theme of the opening movement of
the Co -o.
 48

Ex. 4 : Main theme of first movement ^

2 .2 USE OF THE OSTINATO THEME

2 .2 .1 First statement setting

The £ir:?t statement is overlapped by the violin cadenza which links

the pas.-'acagi a to the preceding movement. Hie cadenza, therefore,
supplies a [Link]!: aK^ve the first statement of the ostinato
theme. The end of the violin cadenza coincides with the end of the
fir s t statement ct the ostinato theme. This overlap of the cadenza
with the beginning of the passacaglia ensures a very smooth flow into

this final movement.

In itia lly the ostinato theme is presented in a fugato exposition
with each statement overlapping the following statement. The opening
section, therefore, presents an interesting hybrid between t!*e fugue
and the passacaglia. During this exposition, each statement of the
ostinato tneme is presented a semitone lower than the previous stateim.” t.

2 .2 .2 Variations in length

Britten here uses a flexible theme length, and there are constant
fluctuations in the ostinato theme length throughout the passacaglia.

2 .2 .3 Variations in tone colour

A very Interesting use of tone colour occurs in this passacaglia.

Britten does not confine the ostinato theme to any one tone colour
within the sections of the passacaglia. The constantly changing tone

Britten. Concerto for Violin and Orchestra, p. 2.

colours not only from one section to the next, but also within sections,
results in a kaleidoscopic e ffec t, which serves both to create vitality

and to maintain interest.

The following is a summary of the tone colours used in the ostinato

theue:

Section I
Trombones Staggered, overlapping ent ies
Violins & violas
Trumpet
Flutes, oboes, clarinets

Section IX (score number 34)

Cello3 Staggered en tries, none of which

Violas follows the exact structure of
Violins IX the oitinato
Violins I

Section I I I (score number 35)

Horns In alternation, and finally in

Flutes, oboes, clarinets staggered, overlapping entries to
which the trumpets are also added

Section IV (scojfe number 36)

Cellos, double basses In these two successive appearances

plus
of the ostinato theme, the double
V iolins 1
basses and cellos are given the
Cellos, double basses rising contour, while the falling
plus
contour is given to the violins I ,
Oboes, violins II
and violins II and obce respectively

Section V (score number 37)

Solo violin There is one entry in this section

in which the incomplete rising
contour is given to the bassoon and
double basses, but the descent reverts
to the solo violin
 50

Sect Lon VI {score number 38}

Solo violin The ostinato theme is given to each

Flutes, oboe of these instruments or combinations

Violins I I of instruments successively

Violins I
Flutes, oboes
Cellos and double basses

Section V II .'score number 39

Trumpets and timpani (rising) The ostinato theme is given to each

Ho*ns (falling) of these instrumerts or combinations
Trombones of instruments successively

Section V I I I (score number 41)

Bassoon(s) The ostinato theme is given to each

Borns of these instruments successively

Violin solo

Section IX (score number 43)

Bassoons, trombones, tuba, Following the climax at score

double basses number 4 4 , the horns take over the

Horns ostinato theme

Section X (score number 45)

Trombones Hie ostinato theme is given to

Violins 1 each of these instruments

Harp successively

2 .2 .4 Tempo changes

The tempo is fairly constant throughout the first nine sections. In

the coda, however, (section ten, score number 4 5 ) , there is a marked
drop in tempo. This definite slackening of tempo in the coda is used
as a means of broadening as the movement and work as a whole reach
their conclusion.
 51

2 .2 .5 V a r ia t io n s in rhythm

Throughout the : por t i on o f thxs p a s s a c a g l ia , the o s t in a t o theme

is p resen ted m rhythms which d i f f e r markedly from those o f the o r ig in a l

se t tin g . The o n y use o f the theme in its o r i g i n a l rhythmic s e t t in g

occurs in s ec tio n n in e (score number 4 3 ) .

2 .2 .6 V a r ia t io n s o f the fundam ental p it c h and i n t e r v a l l ic struc tu re

D uring the c ourse o f the p a s s a c a g l i a , the o s tin a to theme i s n ot r e s t r ic t e d

to the o r i g i n a l fundam ental p i t c h , b ut each o f the twelve p it c h e s o f

the chromatic s c ale i s at some stage used as the fundam ental p it c h o f

the o s t i n a t o . Even the exact in t e r v a l l i c struc tu re o f the them e, that

is, the exact su cc ession o f tones and sem ito nes, is not r e t a in e d in

subsequent statem ents o f the o s tin a to theme.

2 .2 .7 Other v a r ia t io n s of the o s t in a t o theme

In ad d itio n to the freedom o f rhythm, length and fundam ental p it c h

encountered in the treatm ent o f t h is o s tin a to theme, am r featu re

x.s the in versio n of the theme. T h is occurs in s ec tio n s ix (score

number 3 8 ) .

A g a in , h o w e v e r, the in v e r sio n is f r e e , not r e t a in in g the o r i g i n a l

in t e r v a ls or length o f the them e.

2 .2 .8 Theme drop-out and theme fragm entation

At no p oin t d u r in g t h i s p a s s a c a g lia is the o s tin a to theme t o t a lly a b s e n t .

T here i s , how ever, a f a i r l y e x t e n s iv e use o f theme fra gm en tatio n , a s ,

"or exam ple, in s e c tio n s three (score number 35) and ten (score number 4 5 ) .

T h is p a s s a c a g lia e x h ib it s c o n s id e r a b le freedom and lic e n c e in the

use o f the o s t in a t o theme. W hile the o v e r a ll arch c onto ur o f the

o s t in a t o is r e t a in e d , the ac tu a l in te rv a ls rarely c o in c id e w ith those

o f the o pening statem ent.

Furtherm ore, there are freq uen t extens io n s and ab ridgem ents to the

r i s i n g and f a l l i n g contours o f the a r c h .

2 .2 .9 Degree o f a u d i b i l i t y

D e sp ite the freedom w ith which the o s tin a to theme is t r e a t e d , ii_ remains

a u d ib le throughout apart from s ec tio n two (score number 3 4 ) . Here, the

d r a s t ic change o f metre and the use o f trrmolo s t r in g s letely

 ''IF

52

disguise the presence of the ostinato which is also subjected to

variations in length,

2 .2 .1 0 Octave register

As is the case with the tone colour, there are constant fluctuations
of octave register not only from one section to the next, but also
within sections.
Hue following diagram illustrates the octave registers used for
the ostinato in each section, and shows the predominance of middle and
high register placement.

Ex. 5: Octave register of ostinato

The free exploitation of a ll registers by the ostinato qualifies

it to be described as a full-range ostinato.

2 .3 INFLUENCE OF THE OSTINATO THEME

2 .3 .1 Effect on length? time-span

It is d iffic u lt to estimate the effect of the length of this ostinato

theme (five and a half measures) on the length of the passacaglia as
a whole. The great freedom of length in the repetitions of the ostinato,
the frequent overlapping of entries, as well as fragmentation of the
ostinato all obscure the influence of the ostinato length on the over­
all length of the movement.
Hie overall length of this passacaglia is two hundred and eleven
measures. The overall time-span is 13.13 minutes. ^

The measurement of the time-span has been based on the following

recording: B. Britten, Concerto for Violin and Orchestra, with soloist
Mark Lubotsky, cond. Benjamin Britten, English Chamber Orchestra,
Decca SXL 6 5 1 2 , 1971.
 53

2 .3 .2 Sectionalization

The considerable use of chromaticism in this ostinato theme makes it

highly distinctive and, therefore, it tends to have a highly sectional
effect. However, the constant fluctuations in length, rhythm, tone
colour, octave register and audibility iesult in a varying pattern of

sec tionali zat ion.

3. THE ACCOMPANIMENT

3.1 TYPE OF ACCOMPANYING MATERIAL

This passacaglia divides itself into ten sections e.t^h of wliich presents
a specific treatment of the ostinato theme. It therefore presents the
novel situation of variations of the ostinato them® it s e l f , as well as
variations of the settings of the ostinato theme.
The accompanying material does not rise to the status of a theme,
but instead consists of melodic motives. A new accompanying melodic
motive is presented for each variation on the ostinato theme with the
exception of sections four and five (score numbers 36 and 3 7 ). In
these two sections, the accompaniment consists of harmonic support.

3.2 THE ACCOMPANIMENT VARIED

In viev of the considerable variation of rhythm, length, fundamental

pitches, intorvallic structure, and tone colour to which this ostinato
[Link] is subjected, there is not a total reliance on the accompaniment
to provide the element of variation as is usually the case in a
passacaglia.

3 .2 .1 Octave register

Throughout this passacaglia, the accompaniment is consistently neither

above nor below the ostinato theme. Instead, it tends to be interwoven
around it. Furthermore, the register of the accompaniment does not
remain constant, but tends to change as does the register of the
ostinato theme itself.

j .2 .2 Tone colour

As is the case with the tone colour of the ostinato theme which changes
not only from one section to the next, but also within sections, so the
 54

tone colour of the accompaniment changes with each change of colour in

the ootinato. These constantly changing tone colours create tremendous

v itality and at the same time impart a feeling of forward motion.

3 .2 .3 Texture

Just as the tone colour of the accompaniment changes from one section
to the next as well as within sections, so the texture also undergoes
similar changes. These frequent changes In -one colour and texture
create an irrei. ar pattern of growth.

3.3 RCI.B or THE ACCOMPANIMENT

3 .3 .1 Sectionalization

While within sections, the accompaniment usually overlaps statements

of the ostinato theme, nevertheless, a strcrg feeling of sectionaliza-
tion arises from the change of accompanying motive for each new
variation of the ostinato theme. Thus, each section presents both a
new variation on the ostinato theme, as well as a new accompanying
motive. As a resu lt, there is a highly sectional effec t.

3 .3 .2 Accompaniment versus ostinato theme

Due to tbti fact that the prime source of variation in this passacaglia
is the ostinato theme i t s e l f , it is not surprising that, for the most
part, the ostinato theme dominates the accompaniraent (sections one,
four, fiv e , six and e ig h t ). In the remaining sections (apart from
section two in which the ostinato thetna is in the background), the
ostinato theme and accompaniment share a fairly r status.

3 .3 .3 Grouping

Grouping in this passacaglia occurs within sections rather than between

sections. Within each section grouping is achieved by a consistent
treatment of the ostinato theme throughout, and also the use of a
single melodic motive (sometimes with slight variation) in the
accompaniment. The greatest unifying factor in this passacaglia is
the prominence of the ostinato theme almost throughout which, although
it appears in various gvtses, is always clearly recognizable, and is
the bridge which spans all the various sections.
 55

4. MOTION FACTORS

4 .1 THE PARAMETERS

4 .1 .1 Density

Che free fugal exposition which opens this passacaglia has a high density.
Following t h is , in section two, there is a sudden drop in density
followed by a slight increase which continues through section three.
Section four sees another drop in density. From section five through
to section n in e, however, there is a steady increase in density followed
by a dropping off in section ten.
The density, therefore, follows the contour of a double rise plus
an a r ch .

Ex. 3 : Density profile

4 .1 .2 Range

Ex. 7: Range « ojtinato; :*, ■ accompaniment)

I ~ V

From the above diagrammatic representation of the range of the

ostinato and the accompaniment, it is clear that the ostinato is not
confined to the lower limits of the range, but is interwoven with the
 56

accompaniment throughout. It also shows a constant shifting in the

area of range concentration on the part of tho ostinato.

In the accompaniment, however, there is n gradual widening of

range on the upward curve of the arch (that i s , sections five to eight*.
The peak of the arch, however, in section nine shows a narrowing in
the range of concentratiou with a slight widening again in section ten
on the decline of the arch.

4 .1 .3 Dynamics

The dynamic changes are made in stages which correspond with each of
the ten sections of the passacaglia. Within these longer stages,
however, motion is created by pronounced waves of dynasties.
The dynamics follow an upward profile during section cme. This
is followed by a marked drop at the beginning of .ection two (score
number 3 4 ) , which is followed by a gradual rise which peaks in section

three {scare number 35 ).

Section four (score number 3$) sees another drop in the dynamic

level, which, however, is followed by an increase in sections five

(score number 37) and six {score number 3 8 ), and is enlivened by the
dynamic waves within these sections. Section seven (score number 39)
sees a further increase followed by a drop, and this lower dynamic level
is retained at the begL .rsg of section eight {score number 4 1 ) . The
use r f dynamic waves towa the end of this suction, however, increases
tho dynamic level consiJ'. ... ..4-.
There is a further increase in section nine (score number 4 3 ) ,
and this high dynamic level a retained until the climax (score number
4 4 ) , after which there is a i d l i n g away in the dynamic le v e l.
The *.inal section (score number 45) h as, for the most part, a low
dynamic level, although here, too, Bti^ten has made Interesting use of
dynamic waves to maintain interest during this long section.
The dynamic profile can, therefore, be illustrated as follows:

Ex. 8: Dynamic profile

 57

Thus, t'. . dynamics present an overall profils of a gradual rise

followed by a decline.

4 .1 .4 Rhythm

1116 rhythmic changes occur in stages which corres|x>nd with the

variations of the ostinato. The rhythm follows a rising contour of
acceleration from section one to the end of section three. There is
a marked drop in rhythmic activity in section four. Frocn section five
on. how e r , the rhythmic activity gradually increases - hing a peak
in section eight and dropping off slightly at the higfc of the
passacaglia in section nine. This is followed by a * . reduction
in rhythmic activity in section ten.

Ex. 9 : Rhythmic profile

ffl Jffl
uT) mm
KXES

i
im J i n
n rm
t
mm] m nj
rm m F I M
j m
ru
H

J. /

It is intexp ting that the rhythm continues with a rising contour

during section two whiio the other parameters are all at a lowpoint.
Thus, the rhythm provides the interest and vitality while the other
parameters are down. In contrast, Britten reduces the rhythmic activity
 58

when the dynamics and density are high .1 section nine, so that the
peak of rhythmic activity occurs in section eight.

4 .2 INTERACTION OF PARAMETERS

The density follows the contour of double rise plus arch. The upward
curve of this arch profile is supported by that of the rang® which,
however, shows a slight narrowing at the peek of the arch in section
nine. Hie wide contrasts of range in section ten help to create
changing colour contrasts.
Hie dynamics follow the contour of the density with, however, a
slight drop in section seven and the first part of section eight.
This slackening of dynamics prevents monotony setting in on the long
upward curve of the arch, and prepares for a final surge to the peak
of the i-»rch.
Rhythmically, there is a rising contoui during the first thre«?

sections, and it is the rhythm, therefore, which creates the mcmentum

and vitality during section two in which the other parameters are down.
The rhythm follows an arch contour from the beginning of section
four and carries the interest during stetson seven and the first part
of section eight when the dynamics are low. Hie peak of rhythmic
activity is reached in section eight, and this is followed by a slight
drop-off in section nine, and a much more pronounced drop-off in
section ten .
Thus, both the rhythm and dynar'cs show slight deviations from
the ovar&ll contour of double rise followed by an arch .

5. FORMAL PLAN

H»is passacaglia presents the contour of a double rise followed by an

arch.

Ex. 10s Formal profile

 59

5.1 LARGER FORM

The main tonal centres of the three movements of this concerto are

follows t

- I F moving to D
- II a
- Ill D

This passacaglia is placed at tue end of a raultiiuovement work,

and in this position is id (especially from the point at which D is
conf raed, six measures before score number 43) establish the tonal
cer re of D.
Both th® first and last movements of this work gravitate towards
D, the first movement [Link] started out from F, and the passacaglia
having begun with a series of rapidly shifting tonal areas.

Hie main tonal areas of the work are therefore' (the tonal centre
of the passacaglia movement is underlined)i

- I Moderato con nsoto D

- II Vivace a
- I TI Andante lento D
(P a ss a c a g lia )
 CHAPTER 4

"DIRGE” from .SERENADE, OP. 31, 1943

1- BACKGROUND

In this song cycle for tenor, horn and strings, six poets provide words
depicting evening, moonlight, nocturnal fancies and fears. It was
composed expressly for the tsnor Peter Pears and the horn player
Dennis Brain. The cycle consists of six poems: framed by a prologue
and an epilogue:

- Prologue

- Pastoral Cotton <1630-1687)

- Nocturne Tennyson (18^9-1892)
- Elegy Blake (1757-1827)

- Dirge Anonymous (15th century)

- Hymn Ben Jonson (1752-1637)

- Sonnet Keats (1795-1821)

- Epilogue

The "D irge” is the fourth song of the cycle, and in it the Baroque
devices of ostinato and fugue are combired in a highly original and
expressive synthesis.

2, THE NATURE OF THE OSTINATO THEME

2.1 STRUCTURE

This is an example of an ostinato which occupies the middle range and

remains absolutely constant throughout. Hie ostinato forms a strophic
setting of the words against an instrumental fugue for horn and strings.

2 .1 .1 Sequences

Measure three of the ostinato theme opens with a sequential treatment

of measures one and two (treasure two being an exact repetition of
measure o n e ). This is a pitch sequence a perfect fourth lower, while
the rhythmic values have been altered.
Ex. 1: Ostinato theme *

Alla marcla grave (i • 60)

i>(hm un laMnCn

2 .1 .2 Characteristic intervals

In this ostinato theme semitone movement predominates. Basically, the

ostinato outlines a descending G minor triad, and chromatic movement

is used to add intensity.

2 .1 .3 Chordal influence

The basic outline of the theme is that of a descending G minor triad.

The triad is highly ornamented. The shape of the line stresses the
dominant note D.

2 .1 .4 Coatour

The ostinato theme presents a declining contour, with the interval of

a perfect octa e between the first and last notes. The total range-span
of the ostinato theme is a diminished tenth.

1 B. Britten, Serenade , Op. 31, pocket score (London: Boosey &

Hawkes, 1944) , p. 18.
 62

Ex. 2: Contour of ostinato (one horizontal square equals one

quarter note? one vertical square equals one pitch class)

2 .1 .5 Length

Rounding off the five and seven-eighths measures to the nearest complete
measure, produces an ostinato theme of six measures.

2 .1 .6 Tonal centre

The tonal centre is clearly G.

2 .1 .7 Metre and tempo

The metre is simple quadruple ( 4 /4 ) . The tempo is slow: "Alla marcia

grave { i « 6 0 )". There are no tempo fluctuations during the course
of the passacaglia.

2 .1 .8 Rhythm

This ostinato theme shows considerable rhythmic activity. This could

be accounted for by the fact that it is a middle register ostinato and
is therefore more active rhythmically than the low register octinatos.

2 .1 .9 Melodic tension

The overwhelming concentration on semitone movement within the framework

of the G minor triad creates melodic tension. The leading not** to tonic
ending of the ostinato, on the other hand, makes the theme a self­
sufficient entity and does not create any forward propulsion.

2 .1 .1 0 Derivation

This ostinato theme is not derived from material heard in any of the
preceding songs of the cycla.
 63

2 .2 USE OF THE OSTINATO THEME

2 .2 .1 First statement setting

The first statement setting is unaccompanied for the most part and
forms the beginning of an arch contour. Hie bass strings enter on the
fir s t beat of the sixth measure. The ostinato theme is five and
seven-eighths measures long.

1 .2 .2 Variations in length

After the f irst statement of the ostinato an eighth note anacrusis is

added in a l l subsequent statements, so that the ostinato theme is
exactly six measures long.

2 .2 .3 Variations in tone colour

Throughout, the tone colour of the ostinato these remains unvaried.

It is always presented by the tenor voice in the fame octave register.

2 .2 .4 Tempo changes

A constant tempo is maintained throughout, ..a the extent of there

being a direction ("senza ritardando” ) that chere be no slackening in
the final measure.

2 .2 .5 Theme drop-out and theme fragmentation

At no time during this passacaglia is the ostinato theme abandoned or

in «ny way fragmented.

2 .2 .6 Degree of audibility

The ostinato theme is audible throughout. However, as the accompaniment

shapes the rise of the arch contour the ostinato moves from the fore­
ground to the background, and returns to the foreground on the downward
curve of the arch. Thus, in contrast to the overall formal arch profile
of the passacaglia, the audibility of the ostinato theme forms an
inverse arch.

2 .2 .7 Octave register

The ostinato theme occupies a middle range throughout without any change
of octave register.
Ex. 3s Octave register of ostinato

*r m m r n
* ■Hllllll
h ± = = = : ===
I V IX

2 .3 INFLUENCE OF THE OSTINATO THEME

2 .3 .1 Effect on length? time-span

This six measure ostinato theme is repeated nine times. The passacaglia

is therefore fifty four measures long. The total duration of the

passacaglia is 3 .3 5 minutes.

2 .3 .2 Sectionalization

A moderate degree of sectionalizatijn is created by this theme, due to

its distinctive chromatic nature and also co its prominent position in
the middle register. The setting of the poem is melodically strcphic,
each verse being set to a single statement of the ostinato.

3. THE ACCOMPANIMENT

3.1 TYPE OF ACCOMPANYING MATERIAL

The accompaniment is a fugue based on the following theme:

The measurement of the time-span has been based on the following

recordings B. Britten, Serenade, with Peter Pears and Barry Tuckwell,
cond. Benjamin Britten, London Symphony Orchestra, Decca SXL 6449.
 65

Ex. 4: Accompanying fugue tht

The rhythmically active accompanying fugue is considerably varied

and extended, progressively more 30 with each entry.

3.2 THE ACCOMPANIMENT VARIED

3 .2 .1 Octave register

Throughout th® f ir s t , second and third statements of the ostinato theme

the accompaniment occupies a lower register than does the ostinato.
Towards the end of the fourth statement, however, the accompaniK’ont
rises above th® ostinato theme, and does not return to its original
low register until the final statement of the ostinato. Throughout,
the register of the ostinato remains fixed while it is the accompaniment
which changes register.

3 Britten, Serenade, pp. 18-19.

4 Britten, Serenade, p . 19.

3 .2 .2 Tone colour

In this passacaglia the accompaniment tends to change colour within

the statements of the ostinato and not always at the beginning of a
repetition. The change of tone colour within the statements of th©
ostinato and the overlappir. j of th® tone colour between statements
makes for a highly integrated conception.

Ex. 6 : Tone colour of accompaniment

Hn,
V in s . j *********
Vln s. II *******************
V la s. **********************
Vcls. ************************
Dbs. * * '* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *

”1 V~

3 .2 .3 Texture

Throughout, the textural changes merge into one another resulting in

a pattern of gradual growth up to and including the sixth climactic

statement. Thereafter, there is a gradual decline.

3 .3 ROLE OF THE ACCOMPANIMENT

3 .3 .1 Sec t iona1 i za t ion

To avoid extreme sectiona1iza t io n , the fugue theme occasionally overlaps

the ostinato phrases especially on th® downward curve where a l l the
statements are overlapped by the accompaniment.

3 .3 .2 Accompaniment versus theme

This is a very interesting example of th® ab ility of the accompaniment

to shape the passacaolia. In this instance the ostinato theme is fixed
at a static level with regard to both range and intensity. Therefore,
the task of shaping the passacaglia is left entirely to the accompani­
ment. The fugue enters in a subdued low register at the second state­
ment. ard u tilizes changes in tonal level, tone colour and register to
gradually gain prominence so that by the sixth statement, the horn's
rendition of the fugue theme foims the highpoint of intensity. Having
reached this peak of the arch p ro file, there is a gradual thinning-out
 67

of the texture, and this is accompanied by a return to the original

register and tonal level to complete the decline of the arch.

3 .3 .3 Grouping

The use of a fugue in the accompaniment naturally results in a grouping

of those statements in which the fugue theme appears. Consequently,
there is a grouping of statements two, three and fcur. The fugue theme
also appears in statements six and eight, while the episodic material
in statements five and seven is derived, for the most part, from the
fugue theme. The fugue theme, therefore, dominates the accompaniment
and gives a sense of forward movement and continuity to this short
passacaglia, while at the same time, diverting attention from the
constantly reiterated ostinato.

4* MOTION FACT ftS

4.1 THE PARAMETERS

4 .1 .1 Density

This passacaglia exhibits progressive stages of increasing density from

the appearance of the fugue subject at the end of the fir s t statement
of the ostinato until the thickest texture is reached in the climactic
sixth statement of the ostinato. Thereafter, there is a gradual drop
in intensity u n t i l , at the conclusion of the passacaglia at the end of
the ninth statement of the ostinato, only the tenor voice remains.
The density, therefore, has an arch profile.

Ex. 7s Density profile

 68

4.1.2 Range

Ex. Range ( $ »- ostinato; :* « accompaniment)

C?
c6
C5 T "rn m: # b
C4
c3
111 m k i t

c2
cl l4 f r l

The upper limit of tUe range of the accompaniment presents an arch

profile beginning below the pitch level o f the ostinato, then mingling
with it , and finally rising above it at the peak of the arch, there­
after descending to the lowest register it has occupied during the

passacaglia.

4 ,1 .3 Dynamics

As is the case with the density, the dynamic changes are made in stages.
Hie dynamic level increases with each successive entry of the fugue
t h e j» , as w e ll as with the appearance of the episode in statement five
of the o s t i n a t o , until the entry of the horn with the fugue theme in
statem ent six o f the ostinato brings the dynamic level to a peak.

Thereafter, the dynamics drop in stages during the episode in statement

seven and the appearance o f the fugue theme in statement eight. Within
these longer stages o f dynamic changes, however, Britten makes use of

dynamic waves by means o f several short crescendi within the fugue

theme which create vitality within the larger framework of the dynamic
arch profile.

Ex. 9s Dynamic profile

\
IX
 69

4.1.4 Rhythm

itie fugal nature of the accompaniment precludes dramatic rhythmic

changes. The fugue theme and its inherent rhythms dominate the
accompaniment throughout. In the final measures, however, the active
rhythmic patterns of the fugue are abandoned as the accompaniment fades
away.

4 .2 INTERACTION OF PARAMETERS

Several factors contribute to the arch contour — intensity, density

and range a l l follow an arch p ro file . During the decline of the arch
several irregular surges in rhythmic activity occur for the purpose
of fin ality.
This arch profile created by the accompaliment presents an
interesting foil to the static level of pitch and intensity presented
by the ostinato.

4 .3 SENSE OF FINALITY

The sense of finality is achieved by the ostinato returning to the

foreground in the final statement, the final three measures of the
ostinato being almost unaccompaniod, so that the ostinato forms, as
it were, a frame for the passacaglia. This final statement of the
ostinato with very sparse accompaniment balances the opening unaccom­
panied statement. A drop in the level of all the parameters —
dynamics, density, pitch and rhythm — creatas the downward curve of
the arch p ro file.

5. FORMAL PLAN

Hie six measure ostinato sung throughout by the tenor solo, cupports
an energetic fugue on an independent theme. This fugue runs through
several tonal excursions before completing its arch p ro file. The
highpoint of intensity comes in the sixth statement of the ostinato,
where the horn makes its only utterance with a long forceful presen­
tation of the fugue theme.

Forward motion is created by the fugue's tonal progress, its

register, contour, tone colour and its overlap of phrases with the
ostinato: the entries of the fugue are generally out of phase with
the ostinato generating a powerful rhythmic tension.
 70

The Monotony of the vocal part causes one to focus one's attention
on th# accompaniment after the f i r it few statements of the ostinato.

5.1 LARGER FORM

This passacaglia is the fourth song of the cycle, in other words it

forms part of a raultimovek \t work. It occupies a central location
within the overall form, and represents the highpoint of tbi work
around which the other movements revolve. Its tonal position within
the overall scheme is indicated below (the tonal centre of the
passacaglia movement is underlined):

(F) Db E* E e^ Bb D (F)
c
* .v r .
y-\ .

71

CHAPTER 5

PETER GRIMEb, OP. 33, 1945

1- BAC K G R Q M

The opera Peter Grimea vas first performed at the S a dler's Wells Theatre
in London on 7 June, 1945. The libretto by Montagu Slater is based on
part of the poem The Borough (1819) by tune East Anglian poet George
Craube (1754-1832). this poem describes the town and inhabitants of
Alceburgh, Crabbe's birthplace. It consists of twenty four letters
written in heroic couplets. Letter XX1Z contains a description of a
fisherman, Petar Grimes, whose original counterpart was a fisherman
named Tom Brown who lived in Aldeburgh in the middle of the eighteenth
century. There were few redeeming features about Crabbe's Peter Grimes.
In the process of transforming the Grimes of Crabbe's poem into
♦•he protagonist of a twentieth-century opera, Slater made several
important changes, and the resulting character study is quite different
from Cra— >e's. In place of the religious background and imagery, there
is a conflict between an individual and society. While Crabbe's Grimes
was completely "untouched by p ity, unstung by remorse, and uncorrected
by shame", * Sla te r's Grimes is represented as a psychopathic introvert
outsider, at war both with his nature and his fellow beings.
The opera consists of a Prologue and three ac ts. The setting of
the action is the Borough, a small fishing village.
The basic theme of the opera is that of a man in conflict with
society According to Hans Keller:

Peter Grimes is the living conflict His p ride, ambition,

and urge for independence fight with his need for love;
his self-love battles against his self-hate. Others, too,
he can (sometimoa^ love as intensely as ho can despise
them, but he cannot show, let alone prove his tenderness
as easily as h i* wrath — except through the music which,
alas, the people on the stage don't hear. Thus he is
destined to seem worse than he is, and not to be as good
as he feels. "Peter Grimes" is the story of tht man who
couldn't fit in. 2

1 A . J . Carlyle and r.m . Carlyle, e d s ., The Poetical Works of

Charge : rnbbe (London: Oxford Un ‘.versity Press, 1914), p. 106

“ D. Mitchell and H. Keller, e d s ., Benjamin Britten: A Commentary

on his *\n'k (London: Rockcliff, 1952), p. 111. "
 72

There are six orchestral interludes in Peter Grimes, an interlude at

the begir«nincf of each of the three acts, and an interlude between the
two scenes of each act. The interludes between the acts are descriptive

as follows:

Interlude I depicts the shore at dawn, and sets the stage for Act TI .
Interlude I I I ushers in the Sunday morning of the Church scene.
Interlude V dnpicx:^ the tranquillity of the moonlight playing on the
waves of the sea. Nevertheless, despite the peaceful setting, the
stabbing phrases for flute and harp which pervade the music, are
suggestive of the agonised jabbing within Grimes him self, and of his
inescapable predicament.
The interludes between the scenes relate to Peter:

Interlude I I depicts the storm, hut It corresponds to the storm within

Peter himself, and thus it has a natural pictorial as well as a
psychological meaning.
Interlude IV is in the form o f a passacaglia which symbolizes the
conflict within Grimes’ s personality - his frustration*, his g u ilt,
his longings, his inadequacy, his resentment.
Interlude VI depicts the total desperation of Grimes who by this time
is nearly .nad, and his encroaching insanity is symbolized by the dense
fog which is blown in from the sea and envelops the whole village.

Interlude IV , in the form of a passacaglia, thus has a central

position within the opera as a whole.

2. THE NATURE OF THE OSTINATO THEME

2.1 STRUCTURE

2 .1 .1 Sequence

The eleven beat ostinato theme, reduced to its essential notes is as

follows:

Ex. 1: Outline of ostinato theme

 '3

There is thus a strong tonic-dominant-tonic movement, and the

ostinato theme is , in fact, an ornamented peda]point,
A strong unifying factor within the theme is the rhythmic sequence.

Esc. 2: Ostinato theme (rhythmic sequence bracketed) 3

Andante moderate {i• 5 6 a t the s t a r t )

(eeerpre un poccr rubato)

pp d e l ib e r a t e

2 .1 .2 Characteristic intervals

Four intervals are contained within the ostinato theme. Of these, two
are minor thirds, one a semitone and one a perfect f i f t h . However,
the most striking intervals of this theme are the tritor.a and its
perfect fifth resolution.

Ex. 3: Intervallic structure of ostinato then® ^

Andante soderato ( 1 « 56 a t the s t a r t )

(s e a p r e un poco rubato)

pp d e l ib e r a t e

2 .1 .3 Chordal influence

A diminished triad is clearly outlined by the first three notes of the

ostinato theme. The perfect fifth which follows this diminished triad
may be regarded as the outer two notes of a major or minor triad.

3 B. Britten, Peter Grime*, Op. 33, study score (London: Boosey

& Hawkes, 1563) , p . 349.

4
Britten, Peter Grtmea, p. 349.
 74

2 1.4 Tritone influence

A tritone is formed by the first and last notes in measure one and

resolves to the perfect fifth in measure two.

2 .1 .5 Contour

The overall contour of t ne ostinato theme is that of a decline.

Ex. 4: Contour if ostinato (one horizontal square equals one quarter

note; one vertical square equals one pitch class)

F3

C3

F2

The distance of an octave exists between the outer notes of the

fallin g contour. The final note of the ostinato theme is exactly a
perfect octave away from the starting p itch . This beginning and ending
of the theme on the same pitch c lass, allows a smooth connection for
the repetition of the theme. The total range-span of the theme is
narrow, being a perfect octave.

1 .1 .6 Lenqth

Rounding o ff the two and three fourths measure ostinato theme tr the

nearest complete measure, the theme is three measures long. It is

repeated thirty nine timers during the course of the passacaglia.

2 .1 .7 Tonal centre

The tonal centre is F. The ostinato theme consists essentially of the

tonic and dominant notes, F and C , and is built on the strong implied
cadential for-nula i-Mf-v-I.

2 .1 .8 Metre and tempo

Here Britten uses an ostinato theme in simple quadruple metre ( 4 /4 ) .

The tempo indication is "Andante moderato ( i = 56 at the s t a r t )".
Thus the in it ial tempo is fairly slow. There is a gradual increase of

teupo during the course of the passacaglia. At the nineteenth statement

of the ostinato theme (score number 4 8 ) , there is the direction "poco
 75

a poco piu moto", wnile at the thirty fourth statement (score number
53) is the direction "stringendo” . This increase of tempo is not
countered until the very end of the passacaglia where there is a
"molto r a i l .'' just prior to the resumption of the dramatic actioii.

2 .1 .9 Rhythm

The ostinato theme occurs thirty nine times without transposition or

any rhythmic alteration apart from the prolongation of the final note
of the theme in the thirty n, ith statement.
A unique feature of the rhythm of this ostinato theme is that on
each repetition it is stated one beat earlier in the measure. This
constant shifting of one beat forward per statement creates an ever­
present underlying current of v itality.
The eleven beat ostinato theme occurs four times within an eleven
measure unit, and the variations above it overlap both the smaller and

larger units of the ostinato. Thus, on the basis of the rhythmic

placement, the statements of the ostinato fall naturally into groups
of four, that is , eleven measure un its. There are ten eleven measure
units of the ostinato, and there are ten variations of the viola then®
above i t .

2 .1 .1 0 Melodic tension

The tritone outlined by the first to third notes of the ostinato is

resolved in the following measure. F, the final note of the theme,
does not generate melodic activity as it is the tonal centre of the
theme, and also the note with which the theme begins. It does,
however, allow for very smooth repetitions of the theme.

2 .1 .1 1 Derivation

The ostinato theme is based on an augmented form of the Grimes motive

which is first heard in the previous scene in the churchyard where
Grimes strikes Ellen, and then pleads "God have mercy upon me".
 76

.: .4 = a =

J God havai Im p - cyu-por

Ex. 6 : Ostinato theme

Andante ®od«r*to (J- 56 at ths start)

(••Hpr# un poco pub*to)

The ostinato theme retains the simple quadruple metre of the

original motive. Apart from the ostinato theme occurring in a lower
register, the most conspicuous change from the original motive is the
insertion of a rest or rests between each of the notes of the ostinato
theme. These rests have the effect of delaying the appearance of each
successive note, and hence of slowing down the overall tempo of the
ostinato theme. The time lag between the appearance o f each successive
note is twice that in the original motive. The six note Grimes motive
is extended into a seven note ostinato theme by an additional appearance

of the fin*L note.

2 .2 USE OF THE OSTINATO THEME

2 .2 .1 First statement setting

Hie first statement is unaccompanied. This serves as an introductory

device in which the basic material is heard prior to any variation

nbove it . The introductory statement forms th< beginning of a gradual
rise contour.
The viola theme accompaniment enters on the tenth beat of the
second statement of the ostinato.

5 Britten, Peter Crimea, p . 282.

Britten, Peter Grimes, p. 349.

 77

2 .2 .2 Variations in length

The length of the ostinato theme remains constant throughout apart

from a lengthening of the fin al note in the fin al statement.

2 .2 .3 Variations in tone colour

Britten has used a highly imaginative touch in the variation of the

tone colour of the ostinatc theme. Each variation of tnv viola theme
above the ostinato is accompanied by a new tone colour in the ostinato
i t s e lf. Britten employs an additive technique of instrumentation so
that ar> overall crescendo is created while within this crescendo he
varies the instrumental comb' afions so that v itality is created by
the tone colour.

The two most essential contributory elements to the theme's

v itality are, therefore, the highly imaginative orchestration of the

ostm ato theme, and the rhythmic [Link] of allowing the ostinato therae
to occur one beat earlier in the measure on each repetition.
colour of ostinato
There are no major changes of tempo in this passacaglia. From state­
ment nineteen of the ostinato (score number 48) onwards, there is a
gradual quickening of tempo as the passacaglia presses towards its
highpolnt in the thirty ninth statement of the ostinato (score number 55 ).

2 .2 .5 Theme drop-out and theme fragmentation

At no point in this passacaglia is the oitinato theme abandoned.

Furthermore, the ostinato is never fragmented in any way.

2 .2 .6 Degree of audibility

The ostinato is audible throughout the passacaglia and is never itself

subjected to variation.

2 .2 .7 Octave register

Ex. 8: Octave register of ostinato

The ostinato is found in the bass registers throughout.

2 .3 INFLUENCE OF THE OSTINATO THEME

2 .3 .1 Effect on length; time-span

rhe vary short ostinato theme, only two and three fourths measures,
is repeated thirty nine times.
 00

The overall length of the passacaglia is one hundred and nine

measures. The overall time-span is 5 . 2 2 m in u tes. 7

2 .3 .2 Sect lone lization

This ostinato theme creates a minimal sectional effect due to the fact
that it is basically diaton ic, moving from tonic to dominant and back
to tonic, with the raised subdominant used to give semitonal support
to the dominant from below.

3. THE ACCOMPANIMENT

3 .1 TYPE OF ACCOMPANYING MATERIAL

The accompanying material consists of a theme given out in itially by

the viola solo, and followed by t«n continuous variations of no
consistent length. There is a direct relationship between the viola
theme and the o s t in a t o in that the v io l a theme consists of several
juxtapositions and overlappings of a falling minor third and rising
semitone, that i s , notes two to four of the ostinato.
Despite the intervailic similarity between the ostinato and the
accompanying theme, they remain quite independent of each other. The
ostinato functions as a harmonic support, while at the same time it
infuses rhythmic vitality and creates a tonal stability.
The th ir te e n measure viola theme c o n s is t s "3f three phrases of

irregular length. While t h i s them® c o n s is t s o f three phras«s the

variations on it are not structurally f i x e d . The variations are not

clearly subdivisible into phrases, and each variation on the viola

theme could be regarded as being one continuous phrase. Arbitrary
subdivisions may be made, however, on the b a s is of instrumentation,
dynamics and sequential treatment. Nevertheless, the variations do
not exhibit any uniform phrase subdivision.

7 The measurement o f the time-sp&n has been based on the following

recording: B. Britten, Peter Grirvee, with Jon Vickers, Heather Harper,
Jonathan Summers, Elizabeth Bainbridge, Teresa C ah ill, cond. Colin Davis,
Orchestra o f the Royal Opera House Covent G ar den , Philips 9 5 0 0 .5 2 3 - 5 2 5 ,
1979.
Ex. 9- Viola theme 8

The viola theme undergoes variation through the use of different

rhythms, contrasting instrumental colours and changing textures. Each
variation on the viola theme encompasses from two to five ostinato
statements. These variations have the effect of taking the attention
away from th»» individual statements of the ostinato and create the
effect o f a larger grouping. The fact that the ostinato rarely coin­
cides with the variations on the viola theme, creates a long continuous
flow.

The viola theme is rhythmically more active than the ostinato.

Ties across beats an. barlines obliterate the metric accents and
produce a subtle, free-flowing rhythm of an improvizationa1 character.
This feeling of rhythmic freedom is emphasized by the ostinato which
at no time indubitably confirms a 4 /4 metre.
The range of each of the three phrases of the viola theme becomes
progressively wider: a perfect f i f t h , a major seventh, and two

octaves plus a perfect fift h .

The range encompassed in the first two viola phra os is narrower

than the range of the ostinato. However, the two octaveu plus a perfect
fifth of the third phrase far exceeds the octave range of the ostinato.

8 Britten , Peter Orimaa, p. 349 .

 82

All the variations on the viola theme aave a contrapuntal

texture with the exceptions of variations three and fiv e , where the
' n.. .native use of harmonic variations affords a strong contrast to
the otherwise contrapuntal texture. Nevertheless, thematic s ig n ifi­
cance is -*tiil present within the moving parts.

3 .2 THE ACCOMPANIMENT VARIED

3 .2 .1 Octave register

Throughout this passacaglia the accompaniment occupies a register

higher than that of the ostinato. The ostinato remains in the bass
registers throughout the passacaglia.

3 .2 .2 Tone colour

in this passacaglia, Britten cth-is on changing tone colours rather

than on a continuum of colour for shaping the overall passacaglia. She
p ossibilities of tone colour variation in the ostinato theme ars
restricted to unison or octave doublings and to low-ranyc instruments,
The accompaniment, however, can adopt a far wider range of colours and
textures, and its colours range from the sombre sound of the solo
viola theme, to the chordal brass of variation fiv e , to the brillian t
running passages for high woodwind and strings in variations seven to
ten.
Britten here relies heavily cn the high woodwind and strings for
building tension towards the climaxes. These tone colours are
effectively offset by the use of woodwind plus horns in the pyramid
chords of variation three of the ol a theme, as well as by the
chordal brass in variation ’ ive, both variations being the source of
tremendous harmonic tension.
The use of staccato articulation in variations one, four and six
of th© viola theme also adds variety to the tone colour.
Within the changing ton© colours. Britten uses an additive
crescendo, in which this tone colours tend to change with each variation
on the viola theme.
f
3 .2 .3 Texture

The only abrupt textural change in this passacaglia occurs in variation

three of the viola theme, which causes a sudden drop in the density
achieved in variations one and two. Following variation three, however,
the textural changes are gradual, resulting in a gradually rising

contour.

3 .3 ROLE OF THE ACCOMPANIMENT

3 .3 .1 Sectionalization

There is only one occasion in this passacaglia where the entries of

the ostinato and the accooipanying theme coincide, namely, at the

beginning of the third variation on the viola theme one measure
before score number 4 / . In addition, e-ch variation on the viola
theme spens from two to five repetitions of the ostinato. Hits

further minimizes the sectional effec t.

3 .3 .2 Accompaniment versus ostinato thsvw

Hie accompaniment completely dominates the oassacaglia, while the

ostinato functions purely as a rhythmic and harmonic support.

3 .3 . ^ Grouping

The variations on tne viola theme are grouped by the recurrence of

certain rhythms. Variations one and four have the rhythmic fig ure
in common, while variation two is bmsmd on its diminution m .
Variations three, four, five and six exhibit syncopation in the
presentation of the fallin g minor third to rising semitone motive.
Variations nine and ten have running sixteenth note passages in common.
Thus, there is a rhythmic grouping between variations one, two
and four; three, four, five and six? nine and ten.
Of greater siqnificancw , however, is the use of the same
accompanying theme, although with variations, throughout. This creates
a feeling of progress by directing the attention to an ingredient which
is longer than the ostinato repetitions.
4. MOTION FACTORS

4 .1 THE PARAMETERS

4 .1 .1 Density

The changes In density are made in stages which corraspond with the
variations on the viola theme above the ostinato.

The density profile is one of gradual rise with interruption.

Ex. 11: Density profile

 86

4.1.2 Range

Ex. 12: Range { / / / - ostinato; '■• * accompaniment)

Th^ accompaniment reaches its highest octave register during t’ie first
peak of the rising profile in variation two of the viola theme.
It reaches its widest registral span, however, in the final
statement of the ostinato during the peak of the gradual rise p ro file.
It therefore reinforces both highpom ts of the formal p ro file .

4 .1 .3 Dynamics

Hie crescendos correspond to a gradual rise p ro file. The crescendo is

not made in one long sweep, but in two peaks, the second more intense
than the f i r s t , and several smaller crescendi, which give a cumulative
effect of a long crescendo.

The only marked reduction in dynamics occur- suddenly at the

beginning of variation three on the viola theme immediately following
the first peak of the gradual rise contour.
Ex. 13: Dynamic profile

4 .1 .4 Rhythm

The rnythraic changes are made in stages which coincide with the variations
on the viola the«.ne.
The drop in rhythmic activity at the beginning of variation three
on the viola theme corresponds with the drop in both dens ity and
dynamics. Thereafter, apart from a slight drop in activity again in
variation f i v e , the rhythmic profile follows an upward curve.
 Ex. 14: Rhythmic profile

~y*
 89

4 .2 INTERACTION OF PARAMETERS

The discussion above reveals an extremely close correlation of all the

parameters in this passacaglia, even to the extent that they combine
to form a temporary peak approximately one-third of the way through.
They then combine to form an even more intense peak at the culmination
of the passacaglia.

4 .3 SENSE OF FINAL i'TY

In the operatic varsion of thia passacaglia, the climax leads directly

into the dramatic action of the following scene, tnus the need for
finality in the conclusion of the passacaglia is obviated. Tt.s
dramatic action follows on immediately without pause. In the orchestral
version, however, Britten has added a short and subdued epilogue for
solo viola which recalls the opening viola solo.

5. FORMAL PLAN

The unaccompanied opening, followed by progressive growth in the

accotapai’.isnent, results in an expanding texture and a growing intensity
creating a rising p ro file . This rise is continued and brought to a
climax resulting in a gradual rise with interruption pro file.

5.1 LARGER FORM

This p a s s a c a g lia with its c e n tr a l location within the opera functions

as s focal point. It gives the opportunity for th® use of confirming
elements, the ostinato theme being derived from a previously-heard
motive, the only transformation b^ing that of rhythm. This motive is
given an added dimension o f confirmation by th® fact that the accompani­
ment is also derived from it . It is furthermore, a key motive through­
out the opera.

The ostinato, centred aa it is on F , affords a strong contrast

to the A-E*3 swing of tonalities which pervades the opera.
 90

CHAPTER 6

THE HOLY SONNETS OF JOHN DONNE, OP. 35, 1945,

NO. 9 , ’2EATH, BE HOT PROUD1"

1. BACKGROUND

Britten wrote The Holy Sonnets o f John Donna, a song cycle for high
voice and piano, in one week in August 1945, six months after he had
completed Puter Crimea. He and Yehudi Menuhin had just returned from
giving a series of concerts to the survivors o f German concentration
camps. Britten suffered a delayed reaction to an inoculation and
this cycle was written within a matter of days, while he was running
a very high temperature. The theme is one of sickness, death and less.
The cycle consists of nine songs?

- Oh my black® Soule
- Batter my Heart

- 0 might those Sighs and Tears

- Oh, to vex me
- What if this present
- Since she who® I loved
~ At the round Earth's imagined corners
- Thou hast made mo

- Death, be not proud!

The passacaglia movement is the final song of the cycle.

2 - THE n a t u r e or THE o s t i n a t o t h em e

2.1 STRUCTURE

2 .1 .1 Sequence

This six treasure ostinato theme rel Les heavily ort sequence in its
central portion (m. 2^-4^).
 91

Ex. Is Ostinato theme (sequence bracketed)1

A llegro molto moderate * aost«nuto (J- 63)

This sequence is exact in both pitch and rhythmic relationships.

The rhythmic sequence continues for cane further statement (m. 44 -S )

after the pitch sequence has been abandoned.

2 .1 .2 Characteristic intervals

This ostinato theme, apart from the downward leap of a minor sixth
at the beginning of measure two, is constructed exclusively from
stepwise movement. As a re s u lt , whole tone and semitone intervals
predominate. Tha theme contains fifteen whole tone intervals, three
semitone intervals, and on® interval of a minor sixth.

2 .1 .3 Chordal influence

The ostinato theme moves around the notes of the B major triad.

2 .1 .4 Contour

The ostinato theme presents a contour of a decline followed by a

gradual rise with interruption.

Ex. 2: Contour of ostinato {one horizontal square equals one quarter

note; one vartical square equals one pitch class)

* B . Britten, The Holy Gonneta of John Donne , Op. 35 (London:

Boosey 8, Hawkes, 1946), p. 37.
 92

The semitone interval between the sub lornin&nt on [Link] the

oscinato theme ends, and the mediant on which it begins, generates

forward momentum, and allows for smooth repetition.
The total range span is fairly narrow, being a minor ninth.

2 .1 .5 Length

The overall length of the ostinato theme is five measures.

2 .1 .6 Tonal centre

The tonal centre of the ostinato theme is K . The entire theme is based

on the diatonic scale of B major.

2 .1 .7 Metre and tempo

The metre is sisapie quadruple (4/4) . The tenpo indication is

"Allegro molto moderate # sostenufco f I • 6 3 )".

2 .1 .0 Rhythm

The rhythmic pattern of the ostinato theme is uncomplicated, moving

mainly by quarter notes, dotted quarter notes and eighth notes.
Rhythmic sequence is used in the central prrtion of the these
2- 5

This rhythmic sequence lias been so designed that each repetition

begins on a different beat of the measure (beats three, t^vo, one and

^ Britten, The Holy Gonnets o f John Donne, p. 37.

 93

four respectively). This helps to crtatt buoyancy and vitality

within the theme.

2.1.9 Melodic tension

This theme i? relatively calm .'Oth rhythmically and melodically.

Melodically it does not move beyond tha bounds of B major.
Britten uses the open-ended device of ending on the subdominant.
This creates forward momentum.

2.1.10 Derivation

This ostinato theme is not derived from material previously used in

the cycle.

2.2 USE OF THE OSTINATO THEME

2.2.1 First statement setting

The first statement is accompanied although the accompaniment is sparse.

It consists of a repeated dominant note F4 sharp below which there is
4 4
an alternation of the nediant D sharp and the subdominant E .

2.2.2 Variations in length

The only variation in the ostinato theme length occurs in the final
statement where the final measure {m. 52- 6 l5 is missing.

2.2.3 Var iations in tcne colour

The frequent changes of octave register of the ostinato theme are used
as a means of varying the tone colour, and give vitality and forward
momfitum to the ostinato.
After the first stanza (statements one “o four) i.» which the
ostinaco them* is spread over four octave registers, there is a cut-back
to three octave registers in the second and third stanzas. During
these two stanzas, however, the tone colour is kept alive by the
frequent shifts of octave register
The climactic fourth stanza sees the ostinato occupying its widest
t«. gistral span in this song, namely five cctav i registers.
 The frequent fluctuations in register of tha ostinato in the

central portion of the song, namely stanzas two and three, help to
rreate vitality as well as a feeling of forward momentum.

Ex. 4: Tone coJ our of ostinato

Octave register
6 *

5
4

I V X

L _ _ 1_______ _ J ____________ L _ ____ I

Stanzas i 2 3 4

2.2.4 Tempo changes

The tempo is constant throughout the oassacaglia apart from a slight

broadening in the final iur measures.

2.2.5 Theme drop-out and theme fragmentation

At no point does the ostir»u£o theme dro*? out coiqplately. In the final
statement, the ostinato '*■ followed strictly up to measure 5 1 . There-
aftnr, the final Tew measures of the song are based on measures
2^-4^ of the ostinato.

2.2.6 Degree of audibility

Tfre straightforward presentation of the ostinato theme ensures its

audibility throughout.
2.2.7 Octave register

Ex. 5: Octave register of ostinato

I V X
ri

C5
C*
c3
c2
cl

St^as | 1 j 2 | 3 |4 j

The above illustration shows that th* -..tinato is not confined to

the lower registers. It also occurs in the middle register in state­
ments one to four, tnd wanders into the upper registers in statements
five to eight as well as in the final "wo statements.
This is, there*'.e , a full-range ostinato theme.

2 .J INFLUENCE OF THE OSTINATO THEME

2.3.1 Effect on length; time-span

There 9re twelve statements of the five measure ostinato. The overall
[Link] nf the passacaglia is sixty three measures. The tirae-span is
3.01 •;mutes.

2.3.; 'ectionalization

The bl ,ir, ’ quality of this ostinato th-me, bas«d as it is on the diatonic

S'-ale -,c > major, tnsures that it will create ouly a minimal sectional
effect.. i’he open-ended ending on the subdominant allows for smooth
repeti • of the ostinato.

3 . THS AO MPAN IMENT

3.1 TYPE J* ACCOMPANYING MATERIAL _

The accompan...aent of the Tirst and fourth stanzas of the text is based

^ The measurement of the time-span has been ba?»d o he follow-' ng

recording: Pet sr Pears, Benjamin Britten, The E arrj R e c o r d in g s , EMI
RLS 748, 1980. *
 96

directly on the ostinato theme.

In stanza two, the accompaniment breaks away from a slavish
adherence to the ostinato, but nevertheless continues to be pre­
occupied with moving around the triad of a major. It thus retains a
close affinity w Jth the ostinato which also moves around the notes of
the B major triad.
In stanza three, the accompaniment breaks away from its pre-
occupat; -n with the B raaj^r triad which dominates stanzas one, two and
four.
Thus, [Link] accompanying material is based predominantly on the
material, jf the ostinato, and the passacaglia is, therefore, based on
a single theme.
The accompaniment of stanza one is not rhythmically more active
than the ostinato. In stanza two, however, the accompaniment becomes
more active rhythmically, and there is a further increase in the
rhythmic activity of the accompaniment in the third stanza.

3.2 THE ACCOMPANIMENT VARIED

3.2.1 Octane register

Apart from the final line of the third stanza, the accompaniment remains
for the most part above the ostinato throughout.

3 2.2 Tone colour

In the first stanza, the ostinato is accompanied by the voice with

harmonic support from the piano.
In the secoud stanza, the tessitura of the voice is generally
highei than in tha previous stanza. Once again, there is harmonic
support from the piano.
There is a marked change of tone colour in the third stanza.
The voice, while remaining in much the same register as in the second
stanza, i3 doubled by the piano.
In the fourth stanza, the voice once again has scant harmonic
support from the piano.
Tn^s passacaglia depends mainly on the [Link]<j tone rolours of
the ostinato to create tone colour variety and vitality.
 97

3.2.3 Texture

The textural changes coincide with each new stanza of the text. There
is a reduction in the overall textural fabric at the beginning of the
second stanza. However, each of the following two stanzas sees an
increase in textural density. Thus, following an initial drop at the
beginning of stanza two, the texture follows a gradually rising contour
to the end of the song.

3.3 ROLE OF TiE ACCOMPANIMENT

3.2.1 Sectionalization

With the exception of the first stanza, the beginnings of ea^h of the
four vocal stanzas coincide with the beginnings of repetitions of the
[Link].
Within the first, second and fourth stanzas, the accompaniment
overlaps each repetition of the ostinato thus minimizing the sectional
effect. In the third stanza, however, the beginning of each repetition
of the ostinato coincides with the beginning of a new line of tue text,
thus creating a more sectional effect than is the case in the other
three stanzas. This sectionalization adds to the agitated effect wf
this particular ■'tanza.

3.3.2 Accompaniment versus ostii. ito theme

The ostinato functions as a rhythm and harmonic support while the

accompaniment has the dominant role.

3.3.3 Grouping

Britten here uses the device of grouping together several statements

of the ostinato with the thematic accompaniment of each stanza. This
technique diverts attention away from the constant recurrence of the
osiinato. In addition, in the first and last stanzas, the accompaniment
is, with very slight raouifications, based directly on the ostinato.
This* use of the same accompanying theme in the first and last stanzas
has a unifying effect and creates a sense of return. The structure is
further unified by the fact that this accompanying theme is based
directly on the ostinato erne.
 98 ♦

4. MOTION FACTORS

4.1 THE PARAMETERS

4.1.1 Density

Hie changes in density levels coincide with the stanzas of the text and
not with the repetitions of the ostinato. The changes in density
levels therefore occur in stages.
The overall density profile is that of a gradual rise with an
interruption in stanza two of the text, that is, during statements j
five, six and seven of the ostinato.

Ex. 6: Density profile

i_____________________ i_______________ I________________1____

Stanzas I 2 3 4

4.1.2 Range

Ex. 7: Range {&/ * ostinato; ** accompaniment)

The range of the accompaniment does not show vety wide fluctuations,
and is confined throughout, to the same two octaves. This, however, has
only to he expected a? the voice has a limited range.
 99

In this instance, variety of octave range is provided by

fluctuations in the octave level of the ostinato itself, rather than
from any marked change of range in the accompaniment.
Within the framework of the outer two stanzas, the range jf the
ostinato in stanzas two and three rises and falls to form an arch
contour.

4.1.3 Dynamics

As is [Link] case with the density, change.*! in dynamic levels tend to

coincide with the stanzas of the text, rather than with the repetitions
of the ostinato. T h u s , the dynamic changes take place in stages.
As each of the stanzas occupies several repetitions of the
ostinato, interest is sustained by the use of dynamic waves within
each of the stanzas.
The overall dynamic profile is that of a rise with double
interruption.

Ex. 8: 'tynamic profile

X V X

i__________ _ j _________ l_________ i_____ J

Stanzas 1 2 3 4

Each successive peak of this rise reaches a higher point of

intensity, so that the point of highest intensity occurs in the final
measures of the pong.
The first of the two interruptions of the rising profile is longer
than the second. This is understandable in that a long interruption
immediately before the peak of the rise would have the effect of
delaying the momentum rather than allowing a breathing space before a
final surge to the peak of the rise.
 100

4.1.4 Rhythm

As is the case with both the density and dynamics, the changes of
rhythm occur in stages. In stanzas one, two and four, these changes
coincide with the stanzas of the text. In stanza three, however, the
changes coincide with the repetitions of the ostinato.
[Link] is a progressive increase in rhythmic activity from the
first stanza to the middle of the third stanza.
In the [Link] stanza, however, the rhythmic activity slackens and
half notes and quarter notes predominate in the accompaniment.
The rhythmic profile is thuo one of gradual rise to the m i f
the third stanza, followed by a dropping off at the end of the third
stanza, and this tower level of rhythmic activity is maintained during
the final section.

Ex. 9: Rhythmic profile

n
n j
n j. t
j. r
t

4.2 INTERACTION OF PARAMETERS

The overall profile of the dynamics is that of a gradual rise with

double interruption. The density, on the other hand, presents a profile
of gradual rise with single .interruption which coincides with the fitst
interruption of the dynamic profile.
[Link] the rhythm and range have arch contours.
The high density level during the second interruption of the
dynamic curve maintains the impetus and momentum of the overall profile.
 lot

The rhythm d e v o t e s from the general profile in that it slows

down at th© culmination of the rise within ,% context of high density
and nigh intensity. However, it is the rh/thm which carries the
momentun forward during stanza two of the text (statements five to
seven of the ostinato) When the parameters of both dynamics and density
are . a lowpoint.

4.3 SENSE OF FINALITY

A sense of finality in thi .■* p<*Hsacagli* is achieved both by a return

of previously accompaniment material, and by a broadening of the
rhythm.
A I m i n g device is the several repetitions of the
dotted qu**„ , eighth note, quarter note { J- f J) motive of the
ostinato Which prolongs th© thematic material as the passacaglia nears

its conclusion.

5. FORMAL PLAN

The overall formal profile Is ti it of a gradual rise with double inter­

ruption.

Ex. 10: /ormai profile

i----------_
Stanras i
_ --- _ 1_ ... ............_
2
1
J _________.___________ J ____________
3 4

The first interruption ae^a all the parameters, with the exception
of the rhythm, at a lowpoint. It also coincides with an upward change
of i@[Link] of the ostinato. The second rise introduces contrasting
thematic material in the accompaniment, as well as more animated
rhythms and a contrasting texture.
 102

The second interruption coincides with a lowpoint in both the

rhythm and dynamics, while the texture is at its densest for tne
entire passacaglia. This second intej ruption is slightly shorter
than the first. This shorter length is necessitated by its position
so near the end of the passacaglia. Any lengthy interruption at this
point would destroy the ongoing momentum rather than giving ars add^d
impetus to the final upward surge.

5.1 LARGER FORM

This passacaglia occupies the position of th® final song of the cycle.
The basic tonal relationships of the songs of the cycle can b<s
expressed as i’ollows (the tonal centre of the passacaglia [Link] is
underlined):

b e e f sharp g E flat D e flat B.

The excellent capacity of the passacaglia to establish or reaffirm

a conal centre is here exploited to the full in the return tj the tonal
area of the opening song uf the cycle.
 CHAPTER 7

THE RAPE OF LUCRFTIA , GP. 3 7, 1946

1. BACKGROUND

This two-act chamber opera by Britten was completed in 1946 and had its
world premiere on 12 July 1946 at Glyndebourne. in America It was
premiered in Chicago on 1 June 1947. The libretto, written by Ronald
Duncan (1914 ---), was based on the play Le viol de Luar&oe (1931) by
Andr« Obey (1852-1975).
The original source of The Rape of Luoretva reaches back via
Shakespeare (1564-1616) to Livy {59 B.C.-A.D. 17). The cne great modern
precedent for the musico-theatrical treatment of a classical subject
was Stravinsky's Oedipus Rex (1936) in which the libretto in Latin

by J. Cocteau and J. Danidlou was based on Sophocles's tragedy.

Obey's play used the device of a chorus of two individuals to
comment on the action from a contemporary point of view. In Ronald
Duncan's hands, this device became even more flexible in that his Male
and Female Chorus, each represented by a single performer, not only
comment on t..e action, but influence the drama and the minds of the

protagonists.

Throughout the opera the Male and Female Chorus sit at

either side of the stage. Though clothed in togas, they
are contemporary figures, presenting the drama to the
audience as a didactic fable; man's nature is violent;
until he 1 *rns to control it, his fate will be tragic;
the only ho;-e for such control is in following Christ.
They initiaco the story, comment upon it throughout,
ind at its end stLie the moral. 1

The setting is Home 510 B.C. Legend has it that the rape led to
the uprising in which the Romans expelled the Etruscans from the city.
The small orchestral force which Britten chose for this, his
first chamber opera, was essentially the same as he had used in his
Sinfonietta, Op. 1. It consists of

1 G. Martin, The Opera Comp an ion to Put itieth-Century Opera

(New York: Dodd Mead, 1979), p. 486. *
 104

- five wind flute (doubling piccolo and bass flute)

oboe (doubling cor anglais)
clarinet (doubling bass clarinet)
bassoon
horn
- solo string quartet plus double baas
- harp
- percussion

The culminating ensemble of the* work is a passacaglia and it

represents the climactic Movement of the opera following the death of

Lucretia.

2. TOE NATURE OF THE OSTINATO THEME

2.1 STRUCTURE

2.1.1 Sequence

This ostinato theme does not make use of pitch sequence. Rhythmic
sequence does, however, occur in the second and third motives

<77- u t tt- m i ) .

2
Ex. 1: Ostinato theme

The funeral march rhythmic figure which occurs in the second and
third motives, first appeared in Britten's music in his second funeral
march, the “Funeral March" from the Frank Bridge Variations, Op. 10,

where it appears as a f lling fifth.

2
9. Britten, The Rape o f Luaretia, op. 37, study score, revised
edition (Londons Booaey & Hawkes, 1949), p, 294.
 105

Ex. 2: Variations on a Theme of Frank Bridge, Op. 10, 3

"Funeral March", mm. l*-2*

Andant* rtfcraico fJ» 52-56)

2.1.2 Characteristic intervals

The most conspicuous interval in this theme is that of the raalor third
which occui.s in the second and third motives. The first motive consists

of diatonic scalic movement.

2.1.3 Chordal influence

The triad of E major has a strong influence or, this theme. All the
rhythmically araphatic points of the them© concentrate on either the

root or the third of the E major triad.

2.1.4 contour

Although the final eighth note creates a slight decline in contour,

the overall effect is of a rise. This contour can therefore perhaps
best be described as a modified rise.

Ex. 3: Contour of ostinato {one horizontal square equals one eighth

note; one vertical square equals one pitch class)

The range-span is a perfect octave. The tonic ending allows for

smooth repetitions of the ostinato tnetne which begins a minor aixth
lower on the mediant. .

3 B. el it ten, Variations on a 'hame of Frank Bridge, Op. 10,

pocket score {London: Bousey & Hawkes, 1338), p. 3V.
 106

2.1.5 Length

This is a short ostinato theme beLnc exactly two measures long. It is

thus considerably shorter than the favoured Baroque length of four or

eight measures.
The ostinato is stated twenty seven times.

2.1.6 Tonal centre

This ostinato theme is clearly based on the diatonic scale of & m a j o r .

2.1.7 Metre and tempo

The metre is simple quadruple (4/4). The t ,mpo indication is "Alla

marcia grave (1’iatesso tempo) ( j ® 56-66)".

2.1 .0 Rhythm

Hie rhythmic movement is uncomplicated and predominantly by eighth notes.

2.1.9 Melodic tension

This ostinato theme does not move beyond the confines of 1 major, and
therefore melodic tension is at a minimum. The tonic ending, further­
more , makes the theme a self-contained entity and does not create
forward propulsion.

2.1.10 Derivation

There are two dominating motives In this operas that associated with
Tarquinius and that associated with Lucretia. The motive associated
with Tarquinius (the clement of destruction) i;s scalic. Sy extension,
a scale passage, either ascending or descending, is identified with
the male element.

Ex •• Tarquinius'a motive

The motive associated with Lucretia {the destroyed) contains the

saue notes as that of Tarquinius, but this time arranged to form a
pair of trine- thirds.
 107

Ex. 5: Lucretia's motive

The ostinato theme is based both rhythmically and melodically on

the hymn which is sung by the Male and Female Chorus as an introduction
to each act and at the conclusion of the opera.

4
E x . 6: Hymn for Male and Female Chorus

TfciJ hymn combines both the male element (scale passage) and the
female elegant (nu n d) ,

Ex. 7: Ostinato U w w * J

Alla fUM-cia grave f1' lataaao tampo) (i » 56-68)

b a

Just as the hymn for Male and Female Chorus combines both male
and female elements, so does the ostinato theme, which is derived from
it, combine both male and female elements.

2.2 USE OF THE OSTINATO T«EME

2.2.1 First statement setting

The first statement, which is scored for strings, is unaccompanied.

4
Britten, The Rape of Luaretia, p. 11.
5
Britten, The Rape o f Luaretia, p. 294 .
 108

2.2.2 Variations in length

There are twenty seven statements of the ostinato in which the original
length is consistently maintained. Even during the canonic middle
section the original length is rigidly maintained by the timpani,
although variations of the length do occur in the other parts.

2.2,3 Variations in tone colour

The sextet of singers v/rich taxes 'art in this passacaglia is b u It up

progressively, beginning with only *.--»* singer. 'The fabric grows more
complex as each of the other singers is added one by o n e .
Bri ;ten adopts the novel idea of changing the instrument u*-.for of
tne ostinato for the introduction of each new character, ttius,
Collatinus’s entry is accompanied by the strings, Juniuc's encry by
cor anglais, bassoon and harp, Lucia and Blanca's entry by bassoon,
horn, cello and double bass, the Female Chorus's entry b y harp, violins
&nd viola, and the Male C h o r u s ’s entry by the timpani. During the
entry of the Male Chorus, a canon is built up on the ostinato theme
by the other voices of the sextet, each doubled by specific instruments:

Lucia and Blanca + viola and flute

Junius + violin II and cor anglais
Collatinus + violin I and clarinet
Female Chorus + cello, double bass and bassoon.

Finally, the full orchestra accompanies the entire sextet in an octave

passage.
As a result of this imaginative use of tone colour, Britten is
able to diret ntion towards a unit which is longer than that of
the ostinato t^«..~ie, and this helps to lessen the sectional impact of
the ostinato.
Ex. 8: Tone colour of ostinato

Lucia & Female Male

Bianca Chorus Chorus

I
_____ IL JL JL JL
Strings Cor Bassoon Harp Timpani Flute
anglais Horn Vlns plus Cor anglais
Bassoon Cello Viola vocal Clarinet
Harp D . Bass quintet Bassoon
wi+n Horn
doubling Harp
instru­ Timpani
ments Strings

2.2.4 Tempo changes

There are no tempo changes during the course of the passacaglia.

2.2.5 Tfteme drop-out and theme fragmentation

For twenty seven statements, the ostinato appears m its original form
with no alterations of any kind. .Thereafter, however, in the concluding
stages of the passacaglia, the ostinato is fragmented, and only the
second and third motives are heard.

2.2.6 Degree of audibility

The cstinato is audible at all times due to the fact that it appears
unchanged throughout except in the co d a . Even during the canonic
middle section, the ostinato appears unchanged on the timpani.

2.2.7 Octave register

Ex. 9: Octave register of ostinato

 1 10

From the above diagrammatic representation of the octave register

of the ostinato, it is evident that the only point at which the

ostinato invades the middle and upper registers is during the entry
of the Female Chorus, that is, during statements fifteen, sixteen and

seventeen.
It is thus a full-range ostinato due to its exploitation of all
registers.
The transfer of the ostinato to a higher register occurs just
prior to a further surge of intensity to the climax in statements
twenty three to twenty seven.

2.3 INFLUENCE OF THE OSTIN&TO THEME

2.3.1 Effect on length; time-span

There are twenty seven statements of the two measure ostinato, and as
each of these statements conforms to the original length, there are
exactly fifty four measures in the main body of the passacaglia. These
fifty four measures are then followed by a coda of eight measures. The
overall length, therefore, is sixty two measures.
The overall time-span is 4.11 minutes. ^

2.3.2 Sectionalization

The diatonic nature of the ostinato theme results in a bland quality

which creates a mini. -*i sectional ef f ec , The ending on the tonic,
however, results in a sulf-sufficient unit which heightens the
sectional effect as it does not generate forward momentum.

3. THE ACCOMPANIMENT

3.1 TYPE OF ACCOMPANYING MATERIAL

The accompaniment is dominated by a single theme — that of the ostinato

itself. The appearances of this accompanying theme are interspersed

The measurement of the time-span has been based on the following

recording. B. Britten, The Rape of Lucretia, with Heather Harper, Janet
Baker, Pater Pears, Bryan Drake, Benjamin Luxon, John Shirley-Quirk,
Elisabeth Bainbridge, Jenny Hill, c o n d . Benjamin Britten, English
Chamber Orchestra, Decca SET 492-3, 1971.
 Ill

with figuration. The Male and Female Chorus, Collatinus, Junius, Lucia
and Bianca progressively build up an ensemble in which more singers
are heard together than at any other point in the opera. They unite
in their outcry against the passing nature of beauty and the finality
of death.

Ex. 10: Accompanying theme ^

So bria# ia baau-ty l#— thia it *11? It ia all!

3.2 THE ACCOMPANIMENT W 1 I E D

3.2.1 Octave register

The ostinato does not confine itself to the lower regions. During the
initial entries of Collatinus and Junius (statements one to n ine), the
ostinato is in an octave register higher than that of the accompaniment.
At the entry of Lucia and bianca (statements ten to fourteen) the
ostinato drops below the accompaniment.
At the entry of the Female Chorus (statement fifteen) the ostinato
again rises above the accompaniment. However, from the entry of the
Male Chorus (statement li), the ostinato remains below the accompaniment
until the climactic octave passage (statements twenty three to twenty
seven) during which the octave doublings of the ostinato cause it to
be heard both below and above the accompanying vocal sextet.
Thus, both the accompaniment and the ostinato change register
freely.

3.2.2 Tone colour

Britten here uses the additive method of increasing intensity by weight.

Th© members of the vocal sextet have staggered entries, apart from Lucia
and Bianca who have a joint entry, and the voices are gradually piled
on top of one another until tht* climax is reached in the octave passage
beginning at statement twenty three.

7
' Britten, Vhe o f Luc-'etia, p. 295.
3.2.3 Texture

Ttie textural changes are made gradually as the vocal sextet Is

progressively built up, resulting in a pattern of gradual growth to
the peak of the arch contour in the octave passage beginning at
statement twenty t h w e .

3.3 ROLE OF THE ACCOMPANIMENT

3.3.1 Sec t ionali 2 at ion

The [Link]-up of vocal sextet diverts attention from the constantly

recurring ostinato in that the introduction of each new voicw spans
several statements, furthermore, only the entry of Lucia and Blanca
coincides exactly with the beginning of a statement of the ostinato.
Although the canonic middle section of the passacaglia is based
on the melodic formula of the cstinato, nevertheless the canonic entries
do not coincide with the unswerving statements of the ostinato in its
original form, on the timpani. The aural impression of this section is
that of a large unit rather than of many recurrences of the melodic
formula of the ostinato.
Thus, despite the fact that the main accompanying material is
based on the ostinato, Britten has handled it in such a way that it
nevertheless diverts attention from the sectional character of the
ostinato itself.

3.3.2 Accompaniment versus ostinato theme

The accompaniment is dominated by a single theme which corresponds to

that of the ostinato itaelf. As a result, this passacaglia is dominated
by the ostinato thome which pervades the entire accompaniment, and not
by any contrasting accompanying material.

3.3.3 Grouping

A ritornello effect is created by

- the use of the ostinato theme in the accompaniment by each voice*

of the sextet immediately prior to the entry of the following
voice?
- its use as the basis of the canonic middle section of the
passacaglia;
 113

- the return of this theme at the conclusion of the climactic

octave passage.

This ritorneilo effect creates a highly unified structure. It

also creates a balance between focussing the attention on the ostinato
and diverting attention away from it.

4. MOTION FACTORS

4.1 THE PARAMETER

4.1.1 Density

The density changes take place in stages. Written here achieves a

pattern of progressive density whi-h results from his additive method
of introducing the members of the vocal sextet. The density reaches
its height during the octave passage (statements twenty three to twenty
seven) after which there is a gradual tapering-off during the coda.
The density, therefore, presents an arch profile which reaches its
peak in the latter half of the passacaglia.

Ex. 11: Density profile

4.1.4 Range

Ex. 12: Range (/// -o.t inatoj ^I = accompaniment)

 114

There is a gradual widening of the rancje ->ver the first fourteen

statements of the ostinato. At the entry of the Female Chorus at
statement fifteen, the ostinato rises to a level higher than that of
the accompaniment. In statement eighteen, at the entry of the Male
Chorus, the ostinato drops slightly, but nevertheless remains entwined
with the accompaniment ontil the end of the passacaglia, with its
octave doublings rising above the accompaniment during part of the
climax (statements twenty five to twenty seven), and remaining above
for most of the coda.
There is actually a narrowing in the range of concentration during
the climax of the passacaglia. Variety in the upper limit of the range
is, in fact, provided more by the ostinato itself than by the accom­

paniment .
The r&nge of the accompaniment does not show very wide fluctuations.
This, however, can be ascribed to the limited range of the voices.

In this passacaglia, therefore, variety in octave range is

provided by fluctuations in the octave level of the ostinato theme
itself, rather than by very wide contrasts in the range of the
accompaniment.
The wide contrasts of range in the accompaniment .owards the end

of the passacaglia are part of the scheme of changing colour contrasts.

4.1.3 Dynamics

The dynamic cfianges take place in stages which correspond with the
progressive entries of the members of the vocal sextet, and reach a
peak in the octave passage in statements twenty three to twenty seven.
The coda which follows statement twenty seven, sees a gradual reduction
in the dynamic level.
The dynamics, therefore, present an arch profile.

Ex. 1 3 j Dynamic profile

 115

4.1.4 Rhythm

The rhythmic changes take [Link] in stages. The rhythm shows a gradually
rising profile which rearNe* a peak during the entry of the Female
Chorus {statements fifteen to seventeen) after which there is a falling-
off in activity until the beginning of the coda (end of statement
twenty seven). The slight increase in rhythmic activity during the
coda creates vitality while the parameters of density and dynamics
are on the decline.

14s Rhythmic profile

t
*•*uk
I
n rh f
L l_ t

if

4.2 INTERACTION OF PARAMETERS

Rhythm is the element which d e v U ^rom the general arch profile

created by the density ard dyn<air. .. It slows down at the approach to,
and during the culmination of, the p-'ak, and then rises slightly while
the density and dynamics are on a dr award cu r v e .
' range, following a tempor*u,v drop in statements eighteen to
twenty six, reach 's a peak again in statc’nent twenty seven, while both
the density and dynamics are still at their level. During the
coda, however, there are some interesting contrasts of range which,
combined with the slightly increased rhythmic activity, create vitality
on the downward curve of the arch.

4.3 SENSE OF FINALITY ■

Britten uses the device of allowing the ostinato theme to disintegrate

on the downward curve of the arch profile. After statement twenty seven,
only the second and third motives of the ostinato theme remain, and
there art? no further clear divisions in the variations These two
 116

motives also dissolve towards the end of the downward curve, and thereby
Britten provides a highly convincing ending to a most powerful movement.
The disintegration cf the ostinato theme could be symbolic of the
sweating disintegration of life in the face of death.
The culmination of the movement dovetails into the epilogue of

the opera.

5. FORMAL PLAN

The overall formal plan of this passacaglia is that of an arch profile.

This arch takes an unusually long time (twenty two statements> to reach
its p e a k . .’he peak is then sustained for sane length 'five tatements)
before descending rapidly to complete the arch profile.

Ex. 15; Formal profile

I V X XV XX XX V Coda

5.1 LARGER FV 1

This passacaglia is the culminating ensemble. ->f the opera and represents
the powerful climax of the work as a whole*.
Peter Evans sees Act Two of this op* ' as baing concerned with the
keys of C sharp (sin) and c (innocence) . Act One both begins and
ends with the tonal centre of C mi n o r , v /.ct Two establishes tne
new tonal area of C sharp minor:

Lucretia's slumbsr is in a wl * -* C major that, as

elsewhere in Britten, can be 6 symbolize innocence.
That being accepted, the opoi , the rape scene in a
restored C sharp minor seems • ' • ey th.
converse significance, as a

Seen out of context, the ostinato »u<- .-sts E major. Nevertheless,

® P. Evans, The Muaij of Benjamin Britten (London: Dent, 1979),

p. 138.

9
Evans, p. 130.
the variations are dominated by h armonization centred on c sharp minor.
Despit® the powerful efforts of the octave passage (’’How is it possible")
to assert a tonality on C natural, the C sharp tonality still prevails.
It is only during the Epilogue at the entry of the Male Chorus "It is
not all" ihat C major is hinted at again, and this tonality of C major
is firmly established when the opening hyian of the chorus appears for
the last time (score number 10?).

C major is not a restoration of Lucretia's innocence but

rather the achievement of a state of blessedness,
throwing a glow back on the whole cycle of experience. ^

Sin and death, which is its outcome, are therefore symbolized by a

C sharp minor tonality, and however strong the pull to C major in the
octave passage "How is it possible", it is not achieved.
The C sharp minor tonality of the passacaglia therefore serves to
reinforce the polarity between the tonal centres of C sharp and C in
the second act of the opera.
The main tonal centres of the opera are as follows (the tonal

centre of the [Link] is underlined) :

Act I : c - c
Act II: c sharp - C

^ Evans, p. 141,
 118

CHAPTER fl

ALBERT HERRINS, OP. 39, 1947

1. PACKGROUNP

Albert Herring, in three acts, was Britten's first comic opera. It was
, at Glvnaebourne on 20 June 194'?
first p«rforni»*.? Hie American premiere

was given at Tanglewood, Massachusetts oi. 3 August 1949,

Albert Herring end The Ra_>e of Luamtia share conupyn features in
that the^ are both chamber operas and are both derived from French
originals. The Rape of Luamtia is based on a play by Andr3 O b e y , and
Albert Herring is b a s e d on a short story by Guy de Maupassant (1850-1893),
Ic Rosier da M a d a m Huason. Lritten's librettist was Eric Croscier who
transferred the action from Normandy to I-oxford, a small market village
in East Suffolk, EngJanc, and advanced the period setting by fifty years
to 1900.

Lady Billows, virtuous herself and the self-appointed

guardian of virtue in others, is anxioui to select a
May Queen in Loxford; but, in default of suitable female
candidates, she decides on a May King, and her choice
falls on Albert Herring who works in a greengrocer'j
&.hop a n d has a reputation for unassailable innocence
and ciiastity. During the May Day celebrations, he is
fitcd and plied wt»-.h lemonade that has been surrepti­
t io u s l y laced with ru®. So fortified, he breaks out
an d escapes that evening from th* stifling atmosphere
of his home. When his absence is discovered the
following morning, search parties are sent out. At
first it is fearsd he may have been killed? but just
as his death is being lamented, he arrives back,
dirty, dishevelled, and defiant after a bibulous
night out. *

When r e p rimanded by his mother on his return, he denounces her

p u r itanical upbringing, and, witn n eviy found self-assertion send* his
neighbours o ut of th« shop.
T here is no chorus in this o pera an d tie ca&.nher orchestra

c o nsists of

1 E.W. W h i t e , Benjamin Britten: Hi a Life and Operas (London:

F a b e r , 1970) , p. 13,1.
 119

- flute {doubling piccolo and alto flute)

- clarinet (doubling ba-s clarinet)

- bassoon

- percussion
- harp
- string quartet
- double bass

Thus, like The Rapt, of Luaretia, Albert Herring is scored for wind
and string quintets plus harp and percussion.
In both Peter Grimes and Albert Herring Briu-sn portrays an
individual, living in a sma*l community, who comes into conflict with
society. Peter Grimes does not survive the experience, but Albert
Herring does, and faces a life releassu *rom his mother’s apron strings.

In Peter Grimes most of the local worthies are motivated

by delight in power, on however small a scale, and turn
naturally to persecution of any whose faces fail to fit.
Herring’s Loxford is rather less sinister a place than
tha Borough, but even here the pressures and claustro­
phobia of convention can be strongly sensed. ... As in
Grimes, moreover, that hierarchy is most effective and
menacing when it acts with maximum unanimity — as it
does when Albert reappears after his night on the tiles
and everyone realizes that he is net dead after all. ^

The pa^sacaglia Threnody in Act III represents the musical climax

of the opera. It is sung by Lady Billows, her five committee members,

Mrs Herring, Nancy and Sid.

His orange-blossom crown is brought in, battered and

bespattered, and taking this as the embodiment of
Albert, the company assemble around it and sing a
tragic-comic lament. ^

2
A. Whittall, The Music of Britten and Tippett: Studies in
Themes and Techniques (London: Cambridge University Press, 1982),
p. 119.

3 P. Howard, The Operas of Benjamin Britten (London: Barrie &

Rockcliff, 1969), p. 50.
 120

2. THE NATURE OF THE OSTINATO THEME

2.1 STRUCTURE

This ostinato consists of a melodic bass line above which is super­

imposed a constant succession of chords. Britten has, thus, here
combined both types of basso ostinato variations, namely a constant
melodic bass line with a constant succession of chords. The Baroque
use of an ostinato based on a succession of harmonies did not
presuppose a constant bass line. Within the given harmonic framework
some deviation was possible sometimes to the extent that only the
first and last chords of the succession remained constant.
This combination of a constant bass line *ith a constant
succession of harmonies is, therefore, a highly innovative and unique
contribution to the passacaglia literature.
Peter Evans has described the chord succession as fellows:

... even in the simple harmonic framework on which the

passacaglia is to be built there are potent forces, ..
and the chordal circuit is carefully organized. The
unexpected dissonance, first provoked by and thereafter
associated with the word 'death', is Britten's favoured
perfect plus augmented fourth though the bass B flat
explains it as a dominant thirteenth, i.e., implies a
move to the subdominant. Instead the move is to the
dominant (i.e., as though German sixth on a IV to I),
so that the position of rest too is unexpected. The
next movement suggests an impending cadence on to the
more relaxed relative major, and the drooping sixths
also prepare for this, but the bass move to A natural
(creating a false relation) thrusts back to B flat
minor - ^

4 Evans, pp. 160-161.

 121

Ex. 1: Ostinato bass line with superimposed succession of chords ^

The chord construction associated with the word "death" here,

nasmely, a perfect fourth plus an augmented fourth, is the same
construction as was used with the word "sto*.mM in Peter Grimes.

2.1.1 Sequence

Pitch sequence is not used in this ostinato. Rhythmic sequence is,

however, prominent in the first three measures which are all rhythmic­
ally identical (see Ex. I, above).

2.1.2 Chordal influence

While the ostinato bass line does not outline any chordal stricture,
nevertheless, it supports a constant succession of chords (set
paragraph 2.1, pp. 120-121).

2.1.3 Contour

The ostinato ba^s line presents an arch contour reaching its peak just

5 B. Britten, Albert Herring, Op. 39, study score (London: Boosey &
Hawkes, 1969), p. 455.
 122

prior to the midpoint of the theme. The total range span of the bass
line is very narrow being only a major sixth.

Ex. 2 i Contour of ostinato bass line (one horizontal square equals

one eighth note; one vertical square equals one pitch class)

The ostinato both begins and ends on a tonic root position chord.
This facilitates smooth repetitions of the ostinato.

2.1.4 Length

The ostinato is exactly five measures long and is repeated seven times.

2.1.5 Tonal centre

The ostinato is centred on B flat minor.

2.1.6 Metre and tempo

The ostinato begins in simple quadruple (4/8) metre. Interestingly,

however, there is a change to simple triple meter (3/8) for the final
measure of the ostinato.
A further unusual feature Is the agogic stress at the end of the
first three measures.
The tempo indication is "Slow, T a 56".

2.1.7 Rhythm

The choral lines have a fairly active rhythm throughout this ostinato,
while in the instrumental support, changes of rhythm occur only at
the structurally important points (see Ex. 1, p. 121).

2.1.8 Derivation

The ostinato is not derivec* from any material used earlier in the oper* .
 12 3

2.2 USE OF THE OSTINATO THEME

2.2.1 First statement setting

The first statement of the ostinato (bass line plus superimposed

succession of chords) is given out by the string and wind quintets
plus harp and voices.

2.2.2 Variations in length

In the seven statements of the ostinatc .here are no variations in

length.

2.2.3 Variations in tone colour

The tone colour af the ostinato remains unchanged throughout, namely,

•string and wind quintets plus harp and voices.

2.2.4 Tempo changes

The same tempo is retained throughout all the presentations of ‘ue

ostinato.

2.2.5 Theme drop-out and theme fragmentation

The ostinato is heard consistently for seven statements. Thereafter,

it drops out and is not heard again for the remainder of the
passacaglia.

2.2.6 Degree of audibility

The ostinato is clearly audible throughout its seven statements.

2.2.1 Octave register

The ostinato has a constant octave register throughout.

Ex. 3s Octave register of ostinato

2.3 INFLUENCE OF THE OSTINATO THEME

2.3.1 Effect on length? time-span

The length of this ostinato does not have a very strong bearing on
the length of the passacaglia as a wh o l e , due co the fact that it
drops out after seven statements.
Hie seven con$>lete statements of the ostinato occupy thirty five
measures. However, the overall length of tha passacaglia, is sixty
five measures. During the final thirty measures, the ostinatc is
not heard.
The overall time-span of this passacaglia is 4.17 minutes. 6

2.3.2 Sec t iona1i zat ion

The ending of this ostinato on the tonic chord in root position allows
for a smooth repetition of the initial chord of the [Link] which is
also the tonic chord in root position. However, the fact that this
ostinato both begins and ends on the root position tcnic chord creates
a self-contained entity which does not generate forward propulsion.

6 The measurement of the time-span has been based on the following

recording: B. Britten, Albert Herring % with Peter Pears, Sheila Rex,
Catherine Wilson, Joseph Ward, April Cantelo, Edgar Evans, Ower Brannigan,
Sylvia Fisher and others, cond. Benjamin Britten, English Chajiber
Orchestra, Decca SET 274-276, 1964.
3. THE ACCOMPANIMENT

3.1 TYPE OF ACCOMPANYING MATERIAL

The accompaniment consist* of the successive counterpoints of the

tubers of the vocal ensemble. None of these counterpoints ever
attains thematic significance.
Hie majority of the seven counterpoints added above the ostinato
are dominated by stepwise movement. The exceptions are counterpoints

four, five and six, those sung by Lady Billows, the Superintendent and
Florence respectively. Falling contours predominate in ail the
counterpoints as befits a lament.
On the appearance of the eighth counterpoint (Sid's solo) the
ostinato is abandonee*, and does not reappear during the remainder of
the passacaglia. Both this eighth counterpoint and the ninth (solo
of Mrs Herring) which follows it, are accompanied by an F major seventh
chord built up In unison progressively in the voices and orchestra.
The ninth counterpoint (Mrs Herring) is followed by the
combination in the vocal ensemble of all nine counterpoints and
culminates with a climactic octave passage. Here there is a parallel
with the passacaglia in The Raps of Luaretia which also culminates in
an octave passage.

3.2 THE ACCOMPANIMENT VARIED

3.2.1 Octave register

Hie octave register of the ostinato remains static throughout. It is,

therefore, the role of the accompanying counterpoints to create
variety ii-t octave register. Here, the natural range of the voices
provides the necessary variety.
Only the seventh counterpoint (solo of Mrs Wordsworth) remains
consistently above the ostinato. The first, third and fifth counter­
points (the baritone, tenor and bass solos of the Vicar, Mayor, and
Superintendent respectively) remain consistently below the upper
contour of the succession 'of chords. On the other hand, the second,
fourth and sixth counterpoints (the mezzc-soprano, soprano and
contralto solos of Nancy, Lady Billows and Florence respectively)
are heard both above and below the upper contour of the chord

succession.
 126

Once the ostinato has been abandoned, the eighth counterpoint

(Sid'a baritone solo) is heard below the upper contour of the
orchestral and vocal octave accompaniment, while the ninth counterpoint
(mezzo-soprano solo of Mrs Herring) is heard both above and below it.

3.2.2 Tone colour

Variety in tono colour is dependent on the timbre of the individual

voices as they sing the successive counterpoints against the ostinato
bass line and superimposed succession of chorda - Britten relies on
the changing tone colours of the individual voices rather than on a
continuum of colour. Zn this passacaglia the voices are introduced
suaetieaiiXily and then finally combined in an octave passage, whereas
in The Rap* of Luaretia passacaglia, they are introduced progressively
and then combined at the climax in an c-tave passage.

Ex. 4 1 Tone < 'Aour of accompenijcent

Soprano — .. .. —
Mezzo soprano ____ _____
Contralto _____
Tenor _______
baritone ____ ___
Bass ----

I II III IV V VI VII

3.2.3 Texture

As is the case with the tone colour, textural changes in this

passacaglia are limited to the textural changes in the accompanying
vocal counterpoints. Each of the voices of the choral ensemble is
highlighted individually as they each successively sings their own
vocal counterpoint above the ostinato bass line and superimposed
succession of chords.

A markedly c ontr a s t i n g texture appe a r s at score number 57, at

which point, just prior to the climax, all nine of the vocal counter­
points are combined to the accompaniment of a roll on the timpani.
A further strongly contrasting texture appears at the climax of the
movement at the vocal octave passage "Grief is silent" (score number 58).
 127

Ir this pa.^saca. Jia, therefore, Britten has not used an additive

method of textural growth, but rather has used strongly contrasting
vextures which result in a mores irregular pattern of growth.

3.3 ROLE OF THE ACCOMPANIMENT

3.3.1 Sectionalia&tion

Tfre accompaniment, consisting of the counterpoints of the individual

singers, distracts from the sectional character of the ostinato by
virtue of the fact that these counterpoints do not all correspond to
the exact length of the ostinato. Of the seven counterpoints heard
above the ostinato, only two, those of the Vicar and Lady Billows,
occupy exactly one statement of the ostinato. The counterpoints of
Nancy, the Mayor, the Superintendent, Florence and Miss Wordsworth,
on the other hand, overlap not only the statements of the ostinato,
but also the following counterpoint.
Hi® accompanying counterpoints, therefore, minimize the sectional
character of the ostinato,

3.3.2 Accompaniment versus ostinato theme

The accompany ing counterpoints dominate the passacaglia. The fact that
th® ostinato is fixed at a static level of range, throws the greatest
responsibility for the shaping of the profile onto the counterpoints
of the accompaniment. Indeed, following the seventh statement of the
ostinato, the ostinato is abandoned, so that the accompaniment is given
free rein to shape the profile.

3.3.3 Grouping

The roost important grouping device in tha early part of the passacaqlia
is the presence of the ostinato itself which is the thread around
which the counterpoints of the soloists are woven.
The octave accompaniment of the final two vocal counterpoints
(heard when the ostinato has already dropped out) links these two
counterpoints with the subsequent culminating vocal octave passage
"Grief is silent".
 128

4. MOTION FACTORS

4.1 TOE PARAMETERS

4.1.1 Density

In this passacaglia- th« same level of density is retained for a

considerable length of tine, that is, throughout ail nine accompanying
vocal counterpoints. In other words, the density remains constant for

forty four of th total sixty two measures, which is equivalent to

seventy one percent of the passacaglia.
Following these forty four measures, there is a drop a h denstiy
during the combination of the vocal counterpoints accompanied only
by the timpani.
In the culminating octave passage "Grief is silent", ironically
all the orchestral resources, including the timpani, are mustered in
addition to the nine part vocal ensemble.
The density changes are therefore made in stages.

Ex. 5: Density profile

I II V

4.1.2 Range

Qt. 6 t Range { /// * ostinato; ■': - accompaniment)

V
 129

During the opening section cf the passacaglia, that is, during the
seven statements of th*» itinato, consisting as it does of a bass line
plus a superimposed sue ton of chords, the lower limit of the range
remains static and fixea .»y the ostinato. At the same time, wide
contrasts of range are e ibited in the accompaniment as the intensity
is kept alive by a process of continuous colour changes.
Once the ostinato has dropped out, following statement seven,
the range of the accompaniment spreads both upwards and downwards,
so that by the end of the passacaglia it has reached its widest span.

4.1.3 Dynamics

In the initial stages of the passacaglia, the dynamic changes coincide

with the repetitions of the ostinato. At the entry of Sid's solo,
Which is the point at which the ostinato drops out, however, there is
a sudden drop in the dynamic level, which, until this point, has had
a rising contour.
However, the following solo, that of Mrs Herring, sees the dynamic
profile rise to the same level as before the interruption. Further
increases in the dynamic level occur in the ensuing combination of the
various vocal counterpoints as well as in the octave fissaqe which
marks the peak of the gradually rising profile. The final stages of
the octave passage see a marked reduction in the dynamic level.
Despite this drop-off in the dynamic level in the final four
measures of this passacaglia, the overall dynamic impression is that
of a gradual rise. The dynamic proiile can thus perhaps best be
described as a modified gradual rise.

Ex. 7: Dynamic profile

I
 130

4.1.4 Rhythm

The rhythmic changes occur in stages which correspond with the vocal

solos in the initial stages of the passacaglia. Tit# overall rhythmic

profile is one of a gradual rise with slight interruption during the
solos of the Superintendent, Florence and Miss Wordsworth, that is,
during statements six and seven of the ostinato.
There is .so a slight reduction in rhythaic activity in the

final three measures of the passacaglia. Thus, the rhythaic profile

can perhaps best be described as a modified gradual rise.

Sx. 8s Rhythmic profile

I V

4.2 INTERACTION OF PARAMETERS

The range exhibits a gradually widening profile. The other parameters,

namely density, dynamics and rhythm all exhibit the profile of a
gradual rise with interruption. This interruption does not occur
simultaneously in all th® parameters, but rather successively in a
single parameter at a time, so that the forward momentum doe?* net cease
but is carried forward by the other parameters which are not at a
lowpoint.
 131

Rhythm is the first parameter to show an interruption in the rising

profile. This occurs during statements six and seven of the ostinato.
A drop in the dynamic level follows immediately during the solos

of Sid and Mrs Herring.

Immediately following this, during the combination of the vocal
counterpoint-s, there is a drop in the density level.
Thus, Britten has infused interest into the gradual rise profile
b y staggering the rise in the various parameters.

4.3 SENSE OP FINALITY

A sense of finality in this passacaglia is conveyed by a very short

decline in dynamics, rhythm and density in the final four measures of the
gradual rise profile. This achieves a feeling of completion and repose,
so that despite the fact that the oassacaglia is followed immediately
by a continuation of the d r a s t i c action, it is. complete in itself and
does not depend on the material which follows tc provide it with a sense
of completion.

5. FORMAL PLAN

The overall formal plan of this passacaglia is that of a gradual rise.

It is perhaps best described as a modified gradual rise in view of the
slight decline which occurs in the final few measures.

5.1 LARGER FOfM

This passacaglia movement form*. the climax of a multimoveraent work and

appears towards the close of the work as a whole.
The tonal scheme of the opera is as follows (the tonal centre of
♦■he passacaglia movement is underlined) :

Act I C - G
Act II F - b flat
Act III F - b flat - G

Beginning in B flat minor, the passacaglia serves to spotlight the

torality in which the second act ended. However, by the end of the
passacaglia F major, in which both the second and third acts begin, has
been conclusively established, -his passacaglia affords the opportunity
of re-establishing the tonal centres of the second act and the beginning
of the third act before the opera moves to its conclusion in G major.
 CHAPTER 9

BILLY BUDD, OP. 50, 1951, revised I960

1. BACKGROUND

In 1951, Britten returned to full-scale opera (his first since

'Peter* Grimes, Op, 33, 1945) with a work which was commissioned Jror the
1951 Festival of Britain. In its original four-act form, Billy Budd
was first performed at Covent Garden, London, on 1 December 1951. The
American premiere was given on NBC television on 19 October 1952,
while on stage the opera was given its first American performance on

5 December 1952.
Subsequently, in I960, Britten revised the opera, and the
original four acts were drawn together into two acts (Acts I and II
were joined as well as Acts III and I V ) . The original finale to Act I
was a Captain’s muster, in which Vere appeared and harangued his crew.
In the revised version, the muster is deleted and, instead, the
whistles sound for a -hange of watch, and Vere's popularity is merely
discussed in his absence by his men.
The first performance of the revised score was given on BBC radio
on 13 November 1961, while on stage the first performance was given at
Covent Garden, London, on 9 January 1964.
The 3 ibretto was written by E.M. Forster and Eric Crozier (the
latLar of whom had been Britten's librettist for both Albert Herring,
Op. 39, and Let's Make an Opera, Op. 45, as well as the original
producer of both Peter Grimes, Op. 33 and The Rape of Luaretia, Op. 3 7).
The libretto wa~> based on the last novel Billy Budd, Fovetopman
(1891) of Hermann Melville (1819-1891).
Britten and his collaborators were faced with an extremely
difficult task in setting a novel to music. Britten was fortunate in
that his imaginative collaborators presented him with what is possibly
the finest and most artistic opera libretto adapted from ? literary
masterpiece since Arrigo Boito’s version of Shakespeare's Otello for
Verdi (1887). It was, furthermore, a libretto which gave Britten
ample scope for his exceptional talents.
 In the harsh existence of a British raan-of-wir in 1797, the
conflict between the personality of Billy Budd, whose frank disposition,
good looks and ability as a sailor make him popular with both crew and
officers, and that of the master-at-arms (Claggart) leads to an attempt
by the latter to accuse Billy of treason. When called to answer the
charge in front of the ship's captain, Billy, who is afflicted with
a stammer, cannot find words and, in his frustration, strikes out at
the master-at -."tbs • and kills him. Billy is condemned to death. Long
after the s ^ t e n c e has been carried out, however, the realization that
Billy was innocent of any moral crime continues to haunt Captain V e r e ,
who is fully conscious that his duty has imposed upon him the necessity
of aiding evil in its increasing efforts to eliminate goodness from
the earth.
Billy Budd is, therefore, a drama of the struggle between Good
and Evil, and the subsequent drama they produce in the mind of the man
who has been allowed to understand something of the nature of both.
It is also a drama of life aboard a ship during the Napoleonic wars,
and the ship's company is as important in the opera as the principal
characters. Nothing could be more vivid than the way in which the
mixed harehness and cheerfulness cf their life are depicted in the
musi c .

The passacaglia occurs in Act I, scene iii, immediately after the

Novice, on Claggart's instructions, ha-i tried to compromise Billy.
Dansi'er, an old seaman, hears Billy stammering and, seeing the novice
creeping away, goes to investigate. On tearing what has happened,
Dansker immediately realizes the awful implications and sings heavily
both immediately before as well as during the passacaglia "Jemmy-Legs
is down on yo u ” , while Billy, unaware of his impending doom, babbles
on of his happiness on the ship.
The passacaglia, therefore, signals Billy's impending death.

2. THE MATURE OF THE OSTINATO THEME

2.1 STRUCTURE

This ostinato theme consists of two falling perfect fourths a M a

rising whole tone.
 134

Ex. 1: Ostinato theme 1

2.1.1 Sequence

Neither melodic nor rhythmic sequence occurs in this theme.

2.1.2 Characteristic intervals

This two measure ostinato theme shows a high concentration of perfect

fourth intervals, and this concentration on one particular type of
interval results in a tightly-knit structure.

2.1.3 Chordal influence

The ostinato theme outlines the major triad on E flat.

2.1.4 Contour

Ex. 2- Contour of ostinato theme (one horizontal square equals one

eighth note; one vertical square equals on© pitch class)

The melodic contour is basically descending, the single eighth not;e

F^ being an appoggiatura to the following note.

The mediant ending allows for a smooth return to the tonic opening
on each repetition. The total range-span of the ostinato is narrow,
being only a minor seventh.

2.1.5 Length

This ostinato theme is exactly two measures long, and, as such, is an

extremely short ostinato theme. Tt is considerably shorter than the

* B. Britten, Billy Buddt Op. 50, full score (London: Boosey &
Hawkes, 1961), p. 191.
 135

average four or eight measures of the Baroque passacaglia themes.

There are thirty two statements of the ostinato.

2.1.6 Tonal centre

E flat Is the tonal centre of the ostinato theme as it is presented

at the outset of the passacaglia.

2.1.7 Metre and tempo

The ostinato is initially presented in compound duple (6/8) metre.

This metre is retained for all the presentations of the ostinato,
with the exception of statement twenty eight, which is presented
partly in compound triple (9/8) metre.
The tempo indication is "con anima" and the metronomic indication
of i* 60 given at score number 63, a few measures before the start
of the passacaglia, is still valid.

2.1.8 Rhythm

The rhyttonic activity of this ostinato theme is fairly subdued. An

interesting feature, h o o v e r , i-: the syncopation at the beginning of
each measure of this two measures ostinato. Thin creates considerable
tension and restlessness.

2.1.9 Melodic tension

'T’he ostinato is entirely diatonic. The use of a mediant ending leaves

the theme open-ended, and creates a forward momentum.

2.1.10 Derivation

The intervallic structure of the ostinato is based on Claggart's motive

which is heard for the first time in Claggart's reply to the first
lieutenant irtsnediately preceding Claggart's first arioso in ^ct 1,
scene i , score number 35.
 136

2
Ex. 3: Claggart's motive, I, i, score number 35

p dole®
doic*

I h««id, your ho- nour!

The initial presentation of Claggart's motive is in compound

duple metre (6/4), and in the ostinato theme of the passacaglia it

is also presented in compound duple metre (6/8) but with a change of

the underlying note value from a dotted half note to a dotted quarter
note.
The changed metrical guise of the ostinato theme completely
transforms the character of the original motive.

Ex. 4: a) Initial [Link] of Claggart's motive ^

4
b) Ostinato theme

b)

The use of Claggart’s motive as the ostinato of this passacaglia

is a forewarning to Billy that Claggart will be the instrument of his

destruction. Billy, however, remains oblivious* to any sinister
undertones.

2 .■. --
Britten, Billy F'udd, p. 67.

3 Britten,Bilhj IHdd, p. 67,

4 Britten, Billy budd, p. 191.

 137

2.2 USE OF THE OSTINATO THEME

2.2.1 First statement setting

The initial presentation of the ostinato theme on the bass clarinet,

harp, timpani and double basses is accompanied by the baritone voice
of Billy doubled on the clarinets, violas and cellos with figuration
on the flutes.

2.2.2 Variations in length

From statement twenty one on until the end of the passacaglia there is
a deviation from the original length (two measures of 6/8 metre) of
the ostinato theme. Of these twelve statements which deviate from

the original length, only one statement (thirty two) is longer than
the original ostinato theme length. Statement thirty two is eight and
a half measures long. This lengthening of the final statement is a
broadening process in the concluding stages of the passacaglia.
In statement twenty two, the ostinato theme fills only one
measure, but sequential treatment of the final two notes extends it
to two and a half measures.

2.2.3 Variations in tone colour

The constantly changing tone colours in the presentation of the

ostinato create vitality and avoid the monotony that could set in with
the constant repetition of such a short ostinato theme.
There is a gradual build-up of tone colour reaching an initial
peak in statements twelve, thirteen and fourteen. This first peak is
followed by a cut-back and another build-up to statements twenty and
twenty two, after which there is a slight drop-off in tone colour with
alternation between two tone colours until the end of the passacaglia
proper.

The ensuing coda sees a sudden marked increase in tone colour.

On the upward curve of the arch profile, Britten has used the
device of additive crescendo to maintain interest in the tone colour
of the ostinato.
 13?

2.2.4 Tempo changes

A relatively constant tempo is maintained throughout this passacaglia.

2.2.5 Variations in rhythm

From statement twenty one on, the ostinato does not apoear in its
original rhythmic form. Of these final twelve statements, four
statements (twenty one, twenty three, twenty five and twenty soven)
share a common rhythmic structure, while another two statements
'twenty four and twenty six) also have a common rhythmic structure.
A different rhythmic structure is used for every on® of the other
six presentations.
This changing rhythmic structure is a further means of infusing
interest and vitality into the repetitions of the ostinato.

2.2.6 Variations in fundamental pitch

While the first five presentations of the ostinato all begin on E flat,
this pitch class is not used again as the fundamental pitch at any
stage during the remainder of the passacaglia. The other eight
fundamental pitches used a r e :

Statements VI - XII C
Statement XIII C sharp
.atements XIV - XIX F
Statement XX D

Statement XXI F
Statement XXII A
Statements XXIII, XXV, XXVII, XXX G
Statements XXIV, XXVI, XXVIII, XXIX a
Statements XXXI - XXXII E

Thus, the fir v twelve statements of the ostinato are dominated

by the tonal centres of E flat and C . The nine statements (fourteen
to twenty two) outline the minor triad on 0. The remaining statements
(twenty three to thirty two) outline the minor triad on E. The coda
of the passacaglia ends in G major, and as the fundamental pitches of
th „■ ostinato repetitions outline the triads C E*5 (G) , D F A , E G B ,
the tonal structure of tha ostinato may be regarded as iv-v-vi~l.
 140

This organization of tonal centres is a means of creating cohesion

in the passacaglia as a whole.

2.2.7 other variations of the ostinato theme

In addition to the freedom of rhythm and fundamental pitch (see

paragraphs 2.2.5 and 2.2.6 above) the ostinato theme Is also subjected
to inversion and elision.
Inversic > occurs in statements twelve and thirteen at the wards
"Beauty you'd better go back, you'd better go back". The suggestion
of turning back is symbolised by the inversion of the them®.
Elision between successive statements of the ostinato occurs at
the peak of che formal arch profile Between statements twenty three
and twenty four, twenty five and twenty six, twenty seven and twenty
eight. Tliis speeding up of successive appearances of the ostinato is
a means of adding intensity and excitement at the peak of th« arch
profile.
Sequential treatment of the final two notes of the ostinato occurs
in statement twenty two.

2.2.9 Theme drop-out and theme fragmentation

The only occasions on which the ostinato theme drops out are during
Billy 'a short recitative "Billy Budd late of the Rights o * Man , and
soon to be Captain of the misxeii!", and daring the coda which
constitutes the final six measures of the passacaglia. Billy’s
recitative occurs between statements nineteen and twenty of the
ostinato, that ia, shortly after the midpoint of the passacaglia,
when the upward curve of the arch profile is well under way.
The return of the ostinato following this short break gives added
impetus to the upward curve which reaches a peak in statements twenty
three to twenty eight.

The extension of statement twenty two by sequential repetition

of tha final two notes of the ostinato theme, is not so much a
fragmentation of the ostinato theme, as an extension of it.

2.2.9 Degree of audibility

Despite the changes to the theme discussed above, the ostinato never
becomes unrecognizable due to the fact that the changes are never very
severe, and also to the fact that these changes do not result in the
 141

o'-.wlnato theme becoming tnematically remote. With the exception if

statements twelve and thirteen in which the ostinato is preseaced ip
inversion, all the other statements present it in its original thematic

form.
The preservation of the original rhythm when the ostinato is
presented in an inverted form, allows it to remain recognizable.

2.2.10 Octave register

Ex. 6: Octave register of ostinato

I V X XV XX XXV XXX

The ostinato is confined to the bass registers throughout.

2.3 INFLUENCE OF THE OSTINATO THEME

2.3.1 Effect on lengthj time-span

There are thirty two statements of the ostinato theme. The original
rhythmic setting which holds good for the first twenty tvo statements
{with elision between statements twenty one and twenty two) is a two
measure setting (n 6/8 me t r e . Despite the rhythmic changes from
statement twenty three to the end, only statement thirty two {the
final presentation of the ostinato) exceeds the original two measure
length.
The overall length of this passacaglia is seventy six measures.
The overall time-span is 2.47 minutes.

The measurement of the time-span has been based on the following

recording: B . Britten , Billy Budd, with Peter Pears , Michael Iangdon,
Peter Glossop, John Shirley-Quirk, Bryan Drake , and others, cond.
Benjamin Britten, London Symphony Orchestra , Decca SET 379-381 , 1968.
 ^ *

'V>jr •

2.3.2 Sectionalization

In its original form, this ostinato theme is diatonic in the key of

flat major. It is, furthermore, diatonic in all the subsequent keys
in which it Is presented. Consequently, it has a bland quality and
create.* a minimum of sectional effect. The mediant ending of the
ostinato also lessens the sectional effect of constant repetitions
because it creates forward momentum.

3. THE ACCOMPANIMENT

3.I TYPE OF ACCOMPANYING MATERIAL

This passacaglia is grouped into blocks of unifona key and accompaniment

texture, as follows:

X * I flat Statements I - V
II : C (predominantly) Statements VI - XIV
TII : f (predominantly) Statements XV - XIX
IV : d Statements XX - XXII
V : G Statements XXIII - end.

The most significant accompaniment them® corresponds to the

ostinato itself, and recurs sporadically during the course of the
passacaglia, always sung by Dansker's bass voice, and this serves
as a unifying factor. This motive becomes sore and more of a
uriiiying factor a the passacaglia progresses, due to the fact that
it appears more frequently and for longer periods of time.
The most significant accompanying theme, is therefore, that of
a single motive or theme which responds to the ostinato itself.

Ex. 7: Recurrence of ostinato theme in accompaniment

For the rest, the accompaniment consists of Billy's baritone

arlosa supported predominantly by the woodwind. The accompaniment
falls into sections which correspond with the tonal sections of the

passacaglia.
The first section (statements one to five) is characterized by
the doubling of Billy's vocal 1 ne on clarinets, violas and cellor
with figuration on the flutes.
The second section (statements six to fourteen) is dominated by
sixteen h note arpeggio passages and syncopaced figuration on the
woodwind supporting Billy's vocal line.
Tn the third section (statements fifteen to nineteen), Billy's
vocal 1-jn*. is doubled and slightly figured by the woodwind and violas
with occasional interjections by the trumpets.
In the following section (statements twenty to twenty two) the
dotted sixteenth note and thirty-second note figuration of the previous
section is continued, but no longer doubles Billy's ariosa. The
trumpet interjections become more frequent.
Section five (statements twenty three to twenty eight) sees the
alternation of a horaorhythmic passage on woodwind, brass and timpani
with Billy's ariosa doubled by the violins.
Statements twenty nine to thirty two (section six) sees the use
o* sustained chords on the woodwind and brass with Billy's vocal line
doubled on the violins.
The coda consists of running sixteenth note passages reminiscent
of Billy's vocal line from statement twenty nine to thirty tvo, and
culminates in three measures of fortissimo dotted quarter notes.
The emphasis on the interval of a perfect fourth in Biljy's arioso,
either as a direct leap, or by strategic placement of its notes within
stepwise movement links this arioso with Dansker's motive which forris
the -.air accompanying theme and which is based directly on the
ostinato ther>. itself.
Thus, this passacaglia has a very [Link] structure.

3.2 THE ACCOMPANY MEMT VARIED

3.2.1 Octave register

The ostinato theme remains below the level of the accompaniment through­
out the passacaglia. As the ostinato is not static but is transposed
to eight different fundamental pitches during the course of the
passacaglia, the accompaniment follows the ostlnato's rises so that
it remains constantly abo^e the ostinato.
 144

3.2.2 Tone colour

The tone colour of the accompaniment shows the use of additive

crescendo with interruptions. The height of this crescendo occurs in
the final three statements of the ostinato theme. Smaller peaks in
the tone colour occur in statements seven and twelve.
Following the rirst five statements of the ostinato which all
have identical tone colour in the accompaniment, Britten does not
repeat an accompanying tone colour for more than two statements
successively. This use of constantly changing tone colours adds
interest and vitality to the accompaniment,

Ex. 8s Tone colour of accompaniment

 145

3.2.3 Texture

Gradual changes of texture predominate in this passacaglia, but there

are, nevertheless, several abrupt changes, for example, at Billy's
unaccompanied arioso at the end of statement nineteen of the ostinato
theme. From statements twenty three to statement twenty eight,
during the peak of the formal arch profile, two strongly contrasting
textures alternate and this necessitates an abrupt change from one
texture to .he other *t the beginning of each statement of the ostinato
theme. These anrupt changes of textuxe at the peak of the arch profile
are a means of infusing additional tension and vitality at the most
dramatic lx>int of the passacaglia.

3.3 ROLE OF THE ACCOMPANIMENT

"J .3.1 Sectionalization

For the most part, the sectional effect constant reiterations

of the ostinato is counteracted by the accont.-anim.'mt which overlaps
the repetitions. At times, Dansker's theme coincides with that of the
ostinato, but on such occasions Bi l l y ‘s arioso and the orchestral
accompaniment overlap these divi ^.ons and thus minimize the sectional
effect.

The only point at which a strong sectional effect is in evidence

is at the peak of the arch contour (statements twenty three to twenty
eight). Here, the alternation of the ostinato theme with a homo­
rhythmic accompaniment, with Billy's arioso doubled on the violins,
creates a strongly sectional effect.

3.3.2 Accompaniment versus ostinato theme

There is a delicate balance between the ostinato theme and the

accompaniment throughout this passacaglia. Neither one dominates the
other. In the initial stages of the passacaglia, the accompaniment is
in the foreground, but as the passacaglia progresses the ostinoto
theme becomes more and more prominent until, a t ‘the peak of the arch
contour, the ostinato theme is the dominant element. The increasing
importance given to the ostinato theme creates the rise of the aich
profile. There is thus a variable relationship between the ostinato
theme and the accompaniment.
 146

3 .3 .3 Grouping

Grouping in this passacaglia is effected by the various accompanying

textures and rhythms as followr:

Statements one to five

Statements six to fourteen
Stati raents fifteen to twenty two

Statements twenty three to twenty eight

Statements twenty nine to thirty two.

Thus, the smaller unit of the ostinato theme is transcended by

the larger units of accompanying material each of which spans several
statements of the ostinato, and which, at the same time, generate
forward momentum.

4. MOTION FACTORS

4 .1 THE PARAMETERS

4 .1 .1 Density

The changes in density in thie [Link] are generally made in stages

■hich correspond with tne different accompanying textures. The first
three stages {statements one to fiv e, six to eleven and twelve to
fourteen) each see a progressive increase in density. There is a drop
off at the beginning of section four (statement fifteen) but statement
eighteen sees a further increase followud by an interruption during
B ill y 's short recitative at the end of statement nineteen. This
interruption is immediately followed by a resumption of the upward
density curve at the beginning of section five (statement twenty).
The peak of the density profile is reached in statement twenty
three. This peak is maintained through statements twenty five, twenty
seven and twenty eight, and is thrown into relief by the very low
density of the intervening statements (twenty four and twenty s i x ) .
Thereafter, there is a marked decline in density (statements
twenty nine to thirty tw o ).
The coda, howevei, sees a sudden dramatic increase in density so
that the density profile ends on a highpoint.
 147

Ex. 9: Density profile

4 .1 .2 Range

E x . 10: Range { / / / ostinato; X - accompaniment)

ThB ostinato is the lowest sounding part throughout. The

accompaniment, however, has considerably more freedom to exploit the
upper registers in particular. In the initial stages of the passacaglia
the accompaniment sees only slight shifts of register. However, at
statement fifteen , there is a marked narrowing of the range of the
accompaniment.
This narrowing of the range helps to avoid monotony on tht long
upward curve of t'.\e arch p ro file, and is followed by 4 fairly rapid
widening of the range as the peak of the arch is approached. This peak
is followed by a gradual reduction in the range span of the accompani­
ment on the downward curve of the arch p ro file. However, the coda
which follows sees a sudden dramatic increase in range to its widest
in this passacaglia.
Thus, in general, the changes in range-span are made gradually
with the exception of the sudden narrowing in statement f ift e e n , and
the equally sudden widening in the coda.
 148

4 .1 .3 Dynamics

The dynamic changes are mad© in stages on the upward curve of the arch
reaching a peak in statement twenty three, and this peak is maintained
for six statements after which there is a gradual decline in the
dynamic level, reaching its lowest point in the final statement of
the ostinato. Following t h is, however, there is a sudden rapid rise
in the dynamic level in the coda, so that dynamically the passacaglia
ends on a highpoint.
Within these stages, however, Britten makes use of occasional
waves which add interesv and variety to the dynamic p ro file.
On the upward curve of the dynamic arch p ro file, the progressive
growth is interrupted at statement fifteen. However, this interruption
is short-lived and creates a breathing space before th© final thrust
to the peak of the arch contour.

Ex. U : Dynamic profile

4 .1 .4 Rhythm

The rhythmic parameter of this passacaglia shows an increase by stages

until statement twenty three. At this point, which represents the peak
of th© arch p ro file, there is a marked drop in rhythmic activity, and
this lower rate of rhythmic activity is carried through to statements

twenty fiv e , twenty seven and twenty eight.

Thus, there is a drop in rhythmic activity at the peak of the
arch p r o f il e , a point at which the parameters of density and dynamics

are at a highpoJnt.
On the downward curve of the arch profile the accompaniment once
again resumes a more active rhythm and this infuses vitality while
the other parameter's are declining.
The rhythm of the ostinato, however, shows a marked decline during
this downward curve and thus, despite the rhythmically active accompany-
 149

ing material, a feeling of broadening is , nevertheless, imparted.

Thus, by the end of the final statement of the ostinato a feeling of
repose and conclusiveness has been established.
The six measure coda which follows j.s perhaps net so much i
concluding gesture for the passacaglia as for Act I as a whole. It
sees a sudden marked increase in all the parameters Including
rhythm. In the final three measures, however, the rhythmic activity
holds back and thus creates a broadening effect with which to conclude
the movement.

E x . 12: Rhythmic profile

rm
m m n
m m
iJTTTI m r-ratB
J nn
171 r .r
iMir 11

4 .2 INTERACTION OF PARAMETERS

The parameters of both density and dynamics follow an overall arch

profile reaching a peak in statements twenty three to twenty eight.
The range, having seen a marked narrowing at statement fifteen,
gradually widens again and at statement twenty two reaches its maximum
again in anticipation of the peak of the arch. Thereafter, it sees
a gradual narrowing until the end of the passacaglia. The coda sees
a dramatic widening of the range.
The rhythmic activity follows a gradual rise profile until the
peak of the arch where there is a sudden pulling back while the other
parameters are at a high^>int.
The coda which follows the passacaglia sees all the parameters at
a high le v el. This coda, however, is not so much a conclusion to the
passacaglia, which has a complete arch profile within i t s e l f , as it

is a conclusion to Act I of this opera.

 150

4 .3 SENSE OF FINA LITY

This passacaglia follows an arch profile and ends with a ll the

parameters st a lowpoint.
The rhythmic spacing of the ostinato in the final statement has
a broadening effect and creates a feeling of slowing down and finality
without there being any change in the overall tempo.
The coda which followj the passacaglia sees a sudden rise in all
the parameters. Howev this coda functions as a conclusion to the
entire art of the opera, rather than as the conclusion of the

passacaglia.

5. FORMAL PLAN

The overall formal plan o£ this passacaglia is that of an arch p ro file.

5.1 LARGER FORM

This passacaglia concludes the first act of this two act opera. It
therefore occurs in a central position within the overall frajnework
of the opera, and forms the highpoint of the first aot.
The tonal scheme of the opera is as follows (the tonal centre
of the passacaglia movement is underlined):

b b
- Act I : B ~ C - E_ - G
b b
- Act II : B - D - F - E - B .

The passacaglia sets out in E flat major but ends in G major

which is the concluding tonality of the first act. It therefore allows
for excursions into tonal centres which are not heard again at
structurally important points of the opera.
The opening Eb tonality of the passacaglia, furthermore, stands
in a senitonal relationship to the execution scene in the second act,
centre 1 on E , which it foreshadows. It could thus be regarded as
symbolizing the irreconcilability of the situation between Ciaggart
and B illy.
 i 51

CHAPTER 10

THE rum OF THE SCREW, OP. 54, 1954

I. BACKGROUND

Like Albert Herring and The Rape o f Luoretia, The Turn o f the Screw is
a chamber opera. It is in two acts with sixteen scenes. It was given
its world premiere in Venice on 14 September 1954, while in America
it was premiered in Hew York on 19 March 1958.
Hie libretto, written by Myfanwy Piper, was based on the novella
Thu Turn o f the Screw (1898) by Henry James (1843-1916). The action
takes place at Bly, a country house, about the middle of the nineteenth

century.

The Tuim o f the Screw is about the haunting of two

children in a Victorian Country house by the ghosts
of a valet and the governess he has seduced. Its
choice by Brivten is usually interpreted as another
example of his preoccupation with evil and corruption,
but this aspect may well have been exaggerated. What
is more pertinent is that the Britten family always
displayed a remarkable curiosity about the occult
and that he grew up in this atmosphere. He frequently
claimed to have had 'premonitions * and he could usually
be drawn Into a conversation about ’curious happenings'.
Su ffo lk , after a l l , is a good country for haunted houses. 1

The eight scenes of each act are linked together by sixteen

orchestral interludes which take the form of a theme and fifteen
variations. The theme of the variations encompasses all twelve notes
of the chromatic scale. it is given out on the piano. However, each
note Is then sustained by another instrument so thiit, by the end of
the theme, all twelve notes are sounding simultaneously.

* M. Kennedy, Bvitten (London: Dent, 1981) , p. 67.

 152

2
Ex. 1: Theme of variations

V«ry tlww (i- 4S)

As can be seen in Ex. 1 above, the theme consists of three

asymmetrioal phrases. The fir s t of these phrases is transposed aad

inverted in the second phrase, and this inversion is thun troatec*
sequentially in the third phrase.

Ex. 2: Scheme of melodic structure of theme of, variations

The theme thus consists of twelve noted in which there is an

alternation of perfect fourths and mine;; third s. In the theme (see
Ex- 1, above!, the intervals ar© sometimes inverted so that the
perfect fourths appear as perfect fifths and the minor thirds appear

as major sixths.
The theme can also be regarded as consisting of two whole tone
scales, one formed from the upper notes and one from the lower notes.

Ex. ?: Scale structure of theme of variations

B r itten n e ith e r here nor elsewhere has regarded the

twelve n otes as c o n s t it u t in g a n egatio n at tonal
h i e r a r c h i e s , b ut rath< r as a r a m ific a tio n of them.

^ B . B r it t e n , The 'Dum o f the :>Vrvi.\ u p. 54, study score (Lo n do n :

Boosey s Hawkes, 1 9 6 6 ) , p . 4 .
 153

What he sees in a note-row i r not so much equality

but totality: almost every one of his twelve-note
ideas is in some sense a symbol j £ an all — a cosmos,
one might mere pompously sav ; . .. But within any
given context, however rapidly fluctuating central
notes may be, they are allowed to exercise their eld
powers of attraction. And since Britten rarely
permits his harmony to stray further than the ear
can retrace from a triadic norm, this twelve-note
melodic material takes us nowhere towards Schoenberg's
dissolution of the motive in the texture with its
consequent abandonment of functionally directed
hartaony. ^

It has been suggested that Bricten was influenced by Berg's

Vozzeak,

The obsessive, though not of course s e ria l, schemes

of Wozzeck may have been in B ritten's mind: certainly
Vozzeak is the most obvious and important precedent
for the use of elaborate structuring to control and
concentrate the intense emotional content of a music
drama. 4

Each variation sets the mood for the scene that follows i t , and
thore are sometimes thematic links a* well between a variation and the
subsequent scene.
The opera is scored for wind and string quintets plus harp,
celesta and percussion. There are only seven characters and there
is no chorus.
The climax of the op*.?ra in the final scene of Act II is a
passacaglia on an ostinato built up cumulatively from the note
succession of the theme of the variations (sea Ex. 1 , p , 15 2 ).

2. THE NATURE OF THE OSTINATO THEME

1 STRUCTURE

As is mentioned above, the ostinato, them.* is b u ilt up cumulatively

from the notes of thw theme for variations. The f irst six notes appear
in the first eight ■statements of the ostinato. In the next tour state-
[Link], the ostinato is extended to include the first eight notes of the
theme. Then, in stat ment thirteen immediately following M iles’ s

^ Evans, p. 206.

4 Whittall, p. i59.
 154

admission, there is a short statement containing only the first four

notes of the theme for variations.

The following statement of the ostinato contains the first nine
notes of ' ■ theme for variations, and this is followed by a statement

with ten u. .s.

Statements sixteen and seventeen of the ostinato, as the struggle
between the (iovemess and Quint in ten sifie s, contain a ll twelve notes
of the theme * • variations.

2 ,1 .1 Sequence

The theme as stated at the outset of the variations in the Prologue to

Act I , consists of tore* asymmetrical phrases. There are no exact
melodic sequences. Hie second phrase is e. transposed -'version of
the f ir s t . Hie third phrase is an exact melodic sequence of the
second apart from the final C natural which, although it gives the
correct pitch c lass, falls a perfect fifth instead of rising a perfect
fourth.

Ex. 4 : Theme of variations J

V«py ( i * 48}

Rhythmic sequence ia prominent in the original theme v «e Ex. 4 ,

above). In the passacaglia, however, only the in it ia l two presentations
of the ostinato are rhythmically identical. The remaining fifteen
statements each present the ostinato in a now rhythmic guise.

Ex. 5: Rhythmic structure of first two statements of ostinato

5 B r itte n , The Turn o f the S c r e u , p. 4.

v>r-

2 55

2 .1 .2 C h a r a c t e r is t ic in te rv a ls

The first eight statements of the ostinato theme retain a constant

intervallic structure. Statement nine also conforms to the interval
structure of the previous eight statements, however, it omits the

third note (B ^ ).

Ex. o: Interval structure of first eight statements of ostinato

In staunprits ten, eleven and twelva, the interval structure is

as follows;

Ex. 7: Interval structure of storefronts ten, eleven and twelve of

ostinato

Statement nine has the same interval structure as statements ten,

2
eleven and twelve, but the third note (B 3 is omitted.
Statement thirteen has only the first f'-nir notes of the ostinato,
but tha interval, structure of these notes corresponds with that of
all previous statements.
Statement fourteen retains the interval structure of statements
ten, eleven and twelve (see Ex. 7 above) but adds a further note of the
theme at the end.

Ex. 8: Interval structure of statement fourteen of ostinato

Statement fifteen adds an additional note (note ten) of the theme.

 156

Ex. 9 : Interval structure of statement fifteen of ostinato

Statement sixteen retains this tructure but adds notes eleven

and twelve of the theme.

Bv. 10: Interval structure of statement sixteen of ostinato

Statement seventeen also contains all twelve notes of the theme,

but the final three notes alter the Interval structure of the previous
statement.

Ex. 11: Interval structure of statement seventeen of ostinato

Thus, broadly speaking, the f irst nine statements have the same
interval structure, Inereafter, statements ten to sixteen have the
same structure with the addition of one note at the end of statement
fourteen and another at the end of statemrnt f ift e e n . A further two
notes are added at the end of statement sixteen, which therefore
incorporates all twelve notes of the theme, The structure of state­
ments sixteen and seventeen is identical for the first nine notes, but
the final notes see a slight change of structure.
From the above examples of the interval structure of the ostinato
(Exs. 6 to 11 above) , it is evident that the only intervals used are
those of rising perfect fourths and fallin g minor thirds (or augmented
seconds) or their inversior •, namely, falling perfect fifths and
rising major sixth s.
This concentration on specific intervals gives a highly unified
structure to the ostinato theme.
 157

2 .1 .3 Chordal In flu e n c e

Those statements which use a falling perfect fifth can be regarded as

outlining a major or minor triad on E between notes three and four, and
on F sharp between notes five and six . The final statement outlines
two further major triads on 8 flat and C respectively between notes
nine to ten and eleven to twelve.

2 .1 .4 Cor tour

Ex, \2i Contour of ostinato (one horizontal square equals one quarter
note; one vertical square equals one pitch class)

a) Statements I-IX

b) Statements X-XII

M
c) Statement XIV

d) Statement XV

nJIS
e) Statement XVI

Tae above graphs of the contour show that the ostinato moves on
three levels. Each of these levels has a rising contour. Furthermore,
the midd'e level moves entirely by rising whole tones u n t il, by
statement sixteen, a complete whole tone scale has been encompassed.
As a result of the cumulative method of presenting the ostinato
the interval between the final note of one statement and the first
nolo cf the fo 1lowing statement does not remain constant. Statements
one to eight have the interval of a major sixth between the final note
and the first note of the following statement. In statements nine to
twelve the connecting interval is a major seventh, while in st. tsment
thirteen (which presents only the first four notes of the theme) the
interval is a perfect fourth. From this point on. the connecting
interval gradually widens to a minor sixth in statement fourteen, a
minor ninth in statement f i i.e e n and a minor tenth in statement
sixteen.
Thus, the most frequently used connecting interval is the major
sixth .

2 .1 .5 Length

Unlike any other Britten passacaglia the notes of this ostinato theme
are presented cumulatively so that by the final two statements all
twelve notes of the theme are present. The ostinato theme is stated
seventeen times.
To begin with, only six notes are present. Two mo/e notes are
added at statement ten, and a further one at each of statements fourteen
and fiftee n , bringing the number up to ten notes. In statement sixteen

the final two notes are added.

Both the cumulative method of presenting the theme and the

constantly changing rhythmic character of the ositinato in each state­
ment (apart from statements one and two which havt? the same rhythm)
 159

create a constantly changing theme length. The fluctuation in length

varies from three measures {statements one and two) to twenty six

measures {statement seventeen),

2 .1 .6 Tonal centre

Stein has suggested that e\ch half of the ostinato theme can be regarded
as belonging to a single key: the first half to A {or D) and the
second h alf to A flat (or E f l a t ) . ^

Ex. 13: Tonality of ostinato

2 .1 .7 Metre and tempo

The eheme Is initially presented in simple triple metre (3/4) and with
the tempo indication "Slow and regular i J = 8 0 )''.
At statement fifteen , however, there is a change to 4 /4 a^d 5/4
metres. The final statement (seventeen) sees both the metre and
tempo indication change to 2 /8 , "Quick and urgent".

2 .1 .8 Rhythm

Apart from statements one and two which are presented in an identical
rhythmic form, the remaining statements of the ostinato are in a state
of constant rhythmic f l u x , never duplicating the rhythmic structure
of any other statement.

Ex, 14: Rhythmic structure of first two statements of ostinato

Despite the fairly subdued rhythmic activity of the above example,

none of the three measures duplicates the rhythmic activity of any
other. This, furthermore, is a feature of nearly all the presentations

^ e . St e in , "The Turn of the Screw and its Musical Idiom ," Tempo,
34, 1954-55, p. 6.
 160

of the ostinato. Only in statements seven, eight and "seventeen does

the same rhythmic pattern appear in more than one measure.

Ex. 15: Rhythmic structure of statements seven, eight and seventeen

ot ostinato

a' Statement VIX 7

8
fa) Statement V III

c) [Link] XVII

Quick and urgent

An interesting feature ia the increasing rhythmic activity in the final

four statements of the ostinato. The moat rhythmically active state­

ment is number sixteen.

7 Britten, The Turn c f th*-'. Sc*rev, pp. 294-2 '5.

® Britten, The. Turn o f t h p. 295.

9
B r it t o n , The I h m o f t-uv J<?rev, p p . j06 - U 0 .
 w

161

Ex. 16: Statement sixteen of ostinato

This constantly changing rhythmic structure of the ostinato is

a means of infusing interest and vitality into the constant repetitions
of th# ostinato.

'odic ten-ion

£ the fact that the ostinato is based on a theme er-t ining

alx „ve notes of the chromatic scale, despite the cumulat
presentation of the ostinato, obviously no statement can end o.. .j
saiae note as that with which the following statement begins. The
connecting intervals in order of size are perfoct fourth, minor sixth,
raaior sixth , major seventh, minor ninth and minor tenth.
Thaa, a ll the presentations are open-ended, and this creates
a forward momentum.

2 .1 .1 0 Derivation

T*h# ostinato the me ks d eriv ed from the theme of the variations which
is presented in the Prologue of the o pera (sea E x. 4 , p. 154) . A

feature about the presentation o f this theme in th*3 o s t in a t o is that

the French ove'ture-1 tke 'lotted rhythms art.: abandoned, except in
stat'imcunt i.;venteen {--me Ex. 1!. (c ) , p . 160), in favour of a much

less active, moro p la c id rhythm.

The most st r ik in g feature about the presentation o f this theme
in the o s tin a to is t:hr» chanqe from simple quadruple metre to simple

triple (3 /4 ) metro for the f i r s t filteen statem ents. A change of

metre to 4 /4 and j '4 occurs in statement sixtee - (Ex. 16, above), and
a further change to 2/h occurs in ^.tarewent seventeen (Ex. 1 5 (c ),
p. 160). Nevertheless, by far the g reat er p art o f the passacaglia
is in the t r a d it io n a l </4 metre.
 162

2 .2 USE OF THE OSTINATO THEME

2 .2 .1 First statement setting

The first statement of the ostinato on harp, double baas ana timpani
is accompanied. In this instance, the accompaniment consists of the
soprano voice of the Governess.

2 .2 .2 Variations in length

Hie length of each presentation of the ostinato is in a constant state

of flux. This is due partly to the cumulative presentation of the
ostinato. However, even in statements which contain the %asm number
of pitch classes, the length varies widely. Thus, in the eight
statemrnta which present only six of the '.welve pitch c lasses, the
length varies from three to eight measures. In thy two statements

which contain all twelve pitch classes {statements sixteen and seven­
teen) , there is a fluctuation of twenty four measure®. In statement
sixteen, this twelv** pitch clashes are contained within two measures,
whereas in statement seventeen, the same twelve pitch classes are
spread over twenty six measures.
These constant c hanges in the length o f the presentations results
f r am a. le s s *■iqrid approach based on a flexible theme length.

2 .2 .3 V a r ia t io n s in i-ono colour

In contra at. to U k ' con v.i ant f lu c t u a t io n s in th* length of the o stin a to

them e, only five tone colours are used in the seventeen statements.

Ex. 11: Tone colour of o s tin a to

I " "v ’ X XV
1 11 11 _____IL___ i(____1
Harp Ha rp Bsn. Timp.
Timr ■ Timp. Harp V in a ,
Db. Vcl. Timp. V ia .
Db. V c l. V cl.
Db. Db.

Ban.
a ..
Harp
Timp
Via.
Vcl.
Db.
 163

Britten here usee the additive method of building a crescendo.

2 .2 .4 Tempo changes

The initial tempo indication is "Slow and regular ( i * 8 0 )". This

tempo is maintained until statement seven teen, the final presentation
of the ostinato, where the indication is “Quick and urgent" and the
metre changes to 2 /8 .

2 .2 .5 Variations in rhythm

The rhythmic structure of the ostinato is in a constant state of flux

and only statements one and two are rhythmically identical.

2 .2 .6 Them® drop-out and theme fragmentation

The ostinato them® drops out for two short periods, namely for four
measures between statements twelve and thirteen, and for three

measures between statements fourteen and fifteen .

After the climax at statement seventeen, the ostinato theme drop-i
out completely and is not heard again. The cumulative treatment of
the ostinato (which may b® regarded as a type of fragmentation) has
already been mentioned (see parag’-^ph 2 . 1 . 5 , pp. 158-159).

2 .2 .7 Degree of audibility

The cumulative method of presenting the ostinato, as well as the new

rhythmic structure for each presentation, with the exception of
statement t\«o, make ? ostinato more obscure than it would be with
a straight!oiv ard presentation. Nevertheless, despite the liberties
which are take?, with the ostinato, its presence in the lower registers
-nroughout, does make an impact on one’ s aural perception, and it
?ts as a unifying element throughout the movement.
 V

164

2 .2 .3 Octave register

Ex. 18: Octave register of ostinato

c'

c5
c«
c-->
c2
c1

The ostinato remains in the lower registers for the entire

passacaglia.

2 .3 INFLUENCE OF THE OSTINATO THEME

2 .3 .1 Effect on length; time-spun

The total length o the ostinato has very lit tle influence on the
length of the passacaglia as a Whole due to the cumulative method used
to introduce i t , and also to the constantly changing rhythmic structure
of the presentations {only statements one and two have identical rhythm).
A further factor which lessens the direct relationship between the
ostinato theme length and the overall passacagi ia length, is the fact
that the theme drops out at the climax of the passacaglia and is not
heard again for the remaining thirteen measures.
The overall length of the passacaglia is one hundred and twenty
10
eight [Link]. The overall t iff* ~span is 5.46 minutes.

2 .3 .2 Sectionalization

The constant fluctuations In th& length, rhythm and audibility of the

ostinato mil imtze the sectional effect of its repetitions.

The measurement of the time-span has been based on the following

recordings 8 . Britten, Tne, o f the Go p c u , with Peter Pears,
Jennifer Vyvyan, Joan Corss, Arda [Link], Olive Dyer, and others ,
cond. Benjamin Britten, English Opera Group Orchestra, Decca GOH
560-561 , 1968.
 165

3. THE ACCOMPANIMENT

3.1 TYPE OP ACCOMPANYING MATERIAL

The accompaniment consists of several counterpoints. None of these

counterpoints ever reaches the status of a theme.
The arioso of each of the three participants in this scene,

the Governess, Miles and Quint, is associated with a specific counter­

point and a specific sonority. Miles is associated with a counterpoint
on the strings in which dotted rhythms predominate. The Governess is
associate-- with broken triads on the clarinet, at first only in triplet
quavers, but later also in shorter note values.
Quint is associated with the sound of the celesta and the chord
which has been associated with him throughout the opera, namely, a
minor third plus a whole tone. Apart from a few passages in which the
celesta echoes Quint's call to Miles consisting cf fille d in perfect
fourths, the entire accompaniment to Quint consist!, of Quint's chord

either broken up or in block form.

Ex. 19: Quint's chord * 1

With the exception of the final variation in which the ostinato

itself takes over the dotted rhythms associated with M iles, the
accompanying counterpoints are rhythmically more active than the
ostinato.

3 .2 THE ACCOMPANIMENT VARIED

3 .2 .1 Octave register

Throughout the passacaglia the accompaniment appears above the ostinato,

apart from a few notes in Quint's tenor vocal line in the final
variation which drop slightly below the level of the ostinato.
The octave register in which the ostinato is presented remains
static throughout.

* * B r i t t e n , The Ti<rn > / the ScrcM, p . J.’ l.

 166

3 .2 .2 Tone colour

The overall profile of the tone colour of the accompaniment is that

of a gradual rise wi*h interruptions in statements eleven and fourteen.

Ex. 20: Tone colour of accompaniment and ostinato (+ equals used

in alternation)

F I.
Cl.
E.H.
B sn .
Hn.
Harp
Cmb.
Cel.
Sop. *+ ■*+ *+. *♦ *+
Treb * * + *+ *+ *+
Ten.
Vlns,
Via.

Sun.
Kn.
Harp
Timp
Vlns
Via.
v cl.
Db.

3 .2 .3 Texture

In this passacaglia, Britten uses an additive method of textural growth.

The textures merge rather than contrast with on# another.

3.3 ROLE OF THE ACCOMPANIMENT

s .3.1 Sectionalization

The accompaniment tninimizes the sectional character of the ostinato

by overlapping the repetitions in a ll but three statements. The
statements which are not overlapped are numbet* thirteen, fifteen
and seventeen.
 267

3 .3 .2 Accompaniment versus ostinato theme

The accompaniment dominates the ostinato completely so that the

ostinato is relegated to the role of providing rhythmic; and harmonic
support. The accompaniment is virtually self-sufficient ana, as such,
shapes the profile more or less single-handedly.

3 .3 3 Grouping

The counterpoints with their characteristic rhythsas, which are

associated with the dialogue of the three characters, pervade the
entire scene.
The one rhythm which is not characteristic of any of these
counterpoints is the animated rhythm first heard on tha clarinet in

statement e iih t .

12
Ex. 21: Rhythm of clarinet in statement eight

The last of these animated rhythmic patterns (see Ex. 21, above),
occurs again in statement ten.
Similar urgent rhythms for the clarinet appear in three
consecutive statements, namely fourteen, fifteen and sixteen. Thus,
these rhythms become an ever-increasing unifying factor the
passacaglia progresses.

^ B r i t t e n , The Turn o f the p. 295.

 168

4. MOTION FACTORS

4A THE PARAMETERS

4 .1 .1 Density

The density hanges *re made progressively, and, apart from statements
three, fiv >, thirteen and fift e e n , the changes do not coin*. <le with
the repetition-* •••:' the orii.-.itto.
The density has an pvtu,. ■ arrh profile with slight interruptions
cm the upward curve at statements «levei* and fourteen, vameiy during
M iie s's hesitation to reply to the Govern .*«*►, « aqaun f >Ilowing his
admission. Following the climax at the end of statement seventeen,
there is a gradual decline in density.

Ex. 22: Density profile

4 .1 .2 Range

Ex. 23; R. < / / / « ostinato; •’ accompaniment)

Throughout this passacaglia, the ostinato remains in the lower

octave registers and at no time invades the upper registers.
 169

Gradual widening and narrowing of the upper limit of the range

is characteristic of this passacaglia. As it progresses, the upper

limit of the range wanders into the higher regions more frequently
and remains there for longer periods than is the case in the opening
stages.
The wide octave register range at the beginning of the coda
gradually narrows in the closing stages of the pausacaglia.

4 .1 .3 Dynamics

Ifce overall dynamic contour is that of an arch reaching a peak at the

end of statement seventeen, and thereafter dropping rapidly in the coda.
Within this arch p ro file, however, the dynamic changes occur in waves
of gradually increasing intensity.

Ex. 24: Dynamic profile

I V X XV Coda

4 .1 .4 Rhythm

The rhythmic changes occur in stages, reaching a peak at the beginning

of the coda, and maintaining this level for the remainder of the
passacaglia.
The overall rhythmic profile i s , therefore, that of a gradual
rise.
 170

Ex. 25: Rhythmic p r o f i l e

4 .2 INTERACTION OF PARAMETERS

Both the density and dynamics present an arch profile reaching a peak
at the end of statement seventeen , and declining during the coda which
follows. -'
The rhythm shows a deviation from this profile in that it pulls
back during the peak of the arch and returns to a high level during

the coda while the parameters of density and dynamics are on a decline.
The rhythm, therefore, serves to create vitality while the other
parameters are declini: j.
4 .3 SLMSE OF FINALITY

The arch profile oi this passacaglia results in a feeling of

completion and rest being achieved by the enu of the movement, with
both th® density and dynamics at a lowpoint. Thus, although the
dramatic action continues immediately after a short pause, the
passacaglia is complete in itself and does not depend on anything
which follows for its sense of completion.

5. FORMAL PLAN

This passacaglia has an overall arch p ro file. Sixteen statements of

the ostinato are required for the pro file to reach a peak in statement
seventeen. Th© decline is sharp and occurs during the coda.

5.1 LARGER FORM

This passacaglia forms part of a longer work. It represents the climax

of the opera ard appears very nearly at the end of the work.
The tonal centres of fhe theme and its variations are as follows:

Act I

Theme: A Scene i: A
Variation I : D Scene i i : B
Variation II : C Scene i i i : C
Variation I I I : D Scene iv: D
Variation IV: E Scene V: E
Variation V: F Scene V i: F
Variaticn VI; G Seen© v i i : G
Variation V II: A flat Scene v i i i : A flat

Act II

Variation V I I I : A flat Scene i: A fiat

Variation IX: F sharp Scene ti: F st arp
Variation X: F Scene i i i : F
Variation XI: E flat. Scene iv: E flat
Variation X II: C sharp Scene v/: C sharp
Variation X III : C Scene v i . c
Variation XIV: B flat Scene v i i : B flat
Variation XV: A Scene v i ii : A (Passacaglia)
 172

. . . the key centres are screwed up th oughout the

f irst act according to the succession of tone and
semitone steps that form the Aeolian mode, but the
final substitution of a semitone for the logical tone
brings A flat in place of a return to A. Setting off
from this A flat area, the second act unscrews its
key succession in an exact inversion of the scalic
steps of Act 1, that is , descending mixolydian on
A fla t , L'ut an uncertainty attends the final stages
<>l the return: the twice-heard A flat that dominated
the peak of this key structure appears by now to have
a far stronger grip on events than the dista t A frcm
which they originated, yet exact inversion of thr*
upward screw w ill require a final semitonal step to A . 13

At the opening of the passacaglia only notes one to six of the

theme are used. 'These notes easily f i t into a context of A tiajor.

. . . but as longer circuits are attempted and the

seventh and eighth notes appear, strong currents in
the upper texture swing the music towards A f l a t .
At the climax a fin al last statement of the theme
on A is achieved despite being pitted against a
superstructure now entirely in A f l a t . Thereafter
great pedals ensure the domination of A to the end,
and the A flat threat progressively weakens. **

In this opera, the tonal centre A represents the moral courage

of the Governess, while the tonal centra of A flat represents the evil
powers personified by the ghosts.
The passacaglia, therefore, re-establishes the tonal centre of
A from which the work set out.

^ Evans, p . 207.

^ Evans, p. 207.
 i

CHAPTER 11

W Y E 'S FLUDDE, OP. 59, 1957 g

*
1. BACKGROUND

Nnye *3 Fludde w.**« f irst performed in the Orford church, Orford (near <

Aldeburgh), on it une, 1958. The text of the p)ay is taken from

English Miracle Plays , Moralities and .r".t*plud*B , A .W . Pollard,
8th edition (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 9 5 4 ). Britten added three
well-known hymns which he rearranged, 1 as well as a chorus for the
animals as they march into the ark.
The play tells the story of Noah and th** flood, and is taken
from the Chester Cycle, which is one of the four collections of
Qiglish medieval plays known by the names of the towns in which they
were probably performed. The other cycles are York, Coventry and
Wakefield (which is sometimes referred to as the "Towneiey" Cycle).
These plays reached their fullest development in the fifteenth and
sixteenth centuries and were performed on the great feastday? of
Corpus C hriati, Christmas, Whitsun and Easter. They were designed to
i ’ lustrate the stories of the Bible for those who were illitera te.
The plays were performed by individual guilds on large carts which
could be pulled around Che village from one square to the next.
Unlike the liturgical drama from which they were derived, these
Miracle Plays were not intended to be performed in church.
Britton aimed to reproduce the communal a c t i ..r , :>* the Miracle
Plays, and thus old and young, professional® and a ' are involved,
The hymn singing of the congregation, the use of children and the
employment of professional and amateur orchestral players are designed
to involve everyone in participation. This idea of community involve­
ment can lead to an enormous cast. Foity nine species of animals are
mentioned in the C hester play, and when the work was premiered, Britten
used thirty five species, in p airs, and subdivided into seven groups.
Only three adults are used, namely for the Voice of God (spoken),
and for the parts of Noye (bass-baritone) and Noye’ s wife (contralto).

* The three hymns added were: Lord Jeaus think on me, Eternal
Father, strong to &uve ana The spacious firmament on high.
 i 74

Boys and girls between eleven and fifteen years of age play the parts
of Sem, Ham and Jaffett and their wives, while older girl*, -fith strong
voices especially in the lower registers, play the role of Mrs Noye' s
gossips.
The orchestra also c alls for vast resources, both professional
and amateur. There is a professional orchestra of ten players, two
violins, v iola, c ello, double bass, treble recorder, pianc (four hands),
organ and timpani. In addition, the following amateur players ar*»
used: twenty five strings, twelve recorders, eight bugles, six
percussion and six handbells.

Thus, the orchestra totals sixty seven players, ter. professional

and the others amateurs.

In addition to these vast resources, the audience is also called

upon on three occasions to join in the singing of hymns.
The central movement in the opera is an extended passacaglia,
which depicts musically the growth, climax and eventual subsidence of
the storm. It makes use of all the above resources, representing as
it does the flood at the height of the entire dxama. It occurs at the
dramatic peak of the overall arch p ro file of th-; vork.
Th© ripieno orchestra comes into its own in this passacaglia
movement with a wealth of descriptive effects strictly -
‘levant to the
musical logic of this superbly constructed movement.

2. THE NATURE OF THE OSTINATO THEME

2 .1 STRUCTURE

2 .1 .1 Sequence

The ostinato theme consists of a single phrase, and is built from a

three-note cell which always returns to the dominant pedal G. This
three-note cell rises sequentially by steps of a whole tone until it
reaches an apex from which it p1 "k to the tonic note at the
beginning of the repetition tto.
 175

The tension of this theme is created by the conflicting tonal and

atonal cross-currents set up by its intervallic structure.
In the final statement of the motive of a fallin g minor third to
rising semitone, the rhythm is quickened. A ll the sequential
appearances of the motive are exact with regard to pitch. In the

fourth statement the motive is followed by the dominant pedal

displaced up an octave.
This use of both pitch and rhythmic sequence creatus a highly
unified theme.

2 .1 .2 Characteristic intervals

As a result of the use of motivic sequence, the intervals of a falling

minor third and rising e* ^ Itone dominate this ostinato theme.

2 .1 .3 Triton© influence

A tritone in rising whole to^es ia outlined by the in itial notes of

the four successive statement of the ostinato theme motive. *rhis
triton® resolves to the dorai'm u »l on the octave displaced dominant pedal.

2 .1 .4 Contour

The gradual expansion of range with a rising upper limit results in

a rising contour. Although there is a decline in ,:tour over the

final three quarter notes of the ostinato theme*, the overall aural

2 B . B r i t t e n , h'oye '& F lu d d e, O p . 59, study score (Londons

Boosey & Hawkes, 1 9 5 8 ) , p . 104.
 176

impression is that of a rising contour. It could perhaps more

accurately be termed a modified rising contour.

Ex. 2: Contour of ostinato (one horizontal square equals one quarter

note; one vertical square represents one pitch class)

The above graphic illustration of the ostinato i clearly shows

that It is constructed or two levels, both of whir risin g . The
upper level rises in successive equally spaced S’ . The lower
level remains static until the last two quarter notes, when it too
rises, and continues its rise to C-3 which mar.-is the f ir s t ao*-e of the
repetition of the ostinato theme.
A very smooth connection to the rep etit5on of the therae is

achieved by the le a d in g note ending whi-h resolves onto the tonic

on the return of the ostinato theme. There is thus only a semitone
step be*—- i the final note of the ostinato and the f irst ncte of its
repetit ,
atal range-span of the ostiivito theme is narrow, being only
a perfect octave.

2 .1 .5 Length

The ostinato theme is exactly four :• rures long, and thus conforms to
tho Baroque standard of 'our or eig. measures.

2 .1 .6 Tonal c entre

The tonal c entr e is c le a r ly C , an> : ■ >s stro ngly emphasized by the

recurrent G 's which form a domina: <*'. p o in t .

2 .1 .7 Metre and tempo

Contrary to the Baroque p re fe re n c e f->r triple metre, Britten here uses

a simple quadruple metre ( 4 / 2 ) . "ihere is a specific metronome
in d ic a tio n o f J » 69-72, and t h is tempo is m aintain ed consistently
throughout the passacaglia apart from a slight slackening cf tempo in
the final three m easures.
 177

2 .1 .8 Rhythm

An interesting rhythmic feature is Britten's use of fir*»t-beat activity

in every measure. He also uses another tension-creating device,
namely syncopAtion, as the contour of th® theme expands.

Ex. 3 i First beat activity of ostinato theme

2 .1 .9 Melodic tension

The leading note ending creates a particularly strong forward drive.

Tension is created by the conflicting tonal and atonal cross currents
set up by the ostinato's intervallic structure.

2 .1 .1 0 Rhythmic tension

Repetition of rhythmic motives creates a forward-thrusting, motoristic

e ffe c t , thus creating momentum. Here, Britten uses the same rhythmic
pattern three times in succession, and on its fourth appearance it is
rhythmically accelerated.

2 .1 .1 1 Derivat ion

While this ostinato theme is not derived from any previously heard
material, it has a very close affin ity to lines three and five of
the hymn tune Eternal Father which is heard approximately halfway
through the passacaglia.
™x. 4> Hymn tu..e Eternal Father '
a) Line 3
b) Lina 5

a)
Min. 3rd * Semitone Min. 3rd * Semitone

ihe bidd•■t the aigh-ty o - cean deep

b)
,____ ............ Urn. Milng -fey n
BtrJC ^ r - p p ‘ .... p —f—
0 n#S? us ttwn » i * cry to The*

In th® ostinato them®, th® rising minor third and falling

semitone of lint three o f the hymn tune, is inverted to form a

falling minor th ir d and rising semitone. While the melodic line o f
line fi v e o f the. hymn tune r is e s by -semitones, the sequential
repetition in the o s t in a t o theme risea by whole tones.

2 .2 USE or THE OSTINATO THEME

2 .2 .1 F i r s t statem ent s e t tin g

Th® f i r s t statement is unaccom panied ap a rt from a r o ll on the tim p a n i.

Contrapuntal accompanying material appears on the fourth beat of the
second staters n t ,

2 .2 .2 Variations in length

The only variation in th© length of the ostinato theme occurs in the
final statement where only the f i r s t elev en note# o f tho nineteen- note
theme are h e a r d .

2 .2 .3 V a r ia t io n s in ton« c olour

"rtte tone colo u r in the f i r s t f i x statem ents o f the o s t in a t o theme is

static . T h e r e a f t e r , in statem ents seven to f i f t e e n in c l u s i v e , d ur in g

^ B r i t t e n , Noye '<» Fludde, p p . 126- 129. The hymn tune Eternal

Father was composed by [Link]. Dykes (1823- 1876) w ith text by W. W h it in g .
 179

the instrumental build-up to the climax of the storm, there Is a

change of tone colour for every statement of the ostinato, except
for the tenth statement, which retains the same instrumentation as

the ninth.
This frequent change of tone colour creates vitality as well as
a feeling of overall crescendo. This crescendo continues when the
hymn tune "Eternal Father" appears, with a change of instrumentation
for each of the first two verses, and reaches its climax in the third
verse. As the storm subsides (statements 22-28) the instrumentation
of the ostinato adopted in statement twenty two remains constant.

Ex. 5: Tone colour of ostinato

Solo strings

Rip. strings
Vlns.
Vlas.
Vcls.
Dbs.
Tiap,
Piano
Organ

I V X XV XX XXV

2 .2 .4 Tempo changes

This passacaglia retains a constant tempo throughout.

2 .2 .5 Other variations of the ostinato theme

At the "panic of the animals" (score number 8 0 , there is a change

from ascending sequences and a dominant pedal to descending sequences
and a tonic pedal eor two statements of the ostinato .
 4
Ex. 6 : Descending sequences (score number BO)

The original form of the ostinato returns when, as the storm

approaches its height, the chorus attempts to tame the [Link] with
the first verse of the hymn tune (score number 8 2 ).

2 .2 .6 These drop-out and theme fragmentation

At the height of the flood, that i s , in the third verse of the hymn
tune, the ostinato theme is temporarily abandoned. There i s , however,
no drop in intensity at this point. As each of the two previous
verses occupies three statements of the ostinato, the ostinato theme
is absent for what would amount to the duration of three statements
which is the equivalent of twelve measures. As the passacaglia is
one hundred and eleven measures long, the theme is abandoned for
only 10.9% of the movement.

Fragmentation of the ostinato occurs only in its final statement

at which point only the first three measures are hsard.

2 .2 .7 Degree of audibility

Despite the minor variation in the ostinato theme mentioned in 2 .2 .5 ,

pp. 179-180, the ostinato remains distinguishable throughout. The theme

functions as a true [Link], and therefore, this passacaglia may be

described as variations over an ostinato.

4 Britten, Noye’s Fludde , pp. 120-122.

 181

2 .2 .8 Octave re g is t e r

Ex. 7: Octave register of ostinato

c*

XV XX

From the above illustration it is clear that the ostinato remains

in the bass and middle registers throughout.

2 .3 INFLUENCE OF THE OSTINATO THEME

2 .3 .1 Effect on lengths time-span

The four measure ostinato theme is stated twenty seven and a half times.
Hie overall length of the passacaglia is one hundred and twenty three
measures for twelve measures of which the ostinato is absent.
The overall time-span is 7 .27 minutes.

2 .3 .2 Sectionalization

This theme creates a fairly high degree of sectionalization due to its

chromatic nature. On the other hand, the leading note ending tends to
reduce sectionalization as it creates forward momentum. This ostinato,

therefore, has a moderate sectional e ffec t.

3. THE ACCOMPANIMENT

3.1 TYPE UF ACCOMPANYING MATERIAL

Of considerable importance in this passacaglia is the implied series

of block major triads in the ostinato theme, which is the source of
much of the figuration and harmonic processes in this movement.

3 the measurement of the time-span has been based on the following

recording: B. Britten, Noye'e Fludde, with Owen Brannigan, Trevor
Anthony and Sheila Rex, cond. Norman del Mar, English Chamber Owchestra,
Decca, Argc ZKI, 1976.
 182

Ex. 8 : Ostinato theme with implied series of triads

The accompaniment figuration consists almost entirely of triads

and scalic passages. These scalic passages can be traced back to the
stepwise ascent of the fallin g minor third rising semitone motive of
the ostinato theme. This passacaglia movement can therefore be
regarded as having been derived from a single theme.
Throughout, the accompanying material is rhythmically more active

than the ostinato.

3.2 THE ACCOMPANIMENT VARIED

3 .2 .1 Octave register

The accompaniment appears above the ostinato throughout.

3 .2 .2 Tone colour

There is a change of tone colour in the accompaniment for each of

statements two to fifteen of the ostinato. There is a further change
of tone colour in statement sixteen at the opening of the hymn
"Eternal Father", and again at statement nineteen which marks the
beginning of the second verse. Verse three of the hymn marks the
climax of the movement, at which point the ostinato is abandoned for
what would be the equivalent of three statements.
The constantly changing tone colour not only adds v it a lit y , but
is also the means used for an additive* crescendo which reaches its
peak in the third verse of the hymn. Thereafter, there is a gradual
decline in intensity.
3 .2 .3 Texture

Throughout this passacaglia the textural changes merge into one another,
resulting in a pattern of gradual growth up to and including the third
verse of the hymn, and a pattern of gradual decline thereafter.

3 .3 ROLE OF THE ACCOMPANIMENT

3 .3 .1 Sectionaliaation

There is a high degree of sectionalization in this passacaglia iue to

the fact that at each repetition of the os*- \to, the accompaniment
depicts dome different aspect of the storm, for example, ra in , thunder,
wind. These changes in the accompanying material, coinciding as they
do with each new statement of the ostinato, emphasize the sectional

character of the ostinato.

3 .3 .2 Accompaniment versus ostinato theme

It i s the accompaniment which is the dominant factor in this

passacaglia, w h ile the ostinato functions as a rhythmic and harmonic

support.

3 .3 .3 Grouping

Statements fo urteen and f i f t e e n o f the ostinato a r e grouped by

reten tio n o f the same them atic accompanying material. Furthermore,

at the h eig h t o f the storm and o f the passacaglia arch p ro file , the

hymn tune "Eternal F ath er " is the unifying facto-: over six statements
of che ostinato theme as well as during the following twelve measures
during which the o s tin a to theme drops out.
Following the climax, during the height of the storm, the use of
motives heard prior to the climax as well as from the hymn tune it s e lf,
creates a sense o f return and unifies the arch profile of the
passacaglia.
 184

4. m o t io n fac tor s

4.1 THE PARAMETERS

4 .1 .1 Density

There is an overall Increase in density from the second statement of the

ostinato theme through to the clim&x in the third verse of the hymn. The
density changes take place in stages which correspond with the repetitions
of the ostinato. There are fluctuations within this gradually rising
density level. Statement four represents the first small pwak, followed
by a drop in density and * build-up to statement seven, which is again
followed by a drop and a further build-up to statements twelve and thirteen.
The drop and subsequent build-up in statement fourteen of the ostinato
through to statement, nineteen and to the ensuing third hymn verse, brings
the movement to its climax. Thereafter, there is an immediate drop and
continued reduction in density to the end of the passacaglLi.

Ex. 9 : Density profile

I V X XV XX XXV

4 .2 .2 Range

Ex. !0: Range < / / / * ostinato; •“ . « accompaniment)

The above diagrammatic representation of the range according to octave

register, illustrates that the range of the accompaniment follows an
.averse arch curve. The narrowing of range during the climax corresponds
 135

with the drop in rhythmic activity. The wide contrasts of range near

the beginning and again at the end is part of the scheme of changing

colour contrasts.

4 .1 .3 Dynamics

The dynamic gradations are made in stages. Up to and including state-

cant eight of the ostinato, there is a change in the dynamic level for
each statement, with a peak in statement four and again in statement
seven. The cut-back in statement eight is followed by an increase
Which is retained at a more or less constant level in statements nine
to thirteen inclusive. Statement fourteen at the beginning of the
"panic of the animals" sees another significant cut-back which prepares
for a final surge to the peak of the arch in the third verse of the
hymn. Thereafter, there is a gradual tapering off of the dynamics
on the downward curve of the arch.

Ex. 11: Dynamic profile

I V X XV XX XXV

4 .1 .4 Rhythm

The rhythmic changes, like the density and dynamic changes are made in
stages. Thfcr® is a change of rhythmic values for almost every state­
ment of the ostinato, and this tendency for rhythmic, density and
dynamic changes to coincide with the repetitions of the ostinato
creates a very strong sectional e ffec t. The rapid changing of rhythmic
values is halted somewhat during the "panic of the animals" {score
number 80} during which the rhythmic values remain constant for two
statements of the ostinato, and also during the hymn tune (score
number 82) in ;»'hich the rhythmic values remain constant for each
ver?e, that is , for three statements of the ostinato in each of the
first two verses, and for the equivalent; of three statements of the
orcinato in the third verse.
 186

■nils retention of rhythmic values for longer time-span* as

the peak of the arch is approached, creates momentum and diverts

attention away from the constantly recurring ostinato.
Curiously enough, the rate of rhythmic change accelerates on
the downward curve of the arch, especially in statements twenty three
and twenty four, where the rhythm changes twice as quickly as before.
This could be regarded as a means of creating a sense of finality by
compressing the activity.
An interesting feature is the reduction of rhythmic activity at
the peak of the arch when both density and dynamics are at a highpoint.

4 .2 INTERACTION OF PARAMETERS

There is an interesting interaction of parameters in this passacaglia.

An arch contour is displayed by the density and dynamics, while an
inverse arch is displayed by the rhythm and r a n g '. At the peak of the
arch contour, the rhythmic activity and range are reduced within a
high intensity and hio-~ density area.

4 .3 SENSE OF FINALITY

The sense of finality is achieved by the gradual drop in density and

dynamics, and ultimately also a slowing down of the rhythm on the
downward curve of the formal arch pro file. Th% dramatic action
continues immeuiately without a pause.

5. FORMAL PLAN

The overall formal contour of this passacaglia is that of an arch.

■flu* arch requires a considerable time to ruach its peak. The eighteen
statements of the upward contour are no doubt intended to suggest the
slowly rising floodwaters. The peak is sustained for some time,
namely, for the three verses of the hymn tune which constitute thirty
six measures. Thereafter, there is a rapid descent to close the
passacaglia.
This descent is characterized by the return of motives and rhythmic
figures heard during the upward curve of the arch p ro file, as well as
by snatches of the hymn tune it s e lf. This return of previously heard
elements gives a feeling of rounding off and conclusion to the movement.
 187

5 .1 LARGER FORM

The central location oi this passacaglia within the work as a whole,

causes Li to function as a tv-'al point.
Peter Evans has summarized the tonal procedures in this work as

follows: ^

Ex. 12: Tonal events (notes tied to bracketed notes indicate that
those pitches are retained as significant pedals)

Building Mr* Noy«'s ixit

•sf th* ob- pro-
Ark ■Ciniicy evasion

7
Peter Evans goes on to say:

E minor has remained the only minor node used at a

structural level of significance, and the transfer
to it s relative major to end th© cycle is effectively
symbolic of the change in man's state through which
the story has led u s .

The main tonal events of this work are therefora (the tonal centre
of the passacaglia movement is underlined):

- E m inor

- C major ("Storm" passacaglia)

- G major (with which the work concludes).

Theee events correspond to the major triad built on the first

note of the ostinato theme.

In its central position within the overall framework, the

passacaglia serves to introduce a contrasting, but related, tonality
between the opening E minor and its relative major, G major which
concludes the work.

6 Evans, p . 282.

7 Evans, p. 282.
 ~w *

188

CHAPTER 12

VAR REQUIEM, OP. 6 6 , 1961

1. BACKGROUND

The War Requiem, completed in 1961, was commissioned to mark the

consecration of the new Cathedral o f S t . Michael in Coventry, England.
The previous medieval building was bombed during the Second World War.

When the new Cathedral was seen to be approaching

completion, it was agreed to celebrate its
rededication with a special festival of the arts.
A number of new works were required for the
occasion, including a large-scale oratorio, and
this commission was offered to Britten whc acccpted
it. He fully realized the importance of the
occasion, for it would mark not only the phoeni*-
like resurgence of the new Cathedral at the side
of the shattered shell of the old, but also the
healing of many wounds. He wanted to make some
public statement about the criminal f u t ilit y of ^
war, and this seemed a good opportunity to do so.

Britten 's War Requiem is perhaps the most powerful anti-war tract
of modern times. It was f irst performed at the opening of the new
Coventry Cathedral on 30 May 1962.
This Requiem is n setting of liturgical texts with commentary
based on nine poems of Wilfred Owen (1893-1913) who died in the Firs’:
world War.
The English poems are confined to the tenor and baritone soloists
accompanied by chamber orchestra. The Latin texts, on the other hand,
are distributed between two groups? the boys' choir with organ
accompaniment, and the soprano solo ist, chorus and full orchestra.
Thus, Britten has employed three sound levels.*

- the boys' voices represent a distant, almost de-personalized,

mystic world completely removed from, and oblivious to, the
b a ttlefield;
- the soprano soloist, chorus and full orchestra represent
bereaved humanity?

* White, p . 78.
 - the tenor and baritone soloists accompanied by a chamber
orchestra represent the victims of war.

The fifth movement of this work, the "Agnus Dei" is the summing
up both musically and emoti'- ly of the work's cent rax message. It
represents the climax of the v as a whole, and takos the form of
a passacaglia.

2. THE MATURE OF THE OSTINATO THEME

2 .1 STRUCTURE

The ostinato theme consists of two symmetrical fragments of filled-in

perfect fifths from F sharp and C respectively, in ofposite directions,
and with the identical succession of ton&s and semitones. Hie initial
notes of each ot these two fragments are a tritone apart. Throughout
this War Requiem, the tritone is used as the symbol of mourning.

Ex. 1: Ostinato theme ^

Slo* {f- 8 0 )

2 .1 .1 Sequence

Actual sequence does not occur in this ostinato theme. However, the
second measure is an exact retrograde o f th# fir**- a semitone higher.
Britten's interesting rhythmic juggling with the five sixteenth
notes in each measure eliminates the possibility of rhythmic sequence.

2.1 2 Characteristic intervals

The intervallic structure in both measures of the ostinato thorns is

identical. Each measure contains two tones followed by a senutone
and another tone. This exact reflection of the intervals of the first
measure in the second measure of the ostinato, results in an extremely
tightly unified structure.

2 B. B r i t t e n , Wav Requiem , O p , 6 6 , study score (London: Booaey &

H &w kes, 1 9 6 2 ) , p . 1 7 0,
2 .1 .3 Chordal influence

The first measure outlines the triad of B minor, while the second

measure outlines the triad of C major.

2 .1 .4 Tritone influence

A tritone is formed between the f irst note of tne first measure and
t ie first note of th© second measure.

2 .1 .5 Contour

Contour of ostinato (one horizontal square equals one

sixteenth note; one vertical square equals one pitch class)

fllii
The ostinato theme presents the contour of an inverse arch,
reaching a lowpoint on the fifth sixteenth note of the first measure.
There is only a semitone interval between the submediant ending
ani the dominant opening of this theme. This narrow connecting interval
allows for very smooth repetitions of the ostinato.
The range-span is a minor sixth.

2 .1 .6 Length

The ostinato theme is extremely short b e in g only two measures in

length. It is stated twenty three times.

2 1 .7 Ttmal centre

The Agnus D ei is the only movement consistently

controlled by a tritonal relationship. The impression
o f this c e a s e le s s burden, sung or played is pre­
dominantly of B minor alternating with its
Neapolitan sixth. 3

Or a can therefore regard .the tonal centre of tne ostinato theme as

being B minor. The particular tritone relationship involved is that

1 Evans, pp. 452-453.

 I

191

of F sharp - C, the in it ial notes of each of the two scale segments

used in the ostinato.

2 .1 .8 Metre ana tempo

Britten here uses a highly unusual metre for a passacaglia, namely

5/16 or simple quintuple. The tempo indication is "Slow / * 8 0 ".
There are no tempo changes during the course of the passacaglia.

2 .1 .9 Rhythm

An interesting feature of this ostinato theme is that it is bu ilt

entirely froc. running scalic passages A sense of uneasiness is created
by the asymmetrical quintuplet groupings, and this restlessness is
increased by the fact that there a* m two rhythmic patterns within the
quintuplet groupings, namely n m and mn . These rhythmic
patterns alternate measure by measure. Thuu, the aonotony which could
result from an unwavering sixteenth note rhythm is averted by the
fluctuating grouping within the two measures of the ostinato.

2 .1 .1 0 Melodic tension

The theme is open-ended in that it ends on the submediant, and this

creates a forward drive. Furthermore, the chromaticism in the second
measure of the ostinato creates melodic tension.

2 .1 .1 1 Derivation

The melodic form of the ostinato is not derived from any previously
heard material. However, the tritone relationship F sharp to C on
which it hinges is a central relationship throughout the War Requiem.

2 .2 USE Of THE OSTINATO THEME

2 .2 .1 First statement setting

The first statement of the ostinato is unaccompanied.

2 .2 .2 Variations in length

There is a one measure extension of the ostinato theme at the end of

both statements ten and sixteen. This same extension is spread over
two measures at the end of statement twenty three. These three
extensions coincide with the conclusion of each choral entry with
full orchestra at the end of each stanza of the tenor solo.
Thare i s , furthermore, a one m Msure extension at tha end of
statement five which coincides with the end of the second line of
the tenor solo.
All these extensions continue the upward curve of the second
measure of the ostinato, but reverse the interval structure. Thus,
the interval structure of each measure of the ostinato is tone, tone,
semitone, tone, whereas that o f the extension is tone, semitone, tone,
tone.

Ex. 3: Ostinato plus one measure extension 4

The coda is also an extension of the ostinato. The first measure

retains the original fundamental pitch but inverts the direction as in
the first measure of statements seventeen and eighteen. The second
measure continues the rising pattern but reverses the interval
structure of the first measure.

Ex. 4: Coda 5

2 .2 .3 Variations in tone colour

The tone colour alternates between the strings of the chamber

orchestra, and the chorus plus three clarinets (one of which is a

4 Britten, War Hequiem, p . 170.

Britten, War Requiem, p. 177.

 193

bass c la r in e t ), two bassoons, double bassoon and strings of the full

orchestra. Only in the fin al statement of the ostinato theme do a ll

these resources join forces.
Britten thus relies on contrasting tone colours rather than a
continuum of colour to create momentum.

Ex. 5: Tone cwlour of ostinato

(A * strings of chamber orchestra
B * chorus plus c larinets, bassoons, double bassoon and
strings of full orchestra
C = A and B combined)

I V X XV XX Coda
i_______________II___II_______II__ il___i U ----------! U
A B A B A B A C

2 .2 .4 Tempo changes

A constant tempo is maintained throughout this passacaglia.

2 .2 .5 Other variations of the ostinato theme

During the opening two lines of stanza three of the tenor solo, that
is , during statements seventeen and eighteen, the ostinato, while still
beginning on the original fundamental pitch, is inverted. Thus, the
original interval structure of the ostinato is retained, while the
dit action of movement is inverted so that the fir _t measure has an
ascending contour and the second measure a descending contour.

Ex. 6 : Inverted form of ostinato in statements seventeen and

eighteen ^

6 B r i t t e n , War Requiem , p p . 174-175

 194

2 .2 .6 Theme drop-out and theme fragmentation

The only point at which the ostinato theme drops out is during the coda.
However, the interval structure of the coda itself is based on that
of the ostinato (see paragraph 2 . 2 . 2 , pp. 191-192).

2 .2 .1 Degree of audibility

Use ostinato theme is clearly audible throughout due to the fact that
it is only subjectod to very slight modification [Link] does not cause
it to become unrecognizable.

2 .2 .8 Octave register

Ex. 7: Octave register of ostinato

I V X XV XX

’’’’he ostinato remains in the same octavt register throughout the

passacaglia.

2 .3 INFLUENCE OF THE OSTINATO THEME

2 .3 .1 Effect on lengtft; time-span

There are twenty three statements of the two measure ostinato. The
overall length of the passacaglia is f ift y five measures. The twenty
three statements of the ostinato produce forty seven measures and
not forty six , due to th© prolongation of the final note of the first
measure of the ostinato over an additional measure in the final state­
ment. The additional eight measures arise from extensions between
statements five and six, ten and eleven, and sixteen and seventeen,
and at the end of statement twenty three. There is also a thre
measure coda.
 195

Thus, the ostinato has a strong influence on the overall length

of the passacaglia.
The overall time-apan is 3 .36 minutes. 7

2 .3 .2 Sectionalization

The chromaticism used within this ostinato theme gives it a distinctive

quality, and as a result it has a strongly sectional effect.

3. THE ACCOMPANIMENT

3.1 TYPE OF ACCOMPANYING MATERIAL

A through-composed setting of the Owen poem "At a Calvary near the

Ancre" for tenor solo forms the arcampaniment to the ostinato. The
setting is mainly syllabic and in arioso style.
In the setting of the first stanza, the first and third lines
have identical setting, while the fourth line differs only slightly
from the second line.
The setting of the second jtanasa bears no resemblance to that of
the f ir s t . However, in the third stanza, the setting of the third
and fourth lines is identical to that of the first and second lines
of stanza one.
The accompaniment i s , therefore, dominated by the setting of
the opening two lines of the pojm w_th its falling contour. Also
5 5 4
prominent in these lines I p the trltone F sharp - C - F sharp.
Thus, the tritone pervades not only the ostinato, but also
the accompaniment.
One can therefore regard the entire movement as being built
from one kernel motive or theme, namely the tritone.

The measurement of the tlme-span has been based or the following

recording: B. Britten, War Requiem, with Galina Vishnevskaya, Peter
Pears, Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau, cond. Benjamin Britten, London symphony
Orchestra, Decca SET 252/253 , 1‘>63 .
 196

e
Ex. 8 ; Setting of opening two lines of poem

3.2 THE ACCOMPANIMENT VARIED

3 .2 .1 Octave register

As the octave register of the ostinato is constant throughout the

passacaglia, it is the task of the accompaniment to create interest

and vitality in the upper range.

While the occasional note of the tenor solo lies above the octave
register of the ostinato, for the most part the solo is overlapped
by the ostinato. The harmonic support given to the tenor solo by
the flu te, oboe, clarinet, bassoou, horn and harp, however, is
interwoven both above and below the ostinato. Thus, the ostinato,
despite the fact that its octave register is constant throughout,
pervades the entire fabric of the passacaglia.

3 .2 .2 Tone colour

The predominant tone colour in the accompaniment is that of the tenor

solo, with support from the oboe, clarinet and bassoon. More
strident colours are evident at the beginning of the third stanza
(statement seven teen) . However, by the end of tie stanza, the
support from the oboe, clarinet and bassoon has been reinstated.
The ostinato Is extended melodically between the second and third
lines of the first stanza, .and this same extension is used climactic-
ally at the end of the final line of each choral ontry.
The coda is sung by tenor solo against a sustained F sharp major
triad In the chorus.

8 Britten, Wav Hetjuiem, p . 170.

 197

Ex. 9: Tone colour of accompaniment and ostinato

B contained
A and
of
resources
the

|M lM J < £0 O

3 .2 .3 Texture

The predominant texture in this passacaglia is chat established at

th© outset of the tenor solo. This texture ia retained throughout
the first and second stanzas as well as during the second half of the
third stanza. A contrasting texture is heard in the choral refrain
at the end of each stanza of the tenor solo. A further contrasting
texture with very marked, incisive rhythms occurs at the opening of
the third stanza.
 198

Thus, Britten has here used the device of contrasting textures

rather than creating a continuum of texture.

3 .3 ROLE OF THE ACCOMPANIMENT

3 .3 .1 Sectionalination

The accompaniment tends to minimize the sectional effect of the

ostinato in that the setting of the lines of the tenor solo for the
most part overlap the repetitions of the ostinato. Only the beginning
of the f irst and third lines of the first stanza and the third and

fourth lines of the third stanza coincide with the beginning of a

repetition of the ostinato.
Moreover, even in the choral refra in , based on the melodic pattern

of the ostinato, which punctuate* the stanzas, the words overlap the
statements of the ostinato, thus minimizing the sectional effec t.

3 .3 .2 Accompaniment versus ostinato theme

the ostinato and accompaniment in this passacaglia have a fairly

equal relationship throughout. The accompanying tenor solo is
punctuated by the choral refrain based on the ostinato it s e lf. Thus
the ostinato c arr4es considerable melodic importance.

3 .3 .3 Grouping

The use of a choral refrain based on the ostinato not only to separate
each stanza of the tenor solo from the next, but also to punctuate

stanza three, creates a rondo-like e ffe c t , in which the setting of

each stanza of the text provides an episode. In addition to the
unifying effect of this ostinato them® as a recurring refrain, there
is also a unifying theme within the episodes themselves.
In stanza one, the setting of the third and fourth lines is
identical to that of the first and second lines apart from a slight
deviation in the final measure.
This same theme recurs as the setting for the final two \ines of
the third stanza. The recurrence of this theme at the end of the
poem has a unifying effect by creaclng a sense of return.
 199

4. MOTION FACTORS

4 .1 THE PARAMETERS

4 .1 .1 D en sity

The changes in d e n s it y occur in s t a g e s . There i s a s l i g h t in crea se in

d e n s it y in the second stan za o f the tenor aolo as compc ed to the f i r s t

s t a n z a , r e s u l t in g from the g re a t e r a c t i v i t y o f the o b o e , c l a r i n e t and

bassoon o f the chamber o r c h e s tr a .

The o pen in g two l in e s o f s t an za three see a marked In crease in

d e n s i t y , w hile there i s a sla c k e n in g o f f ag ain in the fo llo w in g two

l i n e s , as w e ll as the choral r e fr a in and tenor so lo coda which fo llo w .

The d e n s i t y , t h e r e f o r e , c r e a te s an arch p r o f i l e , rea chin g a peak

in the o pen in g two l i n e s o f s t a n za three (statem ents seventeen and

e ig h teen o f the o s t i n a t o ) . T h e r e a f t e r , there i s a g rad u al ta perin g

o f f o f the d e n s ity u n t i l the end of the movement.

Ex. 10: D en sity p r o f il e

I V X XV XX Coda
I—___ _ J I_____ J L____ -__ _ ]
Stanza t S ta n za I I Stan za I I I

4 .1 .2 Range

Ex. \\ i Range ( / / / ® o stin ato ? « accompaniment)

 200

The c o n tra sts o f range are not very w ide due to the l im it a t io n s of

the tenor v oic e which forms the fo reg ro un d accom panim ent.
4
The h ig h p o in t fc r the tenor so lo is F sharp w ith w hich the solo

b o t h b e g in s and e n d s . In the f i r s t s t a n za both the f i r s t and th ir d

l i n e s b eg in fvora t h is h ig h p o in t and then descend to F sharp an octave

The range o f the tenor solo in the second s t an za p resen ts an arch

c o n to u r , r i s i n g up to F4 sharp and then f a l l i n g a g a in to ena on F

sharp an octave lo w er.

In the t h ir d s t a n z a , the range a g a in has an arch p r o f i l e r i s i n g

t o the F4 sharp an d then en d in g a g a in on th® F sharp an o cta ve lo w er.

4 .1 .3 Dynamics

A a is the c ase w ith the d e n s i t y , the dynamic changes occur in s t a g e s ,

r ea ch in g a peak in the f i r s t two l i n e s o f stan za t h r e e , and th e r e a ft e r

f a l l i n g o f f d ur in g the c l o s in g stag es o f the p a s s a c a g l ia . Th© dynam ics,

t h e r e f o r e , c reate an arch p r o f i l e .

W it h in these dynamic s t a g e s , ho w ever, v i t a l i t y i s c re a te d by th«

use o f dynamic waves w it h in each o f th® e x t e n s io n s o f the o s tin a to

which occur at the end o f each s t a n za o f th© solo as w ell a s at the

m id p oin t o f s t an za o n e . A dynamic wave a ls o e n liv e n s the coda which

has a ls o been shown to be an exten s io n of the o s t in a t o (se« paragraph

2.2.2, pp. 19 1-192).

Ex. 12 : Dynamic p r o f il e

L
X

S tan za I Stanza I I St/u\3a I I I

4 .1 .4 Rhythm

The rhythmic changes o ccur in s t a g e s . There is a g rad u al increase

in rhythmic a c t iv it y d u r in g the f i r s t two and a h a l f st an zas o f the

tenor s o lo . T h is g ra d u a lly r is in g contour is in terr up ted by the

choral r e fr a in in statem ents n in e to ten and f i f t e e n to s i x t « « n .

F allo w in g the peak o f rhythraic a c t i v i t y in the f i r s t two lin-is o f

stan za three (statem ents seventeen and e i g h t e e n ), there is a mariced

drop in a c t iv it y fo r the rem ainder o f the s t a n z a , and a s lig h t

in crea se in a c t i v i t y in the coda.

T h u s , th© rhythmic contour i s that o f an arch w ith double

in te rr u p tio n on the upward c u r v e .

Be. 13: Rhythmic p r o f i l e

\__________ J 1________ I L
S ta n za I S tan za I I Stan za I I I

4 .2 INTERACTION of param eters

The param eters o f d e n s i t y , dynamics and rhythm a l l support an arch

p r o f il e reachin g a peak in the f i r s t two lin e s o f s t a n za three

(statem ents seventeen and e ig h teen ) and th e r e a ft e r t a p e rin g o f f .

On the downward c u r v e , the rhythm shows a s l i g h t d e v ia tio n in

th at there is a s l ig h t in crea se in a c t iv it y whilf? the param eters of

d e n s ity and dynamics are at a lo w p o in t.

The p ea* of the arch is als o supported by the range o f the cenor

solo which reaches it s h ig h e s t p o in t d ur in g the second lin e of the

t h ir d s t a n za .

The wide c o n tra sts of range n the coda are a means o f c r e a tin g

changing colo u r c o n t r a s t s .

4 .3 SENSE OF FINALITY

H ie arch shape o f the p a s s a c a a lia re s u lts in the param eters o f d e n s it y ,

dynamics and rhythm en din g at a lo w p o in t . T h is c r e a te s a fe e lin g of

 202

c o n c lu sio n and re p o s e , so t h a t the p a s s a c a g l ia movement 1 s complete

in i t s e l f , and does n ot depend on an y th in g th a t fo llo w s fo r a sense

o f c om pletion.

A sense o f f i n a l i t y is a l s o ac h iev ed by the return a t the en d o f

s t a n za three o f the m usical s e t t in g o f s t a n za o n e . T h is return In the

m ateria l o l the accompaniment g iv e s a f e e l i n g o f r e c a p it u la t io n and

com pleteness.

5. FORMAL PTAN

The o v e r a ll formal p r o f i l e o f t h i s p a s s a c a g l ia is that o f an a r c h ,

r ea ch in g a peak in the f i r s t two l i n e s o f the t h ir d s t a n za o f the

accompanying t e x t .

Ex. 14s Formal p r o f i l e

I V X XV XX Coda

1__ _________ -1 I____ ____ 1 I_____________I

S tan za I Stan za XX Stan za I I I

5 .1 LARGER FORM

T h is p a s s a c a g lia forms p art o f a mu. Imoveraent work, and rep resents

the em otional and m usical c lim ax of u ie work a » a w ho le.

In the War Requiem, B r it t e n has g iven e x p res sio n to a moral

ten sio n by mi .ina o f a m usical t e n s io n , and fchuu the tr it o n e u n d e r lin e s

the i n s t a b i l i t y o f s o c iety and the in c o m p a tib ility o f war w ith true

C h rist ia n ity .

The t r it o r e not only c olo u rs many o f th© harmonies and m elodic

c o n t o u r s , b ut it a ls o m aintain s the tonal i n s t a b i l i t y w hich i s so

c h a r a c t e r is t ic o f the w o rk .
 203

The "Agnus Dei'* i s the only movement which is c o n s is t e n t ly

c o n t r o lle d by a t r i t o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p .

In i t s m arvellous embodiment o f an em otional c ~ux in

a tonal stru ure tho Agnue D e i marks the m usi, i l h ig h
p o in t o f tb Requien ; . . . the t r ito n e h ere o perates
at the roost com prehensive lev el and fo r a moment we
can r is e to a serene acceptance o f what elsew here
had seemed the very token o f d is s e n s io n . ^
 204

CHAPTER 13

SYMPHONY FOE CELLO AND ORCHESTRA, O P . 6 8 , 1963

1. BACKGROUND

The Symphony for Cello and Orchestra was w rit ten fo r the Russian

c e l l i s t M s t is la v R o str o p o v ic h , whom B r itte n met fo r the f i r s t time in

i9 6 0 . B r it t e n began composing i t in the sp rin g o f 1 9 6 3 , and it was

com pleted in May 1 9 6 3 . I t was g iv e n i t s f i r s t perform ance in the

G re a t H a ll o f the Moscow C onservatory on 12 March 1964 by M s tisla v

Rostropovich w ith the Moscow Philharm onic Orchestra conducted oy

Benjam in B r J t t e n .

Having c o n ceiv ed a f i r s t movement in w hich sonata

p r i n c i p l e s are c a r d i n a l , he d e c id e d that concerto
v ir t u o s it y would b e a tiresom e i r r e le v a n c e . There
i s no c o n f l i c t g enu in e o r s p u r io u s , between s c l o is t
a n d o r c h e s t r a , and no p la c e for the importunate
rh e t o r ic passage- work. the o ther h a n d , t h i s is
n ot a symphony fo r o rc h e stra 'w it h c e l l o ' a f t e r the
model o f Harold in Italy c r <2" I n d y 's Symphonic
ogvenole; ra th e r i t is a sonava in which a c e l l o
i s p artn ered by an o r c h e s t r a . 1

T h is symphony is in four movements

- I A lle g r o maestoso

- II Presto in q u ieto (S cherzo)

- Ill A dagio w ith c e l l o c ad en za le a d in g to the f i n a l e

- IV Andante a lle g r o (P a s s a c a g lia ).

2. THE NATURE OF THE OSTINATO THEME

2 .1 STRUCTURE

2 . 1 .1 Sequence

T h is twenty s ix measure o s t in a t o theme c o n s is t s o f fiv e p h ra se s.

W h ile sequence in the g e n e r a lly accepted sense o - the term is not in

* Evans, p . 314.
 205

e v id e n c e , nevertheless.- there is a strong s im il a r it y in the structure

o f the f i r s t fo ur p h r a s e s . Each o f these p h rase s b eg in s with a

rep eate d open c hord fo llow ed by a syncopated stepw ise p a s s a g e .

Phrase f i v e does n ot conform to the p atter n o f the previo u s fo ur

p h r a s e s , i t s m ateria l b e in g d e riv e d from the t h ir d movement o f th is

symphony.

Ex. 1: O s tin a to ‘■-heme ^

Andante allegro c. 84)

2 .1 .2 C h a r a c t e r is t ic in t e r v a ls

Stepwise movement in tones and sem itones predom inates in the s c a lic

p assages, in c o n tra st with the larger in t e r v a ls o f major and minor

th ir d s and p e r fe c t fourths and f i f t h s between the bass notes in the

chordal p a s s a g e s . "

. Britten, Symphony f o r C ello and O r c h e s t r a t Op. 6 8 , pocket

score, (London; Boosey & Hawkes, 1963), pp. 68-69.
 206

2 .1 .3 Contour

The grap h b elow (E x . 2) i l l u s t r a t e s the contour o f t h is o s t in a t o theme.

In itially , the o v e r a ll a c t i v i t y d ir e c t io n fo llo w s a g rad u al downward

p atter n u n t il the la s t q u ar ter note of measure s ix te e n where the

lowest p o in t o f the d e c lin e is rea ch ed . T h is is fo llow ed by a rapid

r is e in measures twenty to twenty t h r e e , coming to rest on A in

measure twenty three b e fo re a fu rth e r b r i e f exc u r sio n to on the

fo ur th q uarter note o f measure twenty fo u r , and a return to res t on

A4 in measures twenty f i v e and twenty s i x .

Ex. 2s Contour o f o s t in a t o (ona h o r iz o n t a l square eq u a ls one q uarter

n ote; one v e r t ic a l square eq u a ls one p it c h c l a s s )

The c o n to u r , t h e r e fo r e , is that o f an inverse a r c h , d ip p in g down

to reach it s lowpoint in measure s ix t e e n , that i s , s l ig h t l y a f t e r the

m id p oin t of the theme which occurs in measure t h ir t e e n .

T h is theme appears to be c on struc ted on three l e v e l s . The

rep eate d chords at the b e g in n in g o f p hrase s o n e , two and f o u r , involve

 207

a l l three le v e l s o f c o n s t r u c t io n , w hile those which open phrase three

involve o n ly the two upper l e v e l s . The m elodic ru nning p a s s a g e s , on

the o ther hand are c o n fin e d to the lo w est lev el in phrase o n e , move

up to the interm ediate l e v e l in p hrase two, back through the i n t e r ­

m ediate le v e l and in to the lowest lev el in phrase t h r e e , and f i n a l l y

so ar through a l l three le v e ls in p hrase fo ur to form the upward curve

of the inverse ar ch .

2 .1 .4 Chordal in flu e n c e

C hordal in flu e n c e i s e v id e n t in the in t e r lu d e s which separate the

r u n nin g s c a l ic p a s s a g e s . Measures s i x to e ig h t r e it e r a t e a seventh

chord on G w ith the f i f t h o m itted . In m easures e le v e n to fo u r teen a

t r i a d on D w ith th ir d om itted i s o u t l in e d , w hile in measures seventeen

to n in et een the coirplete major t r i a d on D is r e i t e r a t e d .

2 .1 .5 Length

The twenty s ix measures o f t h i s o s t in a t o theme are fa r in e xc ess o f

the Baroque p referen ce o f four or e ig h t m easures. The o s tin a to is

rep eated s ix tim es.

There is an extrem ely wide i n t e r v a l , namely two o cta v es and a

p e r fe c t fo u r t h , between the f i r s t and la s t notes o f the o s t i n a t o . "’’he

o s t in a t o b e g in s on the su perto nic and ends on the dom inant.

The to ta l range-span is also extrem ely w id e , b e in g three octaves

and a major second.

2 .1 .6 Tonal centre

S ev eral tonal c rntres are im plied in t h i s f iv e p hrase theme, but the

predom inant centre is that o f D m ajor. T h is i s the to nal centre of

the f i r s t , fo ur th and f i f t h p h r a s e s . The second p hrase centres on

B P h r y g ia n , w hile the t h ir d phrase moves from the B p h ry gia n o f the

z .co nd phrase back to the o r ig in a l t o n a lit y o f D m ajor.

2 .1 .7 Ketre and tempo

Simple duple metre (2/2) predom inates in t h is o s tin a to theme. Measure

six t e e n sees a change to simple t r ip le m etre, b u t t h is is sh o rt- lived ,

and the simple duple metre is re- instated in the fo llo w in g m easu re.
 In the f i f t h p re se n ta t io n o f the o s t in a t o them e, the m etre,

while rem ain ing d u p le , changes from two h a l f n otes p er measure to

two q u a r te r n otes p er m easu re. As a r e s u l t , the r e it e r a t e d chords

at the b e g in n in g o f e a c h p hrase now appear in q u ar ter note su cc ession

in p la c e o f the p re v io u s h a l f note s u c c e s s io n , w hile in the ru nning

p a s s a g e s , a new rhythm, e n t i r e l y u n r e la te d to the p r e v io u s rhythm o f

the ru n nin g p a s s a g e s , ap p ea rs.

The s ix t h statem ent o f the o s tin a to theme sees a return to the

o r ig in a l rhythm as fo un d in statem ents one to fo u r .

Th® tempo in d ic a t io n o f t h i s p a s s a c a g lia i s "Andante a l l e g r o "

with the metronome in d ic a t io n o f J = c. 84.

The only r e s p it e from t h is tempo comes d uring the fan ta sy - like

in terlu d e which preced es the s ix t h and f i n a l p re s e n t a t io n o f the

o?*-inato them©, in w hich the c e l l o and woodwind a l t e r n a t e .

2 .3 .8 Rhythm

In t e r e s t in g rhythm ic fe a t u r e s in t h is theme are the use o f syncopation

as w ell as th® us© o f ru nning s c a l ic p assa g es w hich g iv e the theme

c o n sid era ble v ig o u r.

2 .1 .9 Melodic ten sio n

The use o f more than one tonal le v e l w ith in the fi v e p h ra se s c reates

a m elodic t e n s io n . The o s tin a to theme en ds on the dominant o f D m a jo r ,

and t h i s is a fu rth er fo rw ard- pro p elling d e v ic e . The fa c t that this

dominant does not f i n d re s o lu tio n to the to n ic u n t i l the fo urth phrase

o f the theme r e s u l t s in the build- up o f c o n sid e ra b le m elodic te n s io n .

2 .1 .1 0 D e tiv a tio n

The s c a l i c p assa g es o f the o s t in a t o theme appear to f i n d t h e ir model

in the s c a lic passag es at the o pening o f the f i r s t ...ovement.

 ;

' 1

209

Ex. 1; F ir s t movement, mm. 1-4 ^

The f i n a l phrase o f the o stin a to theme i s d e r iv e d from the f i n a l

phrase o f the main theme o f the Adagio movement (measures 44-47) ,

with time v a lu e s dou b led .

E x. 4 : F in a l p hrase o f main theme o f Adagio 4

Ex. 5: F in a l phrase o f o stin a to then® ^

3 B r it t e n , C y ^ h o n y f o r C ello an d Or ch est ra, p. 1.

4 B r it t e n , Symphony f o r C ello and Or ch est ra, p. 72.

3 B r it t e n , Symphony f o r Cello and C reh e&tra, p p . 88-89.

 210

2 .2 USE OF THE OSTINATO THEME

2 . 2 .1 F i r s t statem ent s e t t in g

Tbs f i r s t statem ent o f t h is o s t in a t o them© i s ac co n p a nied . It is

p re se n te d on the c e l l o , w hile the s u b s id ia r y theme o f the Adagio

movement I s heard above it on the trtuqpet. T h is s u b s id ia r y theme

forms th© b a s i s o f s ix subsequent v a r ia t io n s above the o s t i n a t o .

The s e t t in g o f the i n i t i a l statem ent i s , however.- f a i r l y m eagre, thus

a llo w in g fo r a p a t t e r n o f growth by the use o f in c r e a s in g in t e n s it y

dur in g the subsequent statem ents o f the o s t in a t o .

2 .2 .2 V a r ia t io n s in len gth

In the subsequent statem ents o f the o s t in a t o them e, there are

c o n sid e ra b le v a r ia t io n s m i t s le n g t h .

Statement three has twenty n in e m easures. One m easure o f rep eate d

c tords i s om itted at the b e g in n in g o f the f i r s t p h r a s e . An a d d it io n a l

two m easures o f re p e a te d chords are in se rt e d a t the b e g in n in g o f the

second p h r a s e , one measure o f re p e a te d chords i s in s e r t e d a t the

b eg in n in g o f p hrase f o u r , w hile m elodic e la b o r a t io n lead s to an

a d d it io n a l measure in p hrase f iv*<.

Statement four h a s o nly twenty fo ur m easu res. In p hrase one a

measure o f rep eate d chords is o m itt ed . Measures th ir t e e n and fo urteen

of the o r ig in a l theme are condensed i n t j one measure in th© second

phrase. The o v e r a ll number of m easures rem ains u n d is tu r b e d in phrase

three, d esp ite c o n sid e ra b le rhythm ic chan ges.

Statement fiv e has twenty m easu res. Phrases four and fiv e are

om itted c o m p letely. Phi :\se three i s als o in co m p lete, lac kin g it s

fin al s ix eig h th n o t e s . F arther changes in t h i s statem ent in clu de the

in se rt io n o f an a d d it io n a l three m easures o f rep eate d chords in the

second p h r a s e , fo llow ed by the e x t e n s io n o f two .aeasures over three

m easures.
The f i n a l statem ent (statement s ix ) i s extend ed to t h ir t y three

m easures. T h is ex t e n s io n r e s u lt s from the in s e r t io n of a d d it io n a l

rep eated chords at the b eg in n in g o f each o f the f i r s t fo ur p h r a s e s :

two m easures at the b e g in n in g of p hrase s o n e , two and f o u r , and one

measure at the b eg in n in g of p hrase t h r e e .

 211

Although the number o f m easures In statem ent two corresponds to

that o f the i n i t i a l statem ent o f th® o s t in a t o theme, it i s not an

e xa ct r e p e t it io n o f the theme. One measure o f rep eate d chords is

om itted from p hrase o n e , w hile measure twenty three o f the o r i g i n a l

theme i s o m itt ed . Th® r e s u l t in g o v e r a ll number o f m easures is

twenty s i x .

2 .2 .3 V a r ia t io n s in tone colour

The tone c olour changes for e a c h p re se n ta t io n o f the o s t i n a t o . T h is

c r e a te s v i t a l i t y as w ell as an o v e r a ll grad u al cresc end o w ith an

in terr u p tio n in s e c tio n s fi v e and s i x .

Ex. 6 : Tone colour o f o stin a to

S e c t io n s : 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Vcl. Cl s . S t r in g s V c l . S tr in g s V la s
Ban. Tpts. Bsn. V cls
D .B s n . Tbn. D .B s n . O bs.
K ..s. Tuba Hn.
Tuba Timp,

2 .2 .4 Tempo changes

S ection fiv e marks tht> b e g in n in g o f the in te r r u p tio n o f the gradual

r i se p r o f i l e . At t h is s i g n if ic a n t p o in t o f the formal c o n t o u r , there

i s a change o f metre from the o r ig in a l 2 / 2 to 2 / 4 , how ever, the b a r ic

tempo rem ains unchanged. The rep eated chords at the b eg in n in g o£

p h rase s one to four o f the o s t in a t o now occur at twice the o r ig in a l

sp eed . W hile there are s u b s t a n t ia l changes in the rhythm o f the

s c a l i c p a s s a g e s , they do not n e c e s s a r ily appeal at tw ice th eir o r ig in a l

sp eed .

Th# end o f sec tio n fiv e sees the in tro d u c tio n o f a fan tasy st y le

w ith a lt e rn a tio n between s t r i c t and free elem ents.

2 .2 .5 V a r ia tio n s m rhythm

F ollo w ing the i n i t i a l p re se n ta t io n o f the o s t in a t o theme a l l subsequent

statem ents have rhythmic d e v ia t io n s . In statem ents two and t h r e e ,

 212

these m o d ific a t io n s are [Link] s l i g h t , but they become more and more

e x t e n s iv e a s the p ass# a g l i a p ro g r e sse s .

2 .2 .6 Theme drop-out and theme fragm entation

The f i r s t fo ur statem ents o f the o s t in a t o theme are r e g u la r . The

fifth statem ent i s in co m p lete, o nly the f i r s t three p h rase s b ein g

p r e s e n te d . The f i n a l three b e a ts o f the t h ir d p hrase are als o

om itted . Thereafter, the o s t in a t o theme i s abandoned for s ix ty tour

m easures.

T h i s drop-out o f the o s t in a t o theme i s a s s o c ia t e d w ith a drop

in in t e n s it y j u s t p rio r to the c lim a c tic f i n a l e .

2 .2 .7 Degree o f a u d ib il it y

While there are s l ig h t v a r ia t io n s in sev era l p r e s e n t a t io n s o f the

o s t in a t o theme, the*se are never so g reat th a t the main o u t lin e s of

the o s t in a t o become u n r e c o g n iz a b le . It i s t h er efo r e a u d ib le th r o u g h o u t,

2 .2 .8 Octave r e g ist e r

E x. 7; octave r e g is t e r o f o s tin a to

The above i l l u s t r a t i o n shows that the o s tin a to o cc u p ies a low r e g is t e r

throughout, ap art from one exc u r sio n into the middle range in the

f in a l s t atem en t.

2 .3 INFLUENCE OF THE OSTINAVO THEML

2 . 3 .1 E f f e c t or, le n g t h ; time-span

There are s ix statem ents of the o s tin a to them e. T h * o verall len gth of
 213

the p a s s a c a g lia I s 238 m easu res. The c- w r j l l time-span is ex a c tly

seven m in u tes. &

2 .3 .2 S e c t io n a l iz a t io n

T h i s o s t in a t o th en * c re a te s a f a i r l y h ig h degree o f s e c t i o n a l i z a t io n .

T h is r e s u l t s from the p hrase struc tu re in which eac h o f the f i r s t

four p h rase s b e g in s w ith rep eate d c h o r d s , and en ds w ith ru n nin g

stepw ise p a s s a g e s . In c o n tra st to these fo ur p h r a s e s , p hrase fiv e

i s h ig h ly m elo d ic , coining a t the c lim ax o f the theme. T h is structu re

r e s u lt s in s e c t io n a l iz a t io n not o nly between su cc essive statem ents o f

the them e, b ut a ls o from phrase to p hrase w it h in ths o s t in a t o theme

itself.

3. THE m c z M P M i m m

3.1 TYPE or ACCOMPANYING MATERIAL

The accompanying m aterial c o n s is t s o f a sin g le four p hrase theme which

i e d eriv ed d ir e c t l y from the s u b sid ia ry theme o f the A dagio t h ir d

movement.

The measurement o f the time-span has been b ased on the fo llo w in g

recordings B. B r it t e n , tymp'hony for Cp I a n d Orchestra, w ith s o lo is t
M s tislav R o stro po vic h, c ond. Benjamin B r it t e n , [Link] sh Chamber O r c h e s t r a ,
Decca SXL 6 6 4 1 , ’.9 6 4 .
Ex. 8 : Subsidiary theme of Adagio movement (score number 53)

■-th#

In th® p a s s a c a g lia movement, the su b s id ia r y theme o f the Adagio

is given out by th truupet. The f i r s t thre* p h r a s e s are a f i f t h

lo w er, and the fo ur th p hrase a fo urth lower than the o r i g i n a l

p re se n ta t io n o f t h is theme m the A d a g io .

7 Britten, ^jmphonu f o r C ello an d O r eh eatr a, pp. 74-75.

 Ex.. 9 : Accompanying theme o f p a s s a c a g lia (score number 63)
'
1'IW

The above theme has four p h r a s e s , which corresp on d to the f i r s t

four phrases of the o s t in a t o .

D uring the v a r ia t io n s on this theme, it is transposed to d if f e r e n t

p it c h l e v e l s , and is p resen ted in n otes of d e c r e a s ; ng v alue from quarter

n otes through to six te e n th n o t e s . In sec tio n six , th is p ro cess is

re v e r s e d , and the su ccessive rausings o f the c e l l o are p resen ted in

in crea sin g nota values from eig h th note t r ip l e t s to e ig h t h note p a i r s ,

c q uarter note t r i p l e t s , to q uarter n o t e s . T h is g rad u al increase

■n rhythmic v alu es serves as a p rep a ratio n fo r the seventh v a r ia t io n

i half n otes.

In the f i r s t v a r ia t io n , the theme is p resen usd in 6 / 4 m etre, in

j,!ace o f the o r ig in a l 2/ 2 m etre, on the f i r s t and second v i o l i n s in \

-anon at the fo u r th . The p hrases are extanrted by the ia t e r p o la t io n

Sytvphonu for Ce and Orcrheotra, p . 8 8 .

]
 216

o f tran spo sed segm ents. T h is p r a c t ic e i s als o r e t a in e d in subsequent

v ariatio n s.
The metre re v e rts to 2 / 2 in the second v a r ia t io n in which the

thene i s tran spo sed up a th ir d on the c e l l o , w hic h, at the same time

double stops another p a r t which moves in contrary motion to the them e.

The • h ir d v a r ia t io n changes to 1 2 /8 metre to p re se n t eac h phrase

o f the theme on the woodwind in fiv e- part im it a t io n .

In the fo urth \’ariation, the tune i s p re se n te d bv the c e llo at

1 ;• f i f t h , in a s p r ig h t ly r e n d e rin g o f the theme in 2 / 4 m etre. A fter

thfc t h ir d phrase , h o w ever, the o s t in a t o and the m elodic model o f the

ac~ ©any ing theme i t s e l f are abandoned and a free development of

the tex ture takes p l a c e .

The fo urth v a r ia t io n lead s in to the fr e e fan ta sy - lik e r e n d itio n

o f v a r ia t io n fiv e , in which the c e l l o r e f l e c t s "s e n z a m is u r a" on each

p hrase o f the theme p un ctuated by the f i n a l p hrase o f the o s tin a to

them e, m elo d ic ally e la b o r a t e d , by the c l a r i n e t , horn and bassoon

s u c c e s s iv e ly .

In the s ix t h v a r i a t i o n , the woodwind, b ras s and v io l in s take up

the accompanying them e, ho w ever, the length o f the p h rase s in ach cf

these v a r ia t io n s does not n e c e s s a r ily conform to the p hrase lengths

o f the them e.

T h u s , the accorrpany in g theme undergoes v a r ia t io n s by v a rie d

rhythm s, contrast ing instrum ental c olours and chan gin g t e x t u r e s .

A part from v a r ia t io n n i x , all the v a r ia t io n s have a contrapuntal

texture. V a ria tio n s ix is chordal and predom inantly homorhythmic.

Each v a r ia t io n encompasses the f i r s t four p h rase s o f the o s t i n a t o ,

w hile the f i f t h phrase o f the o s t in a t o fu n c tio n s as a t a ilp ie c e both

to the o s t in a t o and to each o f the v a r ia t io n s above it. The b eg inn ing

o ' eac h nev statement o f the o s t in a t o a ls o marks the b e g in n in g o f

eac h new v a r ia t io n above it.

Rhythm ically the o s tin a to is s lig h t ly more a c t iv e than the theme

for v a r ia t io n s above it. W hile the rhythm o f the rep eate d chords

of the o s t in a t o is s t a t i c , it ga ns momentum in the l i v e l y , syncopated

rhythms o f the s c a lic p a s s a g e s . The predom inant rhythm ic movement o f

the theme for v a r ia t io n is in q uar ter n o t e s, althougn here a g a i n , it

i s rhy thm ically e n liv e n e d by the use o f syrxojpation.

 217

The range o f the accompanying theme is a p e r fe c t t w e lft h which

i s narrow in coop a r is e n w ith the three o cta v es p l u s a major second

range o f the o s t in a t o .

3 .2 THE ACCOMPANIMENT VABTED

3 .2 .1 Octave re g is t e r

The accompaniment rem ains above the o s t in a t o throughout apart from the

fin a l, f i f t h ->hrase o f the o s t in a t o , which always r i s e s above the

accompaniment. T h is o b v io u s ly e x c lu d e s s e c tio n fiv e in which only

the f i r s t three p hrase s o f the o s t in a t o are h e a r d , and sec tio n s ix

in which the o s t in a t o i s a b se n t.

3 .2 .2 Tone colour

The tone c olour changes in each v a r ia t io n of the accompanying theme,

and supports the o v e r a ll formal p r o f i l e , in a d d it io n to fu n c tio n in g

as a means o f c r e a t in g v i t a l i t y , B r it t e r here uses an a d d itiv e

crescendo rea ch in g a peak in the f i n a l v a r ia t io n .

 218

Ex. 10: Tone colour of acconpaniment and ostinato

Fl«.
V cl. Oboes
punctu- C ls.
P ic c. ated Bsns.
P I. by Hn.
Oboe Cl, Trs.
C l. Hn. Tbn.
Tpt. V in a. V cl. Bsn. V cl. B *n . Vln s.

Theme V a i. 1 V a r. II Var. Ill Var. IV Var. V Va r. VI

V cl. C ls. S tr in g s Vcl , S t r in g s V la s.

Bsn. it ** S an . V cls.
D .B s n . *[Link] . D .B s n . das.
H n s. Tube. Hn.
Tuba Timp.

3 .2 .3 Texture

Throughout the p a s s a c a g lia there are marked changes o f texture at rhe

b e g in n in g o f eac h new v a r ia t io n on the acconpanying theme. Thus

a t te n tio n is f o c u s e d on the s e c t io n a l chara cter o f the p a s s a c a g l i a ,

as eac h new v a r ia t io n on the accompanying theme c o in c id e s w ith the

b eg in n in g o f a re p e t it io n of the o s t i n a t o .

3 .3 ROLE OF THE ACCOMPANIMENT

3 . 3 .1 S e c t io n a l !z a t io n

In t h is p a s s a c a g l ia there is no attempt in the acconpaniment to d is g u is e

the c on stant recurrence o f the o s t in a t o . The accompaniment, in f a c t ,

draws a t te n tio n to each new r e p e t it io n of tho o s t in a t o by the f a c t that

 219

the B eg in n in g o f eac h v a r ia t io n on the accom panying theme c o in c id e s

w ith the b e g in n in g o f a restatem ent o f the o s t in a t o . T h i s g iv e s r is e

to maximum s e c t i o n a l i z a t io n .

3 .^ .2 Accompaniment v ersu s o s t in a t o theme

N e it h e r the accompaniment nor the o s t in a t o can be reg ard ed as b ein g

c’om inant in t h i s p a s s a c a g l i a . T h eir r e l a t io n s h ip is f a i r l y e q u a l.

The accompaniment e x h i b i t s a f a i r l y c o n s is t e n t lev el o f m elodic

importance a g a in s t the o s t in a t o th r ou g hou t, the o nly ex c e p t io n b e in g the

fr e e fan ta ay - iike v a r ia t io n in sec tio n s i x where the o s t in a t o is a b s e n t .

3 .3 .3 Grouping

The use of only one theme {and v a r ia t io n s upon i t ) in the accom panim ent,

c r e a t e s a f e e l i n g o f c o n t in u it y , a lthou g h it does n ot d is t r a c t from

the s e c tio n a l e f f e c t o f the r e p e t it io n s o f the o s t in a t o due to the

cx>incidence o f eac h v a r ia t io n w ith a r e p e t it io n o f the o s t in a t o .

H owever, a ft e r p hrase three in sec tio n f i v e , and als o fo r the e n tir e

d ur atio n o f the fan ta sv- like se c tio n s i x , the accompaniment b reak s

free from the sh a c k le s o f thfe o s t i n a t o , and c o n se q u e n tly , at t h is

lowpoint o f the p r o f i l e , a f e e l i n g of p r o g r e s s b e g in s to be g enerated

in a n t ic ip a t io n of the c lim ax i-' the f o llo w in g statem ent.

4. MOTION FACTORS

4 .1 THE PARAMETERS

4 .1 .1 Density

There is a o ro g ressiv e in crea se in d e n s ity through s e c tio n s two to

four Sthat i s , statem ents two to four o f the o s t i n a t o ) . S e c t io n f i v e ,

however (statement fiv e o f the o s t i n a t o ) , sees a marked drop in d e n s it y ,

and there ia a s t i l l fu rth er drop in s ec tio n s ix (the fan tasy - like

v a ria t io n ). The changes in d e n s ity o cc ur in stag es which correspond

w ith the o s t in a t o r e p e t i t i o n s , or the v a r ia t io n s on the accompanying

theme in these in sta n c es where the o s tin a to is a b s e n t . T h is p r o ­

g re ss iv e growth o f d ens ity d ur in g the f i r s t four s e c t i o n s , and the

subsequent f a l l i n g o f f during sec tio ns fiv e and s i x , c r e c t e s a d ensity

p r o f i l e o f g rad u al ris e w ith in terrup t i o n .

 220

Ex. 11- Density profile

Theme Var. I Var. II Var, I I I Var. IV _ Var. V V a r . VI

Se c t io n s:
I II III IV V VI V II

4 .1 .2 Range ( III “ o s t in a t o ; * acconpanim ent)

Ex. 12: Rarge

Tbs above diagram matic re p re s e n ta tio n o f the range a c c o rd in g to octave

re g is t e r shows that: sudden narrow ing and w id enin g and s n i f t i n g o f

the area o f r&nge con cen trat ion in the accompaniment i s used as a

means of c r e a t in g v i t a l i t y and m otio n .

4 .1 .3 t j arnica

The dynamic changes are made in stag es which correspond to the r e p e t it io n s

o f the o s tin a to and the v a r ia t io n s above it. D uring th© f i r s t four

se c t io n s there is a gradual increase in the dynamic l e v e l , fo llow ed

by a marked drop in sec tio n f i v e and a fu rth er drop in s ec tio n s i x ,

b efo re the r is e to the cl, inax and the e n su in g coda in sec tio n s e v e n .

The dynam ics, t h e r e fo r e , p resen t a p r o f i l e o f gradu al r i . .<.? with

In t e r r u p t i o n .
 221

As the o s t in a t o i s o f c o n sid e ra b le len g t h (twenty s i x m easures)

the dynamic s t a g e r , corresp on d ing as they do with the r e p e t it io n s o f

the o s t i n a t o , are a ls o very lo n g . In t e r e s t and v i t a l i t y are r e t a in e d

d u r in g these extrem ely long st a g e s , how ever, by the use o f dynamic

waves in the acconpanying m aterial which generate m otion.

Ex. 13 : Dynamic p r o f i l e

Theme Var. I Var. II Var. Ill Var. Var. V V a r . VI

S e c t io n s : **
I II III IV V VI V II

4 .1 .4 Rhythm

The rhythm ic c han ges als o occur in stages which correspond to the

r e p e t i t io n s o f the o s t in a t o . Rhythm ically there is in arch p r o f i l e

re a c h in g i t s p eak in sec tio n f i v e , that i s , ju s t a ft e r the m idpoint o f

the p a s s a c a g l i a , and ir r a d ia te ly p r io r to the o v e r a ll c lim ax o f the

movement.

There i s an increase in rhythmic a c t i v i t y from the b eg in n in g

o f the p a s s a c a g lia thrt ugh tc the end o f s ec tio n five- The p ro cess

is then rev ers ed during the c e l l o 's su ccessive r e f l e c t i o n s in s ec tio n

s i x , eac h o f which occurs in a n lig h t ly la m e r rhythmic v a l u e . Thi??

p ro c e ss o f growth in the rhythmic v alues c ulm inate? in s ec tio n seven

in which the accompanying theme i s p resen ted m h a lf n o t e s , that is

in augm entation, the longest rhythmic value used in the v a r ia t io n s .

 222

Ex. 14 s Rhythmic profile

m
n
rh
rm jjj
J IJ
n j
JJ
Theme Var. I V a r. II Var. IIX V a r . IV Var. V Var. VI
S e c t io n s :
I II IT I IV V VI V II

4 .2 INTERACTION OF PARAMETERS

Both the d e n s it y and dynam ics p r e s e n t a p r o f i l e o f g rad u al r i s e with

in te r r u p tio n at sec tio n s fiv e and s i x . The upward c urv e o f th®

rhythm ic arch p r o f i l e c orresponds w ith the g rad u al r i s e p r o f i l e ,

b u t c on tin ues through the in te rr u p tio n of the r i s e to re a c h i t s peak

in c jc t io n ^Iva wher ooth the d e n s ity and dynam ics are down. The

rhythm, t h e r e fo r e , g e n e r a te s the motion d uring the p e r io d that the

o ther p aram eters are tem porarily at a lo w p o in t. Only i n sec tio n

six Hoes the rhythm g ra d u a lly b eg in to r e l a x . S u b s e q u e n t ly , in

sect [Link] se v e n , the rhythir, rea ches it s lowest p o i n t , w h ile the d ensity

and dynamics? reach their p e a k .

Th© ra ng e, with it Mjdden w id enin g s and narrowing® and s h i f t s

o f roftc«*ritra.t Jon, yhcvs a con cen trat ion in a lower range during the

in terr up t ion of the r i s e , ^nd -i s h ift to a higher rang® d ur in g the

peak, of th© r t s « Ln sect: ton s*« ven.

4 .3 SENSE OF FINALITY

T n i s p a s s a c a g lia p r o file >-nds on a h ig h p o in t w h ile , in c o n tr a d ic tio n

to t h i s , the rhythm is at a b w p c x n t . T h is slow ing down o f the

rhythm ic a c t i v i t y hss a b ro ad en ing e f f e c t .

Bri* ton augments the note valuer o f che accompanying theme to

h a l f notes d u r in g tho f i n a l statement o f the o s tin a to and the su b se­

quent short c o d a. The sev en tetn meas r e coda is not even the

e q u iv a le n t in d m ation o f a sin g le statem ent of the ^ s tin a to (tv*snty

 'V *

222

Ex. 14: Rhythiaic p r o f i l e

m
n
^ m jjj
, * n r~ — ~ — ^- - - - J

Thame Var. I Var. II Var. I l l Var. IV Var. V V a r. V I

S e c t io n s :
I II III IV V VI V II

4 .2 INTERACTION OF PARAMETERS

Both the d e n s ity and dynamics p resen t a p r o f i l e o f grad u al r is e with

in te r r u p tio n at sec tio n s f iv e and s i x . The upward c urve of the

rhythm ic a r c h p r o f i l e corresponds w ith th« g rad u al r i s e p r o f i l e ,

t u t c o n tin u es through the in terr u p tio n o f the r i s e to rea ch it s peak

in s ec tio n f i v e wher both the d en s ity and dynam ics are down. The

rhythm, t h e r e f o r e , g e n e r a te s the motion d u r in g the p e r io d th a t the

o th er 'aram eters are tem porarily at a lo w p o in t. Only in sectio n

s i x does the rhythm g ra d u a lly b eg in to r e l a x . S u b s e q u e n t ly , in

s ec tio n sev en , the rhythm rea ch es it s lowest p o i n t , w hile th* d ens ity

and dynamics reach th eir p e a k .

The r a n g e , with i t s sudden w id enin g s and narrowings and s h if t s

o f c o n c e n tr a tio n , shows a con cen tr atio n in a lower range d uring the

in te r r u p tio n o f th© r i s e , and a s h i f t to a h ig her range d u r in g the

peak o f the r i s e in sec tio n sev en .

4 .3 SENSE OF ir'INAI TTY

T h i s p a s s a c a g lia p r o f il e en ds on a htghpoint w h il e , in c o n tra d ic tio n

to tV i, the rhythm Is a lo w po in t. T h i s slo w in g down o f the

rhythm ic a c t iv it y has a b ro ad en ing e f f e c t .

B r itte n augments the note v a lu e s of the accompanying theme to

h a l f notes d u r in g the fin a l statement of the o s t in a t o and the s u b se ­

q uent short c o d a . The seventeen measure coda is not even the

e q u lv a le r ' in d eratio n o f a sin g le statem ent of the o s tin a to I twenty

six m ea s u r e s ). T h is rhythm ic b ro ad en in g g iv « s a f e e l i n g o f f i n a l i t y

to the movement, w hile the p a s s a c a g lia i t s e l f , w ith i t s s t a b i l i z i n g

q u a l i t y , g iv e s a sense o f f i n a l i t y to the work as a w h o le.

The coda is b a s e d on the p e r fe c t fo u r th s of the f i n a l phrase

o f the o s t in a t o .

5. FORMAL PLAN

T h is p a s s a c a g l ia p r e s e n t s the p r o f i l e o f a grad u al r i s e w ith i n t e r r ­

u p t io n . The in te r r u p tio n takes p la c e in sec tio n s fiv e and s i x , that

is, sho rtly a ft e r the midway p o in t o f the p a s s a c a g l i a , a ft e r

c o n sid era ble momentum has alread y been e s t a b l i s h e d . The in te rr u p tio n

c o in c id e s w ith » c o u p le t * drop out o f the o s tin a to theme in s ec tio n

s i x , and an incomplete statem ent in sec tio n fiv e in which the t a g is t e r

o f the o s t in a t o is c o n fin e d to two o cta ves in c o n tra st to the p revio u s

three o c ta v e s ,

W hile the o ther param eters are a t a lowpoint d u r in g the ^,*terr-

u p t io n , the rhythm reaches it s maximum a c t iv it y in s ec tio n fi v e w ith

a gradual ta p erin g o f f in sec tio n s i x .

E x. 15; Formal p ro f lie

S e c t io n s :
I 11 III tv V VI VII

5.1 LARGER FORM

T h is p a s s a c a g lia i ■ le f in ^l movement o f a multimovement -«rk. r*c

p ro vid es an opportu ity for the use o f c on firm ing e lem ents. The b a s ic

idea of the o s t in a t o jt s e l f , that is , the a lt e r n a t io n o f a su ccession

o f chords w ith a B o alic p a s s a g e , is d e riv e d from the opening measures

V*-

224

o f the f i r s t movement. The fin a l p hrase o f the o s t in a t o is d eriv ed

from the f i n a l p hrase o f th© mai.. theme o f the Adagio (t h ir d movement).

The accompanying theJ*i i s b ased on the su b s id ia r y theme o f thr A d a g io .

T h i s strong em phasis in th® p a s s a c a g l ia on elem ents from the A dagio

movement em phasizes the in e x t r ic a b l e lin k between these two movements.

C oncerning the cad enza l i n k in g ^he two movements, Peter Evans s t a t e s :

___ the cad enza i s concerned . . . to e s t a b l i s h the

lin k th a t makes an e n t it y o f the la s t two movements;
it may be v iew ed as a second development in a design
w hich p la c e s th® restatem en t o f th*? slo w movement’ s
su b s id ia r y theme at tbs head o f the f i n a l e .

The p a s s a c a g lia has an e x c e l l e n t c a p a c i.y fo r e s t a b l i s h i n g a tonai

centre. Th® to nal c entre D o f t h is f i n a l movement r e p re s e n ts a return

to the tonal area o f the o p en in g where the to nal c entre was d . The

tonal c e n tr e s o f the fo ur movements are as fo llo w s (the tonal c entre

of the p a s s a c a g l ia movement i s u n d e r l i n e d ) ;

d g E D.

The a b i l i t y o f the p a s s a c a g l ia to con firm a to nal centre and

vc forge lin k s w ith previousiy-ustfd tnem atic m ateria l b o t h in the

o s t in a t o i t s e l f and the accom panim ent, w hile at the same time c re a tin g

a f e e l in g of r e g u la r it y through the c on stant r e p e t it io n of the

cat i n a t o , rcake t h is p a s s a c a g lia a most e f f e c t i v e f i n a l movement.

9
E vans, p. 321.
 225

CHAPTER 14

STBINC QUARTET N O. 3 , O P . 9 4 , 1975

1. BACKGROUND

The t h ir d S tr in g Q u artet was B r i t t e n 's l a s t in stru m ental work, and was

d e d ic a t e d to Hans K e l l e r . I t was w rit ten d u r in g October and November

1 9 7 5 , and was f i r s t perform ed on 19 Decertber 1 9 7 6 , f i f t e e n days a ft e r

the coBfxjser's d e a th , by the Amadeus Q u art et at the M a it in g s .

The work i s in fiv e movements s

- I Duets W ith moderate moveraant ( J- « c. 65)

■ II O s t in a t o Very f a s t ( ^ “ c „ 132)

- Ill So lo Very calm { J * c. 40)

- IV Burlerque P a s t , con fuoco ( J * c, 192)

- V R e c it a t iv e and P a s s a c a g lia (La S e re n iss i ma)

Slowly moving f ^ - c. 5 0 ).

In the serene u n fo ld in g o f B r i t t e n ’ s la s t ground

bass movement we s h a l l surely h e a r , a s in the
p a s s a c a g lia s o f Lum'etia and Herring, a th r eno d y ,
but now it i s as much for the cotrpoaer him self
as for h is hero . *

The hero to whom Evans here r e 'e r s ij Aachenbach in th in Venice,

Op. 80, 1973.

2. THE MATURE OF THE OSTINATO THEME

? .1 STRUCTURE

2 . 1 .1 Sequence

Thi ix . * a two phrased ost inato theme. The movement is e x c lu s iv e ly

by rfhole tones th r ou g hou t. Th® o s tin a to theme r e l i e s h e a v ily not on

p it c h seq uen c e, but on p it c h r e p e t i t i o n . The f i r s t phrase c o n s is t s

[Link], p . 3 4 7,
 226

2 2
o f the whole tone in t e r v a l E -F sharp w hich ts twice rep eate d b efo re
2
m oving up another whole tone to G sha rp.

The second p hrase i s an e x a c t in v e r s io n o f the f i r it p h r a s e ,

and therefore r e l i e s e q u a lly on r e p e t i t i o n .

There is a strong r e lia n c e on rhythm ic sequence between the two

phrases. The second p hrase i s an e x a c t rhythm ic sequence o f the f i r s t

phrase.

2
Ex. 1: O s t in a t o theme

Slowly mowing ( J - c.50)

PP

T h is con cen tr atio n or. a sin g le type o f in t e r v a l (the whole t o n e ),

p l u s the fa c t that the second phrase is an exact in v e r sio n ot tho

f i r s t w hile at the same time b e in g a rhythm ic sequence o f the f i r s t ,

makes for a h ig h ly u n i f i e d s t r u c t u r e .

2 .1 .2 Characteristic in t e r v a ls

The in t e r v a l l ic movement in t h is o s tin a to theme is c o n fin e d e x c lu s iv e ly

to whole t o n e s . The e n eire theme is b u i l t from the fo llo w in g four note?.

the o uter lim it s o f which span a t r it o n e .

2 .1 .3 T rito n e in fluen ce

The in terv al o f a tr ito n e e x i s t s b e t w e n the f i n a l notes o f the f i r s t

and second p h r a s e s . In a d d it io n to the v e r; st r a te g ic placem ent of

th is trito n e, it is given fu rth er s ig n ific a n c e by the fa c t that it is

^ B. Britten, String Quartet no. 3, op. 94, pocket sc^-re (London:

Faber, 1977), p . 31.
 227

the o nly i n t e r v a l la r g e r than a whole tone w hich occurs between any

note in the second p hrase and it s c o rresp on d ing note in the f i r s t

phrase. The n otes form ing the t r it o n e are rhy thm ically em phasized

by b e in g th e o nly n otea o f t h e o s t in a t o which have a d u r atio n longer

than a q uarter n o t e .

Ex. 2 : C or:o sp on d euc e b.?*veea p hrase s o f o s t in a t o theme ^

Slowly moving U - c.30;

2 .1 .4 Contour

E x. 3: Contour o f o s tin a to (one h o r iz o n t a l square e q u a ls one

quarte : n o t e ; one v e r t ic a l square eq u a ls one p itc h c la s s )

■ Hi
The o s t in a t o ‘ - c o n s is t s o f an arch contour w ith an e ar ly peak

s l i g h t l y befoi i m idpoint and which f a l l s to a s l ig h t l y lower p itch

lev el than th a t from which i t b eg an .

The range o f the o s tin a to theme i s a t r i t o n e , and is thus

extrem ely narrow .

The c on n ectin g in te r v a l between r e p e t it io n s o f the o s t in a t o is

a sem ito ne, n am ely, lead in g note to t o n ic .

2 .1 .5 Length

fhe s ix measure o s t in a t o theme c o n s is t s o f two phr each three

^ Britten, Str'ng Quartet no. 3, p . 31.

 228

measures l o n g . The o s t in a t o i s st ated th ir t e e n tim es,

2 .1 .6 Tonal c en tr e

The tonal c e n t ie o f the o s t in a t o theme i s E . The lowered seventh

g iv e s a m ix o lyd ian f la v o u r .

2 .1 .7 Metre and tempo

B r itte n here uses the t r a d it io n a l sim ple t r i p l e metre ( 3 / 4 ) , and

slow tempo ' J * c, 5 0 ). T here i s no change o f metre in the

p r e s e n ta t io n s o f the o s t in a t o then® in t h e c ou rse o f t h i s movement.

F urtherm ore, the same tempo i s r e t a in e d throughout the movement.

2 .1 .8 Rhythm

The rhythmic a c t iv it y o f t h i s o s t in a t o theme i s f a i r l y subdued and

movement Is p redom inantly by q u a r te r n o t e s . H ie rhythm o f the second

phrase is . d e n t ic a l to that o f the f i r s t p h ra se . An in t e r e s t in g

featu re is the stepw ise movement throughout the theme.

2 .1 .9 M elodic ten sio n

The use o f the lowered lead in g note to end t h i s p a s s a c a g lia theme

r e s u lts in an open-ended them© which has a very strong forward d r iv e .

2 .1 .1 0 D eriv atio n

H ie fact th a t B r it t e n h is s u b - titled t h is movement "La S e re n iss im a "

in d ic a t e s a p o s s ib le link between th is movement and the c it y o f V en ice

where it was w r i t t e n , and even more s p e c i f i c a l l y , w ith B r i t t e n 's opera

Death in Venice , O p . 8 8 , 19 73.

The p a s s a c a g lia is centre J on E major which i s the key a s s o c ia t e d

w ith Aschenbach in Death in Venice. F urtherm ore, the s c a lic natu re of

the o s tin a to theme shows strong t i e s with the o v er lap p in g st rin g

s c a le s used in the ooera to sym bolize A s c h e n b a c h 's in d e fin a b le l o n g in g s .

 4
E x. 4 : Death in Ventoe, O p . 8 8 , I , i , score number 20

The shape o f the o s tin a to theme i s , furtiiersiore, foreshadowed

in the o pening m easures o f the f i r s t movement o f the q u a r t e t , where

there is a w in din g up in measures one and two and a w in din g down in

measures two and th r e e .

Ex. 5: S trin g Q uartet n o . 3 , I , sa. 1- 3J

Rls* F all

2 .2 USE OF THE OSTINATO THEME

2 .2 ,1 F i r s t statem ent s e t tin g

The f i r s t statem ent is p resen ted in an accom panied form . The accom pani­

ment o f t h is statem ent c o n s is t s o f a new c ou nterp oin t on the f i r s t

v io lin which is punctuated by i n t e r a c t i o n s on the second v i o l i n and

4
B . B r i t t e n , Death in Venice, Op. 8 8 , study sco re (London:
Faber, 1 9 7 9 ) , p . 19.

^ Br it te n , Stri ng Quartet no. 3, p. 1.

v io la , t h i s c ou nterp oin t occurs above the p it c h lev el o f the

o s t in a t o .

2 .2 .2 V a r ia t io n s In length

There are no major d e v ia t io n s in the len gth o f the o s t in a t o theme

d u r in g the c ourse o f the p a s s a c a g l ia . S ev eral s l ig h t d e v ia t io n s d o ,

how ever, o c c u r . In three o f the t h ir t e e n statem ents, the f i n a l note

is le n g t h e n e d , and in one o f these st a te m e n t s, the f i n a l note o f the

f i r s t p hrase i-j a l s o len g t h en ed .

The g re a t e s t d e v ia t io n s occur in statem ents se v e n , elev en and

t h ir t e e n . In statem ent se v e n , tha seco nd p hrase i s extend ed from

th r ee to fo ur m easures o f which only the fo urth measure conforms to

the o r ig in a l o s t in a t o . In statem ent e l e v e n , the f i r s t and second

m easures o f the second p hrase ar e r e p e a t e d , thus c r e a t in g u fiv e

measure p hrase in p la c e o f the o r i g i n a l three m easure p h r a s e . In

statem ent t h i r t e e n , the f i n a l p re se n ta t io n o f th e o s t in a t o theme,

o nly the fir F u p hrase is heard in it s o r i g i n a l form . Thereafter,

the f i r s t p hrase i s fragm en ted, and the second p hrase is s l ig h t l y

v a r ie d .

The two g re a t e st d e v ia t io n s in the length o f the o s t in a t o theme,

that i s , in statem ents elev en and t h i r t e e n , t h e r e f o r e , occur at s t r u c t u r ­

ally important p o in ts in the movement. Statement elev en con clu d es the

second main s e c tio n and u shers in a return o f th© m ateria l o f sec tio n o n e ,

w h ile statement th ir teen is the fin a l statem ent o f the o s t in a t o .

2 .2 .3 V a r ia t io n s in tone c olour

W ith the exc eption o f statem ent e i g h t , a l l th ir te e n statem ents o f the

o s t in a t o theme are p resen ted by the c e l l o , with u nv aried a r t i c u l a t io n ,

and w ith only one change in octave r e g i s t e r , th a t i s , in statem ent

n in e.

Statement e ig h t p resen ts the o s t in a t o theme on the v io l a in a

r e g is t e r two o cta ves h ig h e r than that in which it has h it h e r t o been

p resen ted by the double b a s s . *

T h is statem ent m arks' the c o n clu sio n of the f i r s t main sec tio n

o f the movement.

T h is p a s s a c a g l i a , t h e r e f o r e , r e l i e s h e a v ily on the accompaniment

to p ro vide in te r e s t and v a rie ty iu tone c o l o u r .

Ex. 6 : Itone colour of ostinato

V ia . *
V cl. *

V X

2 .2 .4 Tempo changes

A r e l a t iv e l y c on sta n t tempo is m aintain ed throughout t h is p a s s a c a g l ia .

2 .2 .5 'ttieme drop-out and theme fragm entation

T here are o nly two very s l ig h t drop-outs o f the o s t in a t o them e. The

f i r s t drop-out o ccurs fo r two measures a t the end o f statem ent sev en ,

an d the second drop-out occurs fo r three m easures a t the end o f

statem ent e i g h t . The drop-out at the end o f statem ent e ig h t c o in c id e s

w ith the end o f the f i r s t main s ec tio n o f the movement. Both th es e

minor drop-outs occur d ur in g the l a t t e r h a l f o f the movement.

Fragm entation o f the theme o ccurs a s p art o f a p ro c e ss of

b ro ad en in g in the f i n a l statem ent o f the o s t in a t o .

2 .2 .6 Degree o f a u d i b i l i t y

At no point in t h is p a s s a c a g lia is the o s t in a t o s u b je c t e d to ra d ic a l

m o d ific a tio n s or d e v i a t i o n s . It therefore remains re c o g n iza b le

throughout.

2 .2 .7 Octave r e g ist e r

Ex. 7: Octave re g is t e r o f o s t in a t o
 232

The above diagram m atic r ep res en ta tio n o f the octave r e g is t e r o f the

o s t in a t o shows th a t i t is c o n fin e d to the b ass r e g is t e r thr oughout.

The r is e in octave r e g is t e r a t the b e g in n in g o f statem ent e i g h t ,

marks the c o n clu sio n o f the second main se c tio n o f the movement,

w h ile the drop in r e g is t e r a t the b e g in n in g o f statem ent ten marks

the in tro d u c tio n o f the second accom panying them e.

2 .3 INFLUENCE OF THE OSTINATO THEME

2 .3 .1 E ffe c t on le n g t h ; time-span

T here ar e t h ir c * a statem ents o f the s i x measurr o s t in a t o theme.

Seven o f the th ir t e e n statem ents art e x a c t , w h i .e th er e ar e s l ig h t

d e v ia t io n s in length in the o ther s ix statem ents so th a t the o v e r a ll

length is one hundred and three measure - as opposed to the seventy

e ig h t m easures which t h ir te e n exact state; rnits w ould g i v e .

The o v e r a ll time-span is S . 45 m in u t e s . 6

2 .3 .2 S e c t io n a l iz a t io n

T h is o s t in a t o theme is b ased on the m ix o ly d ian mode. As i t lac ks a

h ig h ly chrom atic n a t u r e , it c re a te s a minimum o f s e c t i o n a l i z a t io n .

F urtherm ore, the lowered le a d in g note en d in g c r e a te s a strong forward

p r o p u l s io n .

3. THE ACCOMPANIMENT

3 .1 TYPE OF ACCOMPANYING MATERIAL

Two themes p redom inate in the ac co m pan in cu t. Tir ff- st theme, which

dom inates the f i r s t main sec tio n o f the p assa ca gl :© introduced

by the f i r s t v i o l i n in con ju n c tio n w ith the f i r s t statem ent o f the

o s t in a t o . T h is theme i s , in f a c t , an expanded form o f the r is in g

4 4
and f a l l i n g contour o f the o s t i n a t o , r i s i n g as it does from E -G sharp,

and then f a l l i n g back to D .

The measurement o f the time-span has been based on the fo llo w in g

r ec o r d in g : B . B r i t t e n , S t r in g Quartet n o . 3, with Amadeus S t r in g Q u a r t e t :
Norbert B r a i n i n , Siegmund N i s s e l , Peter S c h i d l o f , M artin L o v e t t , Decca
SX~ 6 8 9 3 , 19 63.
 233

Ex. 8 s F ir s t accompanying thene 7

T h is theme is hear d su c c e s s iv e ly on the f i r s t v i o l i n , the second

v i o l i n and the. v i o l a . In statem ent e ig h t which c on clu d es the f i r s t

main s ec tio n o f the movement, the v i o l a ta kes over the o s t i n a t o ,

w h ile the f i r s t accompanying theme i s g iv e n to the d ouble b a ss at

the dom in an t.

The c o u n t erp o in ts which a r e added when the f i r s t accom panying

theme i s g iven to the second v i o l i n an d v io l a ar e a l s o b a s i c a l l y

s c a ltc and are a l l exp an sio n s and developments o f the c o u nterp oin t

b elo w .

Ex. 9 : C ounterpoint to the f i r s t accompanying t h *r e ®

'Hie second accompanying theme is in tro d uc ed fo llo w in g a b r i e f

t r a n s it io n a l p a s s a g e , a t the tenth statem ent o f the o s t i n a t o , d ur in g

the middle sec tio n o f the p a s s a c a g l ia . Th® freq uen t leap s o f th is

second theme con tra st stro ng ly w ith the s c a l i c nature o f the f i r s t

acconqpanying theme.

7 B r i t t e n , S trin g Q uartet n o . 3, p . 31 ,

8 B r it t e n , S trin g Q uartet n o . 3, p . 32.

Ex. 10: Second accompanying them*5

The f i n a l se c tio n o f the p a s s a c a g lia sees a return to the f i r s t

accompanying theme.

The use o f the f i r s t accompanying theme spans e ig h t statem ents

o f the o s c in a t o b e fo r e g iv in g way to a t r a n s i t i o n a l p assa g e which lead s

to the second accom panying theme which in tu rn spans two statem ents

o f the o s t i n a t o . T h e r e a f t e r , there i s a return to the f i r s t

accompanying theme.

Both accompanying themes are f a r more a c t iv e rh y thm ica lly than the

o a t in a t o . B o th , fu rtherm o re, far exceed th® t r it o n e range o f the

o s t in a t o .

3 .2 THE ACCOMPANIMEffT VARIED

3 .2 .1 Octave re g is t e r

With the exc eption o f st<*. .-«nt e i g h t , the accompaniment appears

above the o s t in a t o through > The r i s e o f the o s t in a t o above the

f i r s t accompanying theme in .statement eig h t c o in c id e s w ith the

c o n clu sio n o f the f i r s t form a sec tio n o f th© p a s s a c a g l i a .

3 .2 .2 Tone c o lo u r

In the f i r s t sectio n o f t h i s paasacaq- U , B r it t e n r e l i e s on an a d d it iv e

a p p r o a ch . The o s t in a t o is g iven to the c e l l o and the upper three

v o ic es are in tro duced su c c e s s iv e ly each w ith the f i r s t accom panying

theme a g a in s t which an a d d it io n a l co u nterp o in t i s h e a r d .

In the eig h th statem ent o f the o s t i n a t o , the o s tin a to is given

to the v io la w hile the f i r s t accompanying theme is heard on the c e l l o .

^ Britten, String Quartet n o . 3, p . 35.

 235

Thera i s thus a g rad u al in crea se o f tone c o lo u r in the ac compan iment

d u r in g th e f i r s t e ig h t statem ents o f the o s t i n a t o .

The t r a n s it io n a l p a s s a g e , b eg in n in g at statem ent n in e o f the

o s t i n a t o , sees a h ig h c o n c e n tr a tio n o f both dynamics and rhythmic

activ ity in a l l the accom panying p a r t s .

Hfce m iddle se c tio n s t a r t in g a t statem ent t e n , b r in g s a change o f

tone c o lo u r w ith both the second v i o l i n and v i o l * a s s ig n e d a b a c k ­

ground r o l e , w h ile the f i r s t v i o l i n is in the fo regro und w ith the

second accompanying theme. T h is st a t u s quo i s r e t a in e d in the f i n a l

s e c t i o n , b ut the rhythm ic a c t i v i t y o f the second v i o l i n and v io l a

d e c l in e s f u r t h e r .

T h u s , there is an In c r e a s e In w eig ht up ;o th e ead o f statem ent

n i r * o f th© o s t i n a t o , a f t e r which there i s a grad' felin e.

3 .2 .3 Textu re

T e x tu r a l chan ges a r e made g r a d u a lly throughout the p a s s a c a g l ia ,

r e s u lt in g in a p a tte r n o f g ra d u a l growth up to the end o f statem ent

n in e o f th e o s t i n a t o , fo llo w ed by a g ra d u a l f a l l i n g away.

3 .3 ROLF. OP THE ACCOMPANIMENT

3 .3 .1 S e c t io n a l iz a t io n

Both U xrst and second accom panying themes each span two statem ents

o f the f l n a t o , and th is h elp s to le&Bfen the s e c t io n a l e f f e c t of. the

c on sta nt . r e c u r rin g o s t in a t o by f o c u s .n g itte ntio n on a longer u n it

than th a t o f the o s t in a t o .

3 .3 .2 Accompaniment v ersus oit:.natt. heme

In t h i s p a s s a c a g l i a , the accompaninn i©*ainates the o s tin a to

throughout Mid is res p o n s ib le fc r c ■: Lng th® formal p r o f i l e o f the

p a s s a c a g l ia .

3 .3 .3 G ro uping '

Grouping in t h i s p a s s a c a g lia is of* ... by the use o f the two

accompanying theamn. Th® f i r s t «>ioi . ..-.easents o f the o s tin a to are

grouped by the cor a is t e n t use above it of th® f i r s t accompanying theme

(see E x. 8 , p. 2 1 3 ). ih e subsequent recurren ce of t h is m aterial in

 236

the f i n a l stag es o f the passacaglia (.statements twelve and th ir t e e n )

u n i f i e s the p a s s a c a g lia by c r e a t in g a sense o f r e t u r n .

T h u s , the retu rn c r e a t e s a formal s h a p e , a t le a s t f*om a

them atic p o in t o f v iew .

The second accompany ing ther.« (s»ee E x . 10, p . 2 3 4 ) p la y s * le s s

important r o l e , though it too ser v ss to group together several

statem ents.

4. MOTION FACTORS

4 .1 THE PARAMETERS

4 .1 .1 D en sity

A p atter n o f p ro g r e ssiv e d e n s it y i s e s t a b l is h e d d u r in g the e a r ly stag es

o f t h is p a s s a c a g l ia . T h is r e s u lt s from the use o f a d d it iv e c o u n t e r p o in t .

Du r in g the second and the f i n a l se c t io n s (statem ent ten © a w a r d s ),

ther-a ar e long s e c tio n s in which the d e n s it y remains unchanged. T h is

is p ro bably due to the l im it a t io n s o f the medium w hich uses only the

p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f fo ur instr-iments.

The d e n s ity lev el rea ch es a peak in statem ent n in e o f the o s t i n a t o ,

and th e r e a ft e r there is a d ro pp ing o f f to the end o f the p a s s a c a g lia .

Ex. Us D en sity p r o f il e
 237

4 ' .2 Range

Hx. 12i Range ( ■ a s ttn a to j ** accompaniment)

A [Link] w id en in g o f range c o n c e n tr a tio n in the accompaniment occurs

in the i n i t i a l stag es o f t h is p a s s a c a g l ia (statem enta one to seven of

the o s t i n a t o ) . T h e r e a f t e r , there a r e some sudden s h i f t s in the

c on cen tr atio n o f the range in statem ents e ig h t and tw elv e. The

n arrow ing o f range c o n c e n tr a tio n in statem ent e ig h t c o in c id e s w ith

th© end o f the f i r s t main se c tio n o f the p a s s a c a g l i a , and in statem ent

twelve it c o in c id e s w ith the b e g in n in g o f the f i n a l s e c t i o n .

4 .1 .3 dynamics

The dynamic p r o f i l e is that o f an a r c h . On the upward c urve the

dynam ic* in crea se by s t a g e s , w ith eac h stage occupying two statem ents

o f the o s t in a t o . The peak o f the dynamic arch p r o f i l e is reached

in statement n i n e , a f t e r which the dynamic lev el d ec r e a se * by s t a g e y ,

reachin g it s lowest p o in t At the en d o f the p a s s a c a g l i a . As on the

upward curve c f the a r c h , each o f the dynamic stages on the downward

curve o cc up ies two statem ents o f the o s t in a t o .

Ex. 13? Dynamic p r o f i l e

 238

4 .1 .4 Rhythm

As i s the c ase w ith the d y nam ics, th e rhythmic changes take p lace in

stages. The i n i t i a l stage is o f c o n s id e r a b le length and cov ers the

f i r s t e ig h t statem ents o f ths o s t i n a t o . D uring t h is stage the

rhythmic movement i s p redom inantly b y q uarter notes and eig h th n o t e s .

T h is i s fo llo w ed by a s t e p p in g up o f rhythmic a c t i v i t y in the fo llo w in g

three statem ents (n in e to e l e v e n ) , where the predom inant movement is

by s ix te e n th n o t e s . The f i n a l two statem ents o f the o s t in a t o see the

rhythmic a c t i v i t y drop o f f to th a t o f the o pen in g e ig h t statem ents.

Ex. 14: Rhythmic p r o file

j n J. n

4 .2 INTERACTION OF PARAMETERS

In t h is p a s s a c a g lia the d e n s i t y , d y nam ics, rhythm and range a l l

c o lla b o ra te to reach a p «a k in statem ent n in e o f the o s t in a t o .

T h e r e a ft e r , there i s a g rad u al drop in both the d e n s it y a-v" dynamics

to the end o f the p a s s a c a g l i a . The rhythm and r a n g e , on the other h a n d ,

remain a t a peak u n t i l the end o f statem ent e l e v e n , and thus m aintain

v i t a l i t y w h ile the other param eters ar e alread y on a downward c u r v e .

There are in t e r e s t in g wide c o n t r a s t * o f range in the fin a l

statem ent. These are used as a means o f ch an gin g c o lo u r c o n t r a s t s .

4 .3 SENSE OF F INALITY

Sev eral fa c to rs are res p o n sib le fo r the sense o f fin ality in th is

p a ssa c a glia .

In the f i r s t p l a c e , the teturn in M.e a c o mpaniment o f the

i n i t i a l accompanying them e, c r e a t e s a f e e l in g o f r e c a p it u la t io n
 239

S e c o n d ly , the d e c l in e o f a l l the p aram eter s, w ith the exc ep tio n

o f the r a n g e , in the c l o s i n g s t a g e s , c r e a te s a f e e l i n g o f c on clu sio n

and rep o se.

T h i r d l y , a b ro ad en in g e f f e c t i s c r e a t e d by the p ro cess o f

s p in n in g out the f i n a l statem ent o f the o s t in a t o to seventeen measures

as opposed to the o r i g i n a l s i x m easu res.

A l l the above-mentioned fa c to rs com bined produce a very strong

fe e lin g o f fin a l it y .

5. FORMAL PLAK

The o v e r a ll form al p r o f i l e o f t h is p a s s a c a g lia is th a t o f an a r c h ,

rea ch in g a peak sho rtly a f t e r the m id - p o int, in statem ert n i n e , and

th e r e a ft e r dropping o f f g rad u ally to the en d o f the p a s s a c a g l ia .

Ex. 15: Formal p r o f i l e

5 .1 LARGER FORM

T h is p a s s a c a g lia movement con clu d es a multimovement work. There is a

stro ng them atic lin k between the o s t in a t o and the main theme of the

o pen in g movement (see paragraph 2 . 1 . 1 0 , p . 228 a b o v e ). T h is thematic

tie i s strengthened by the fact th a t the main accompanying theme o f

the p a s s a c a g lia is b a s i c a l l y an exp an sio n o f the r i s i n g and f a l l i n g

contour o f the o s t in a t o .

B r itte n a ls o c a p i t a l i z e s here on the p a s s a c a g l i a 's c a p a c ity co

e s t a b l is h a to nal c e n t r e . The to nal c e n tr e s o f the fi v e movements

are as fo llow s (the to n al c entre o f the p a s s a c a g lia movement is

u n d e r lin ? d ) :

Bb G C . E.
 240

The p a s s a c a g lia i s b ased on tne to n al c e n t r e o f E , a tr ito n e

removed from the B f i a t o f the opening movement. The e n d in g ,

h o w ever, rem ains t o n a lly am biguous.

10
Ex. 16: Ending o f p a s s a c a g lia

10 Britten, String Quartet no. 3, p. 37.

 241

CHAPTER 15

FINDINGS

1. THE NATURE OF r,HE OSTINATO THEME

1 .1 STRUCTURE

1 .1 .1 Sequence

O f the th ir t e e n p a s s a c a g lia s a n a ly s e d , o nly two o s t in a t o themes (those

from the "Agnus D e i ” o f the fcferr Requiem an d from Billy Budd) show no
s e q u e n tia l treatm ent w hatever.

Exact se q u e n c e s, both rhythmic an d melod* -

”*.cuv in the o s tin a to

themes from the Piano C o n c erto , the V i o l i n c " D e a t h f be not

proud I " from the Holy Sonnets o f John Donne 4 'a Fludde.
In Noye r8 Fludde the fo u r th statem ent o f .. ^ q u a n t ia l motive

is rhy thm ically a c c e l e r a t e d . Each appearance o f the motive i s a whole

tone above the p rev io u s appearance {see E x . 1# p . '7 5 ) .

Rhythmic sequences occur in the o s t in a t o themes o f th e p a s s a c a g lia s

from Peter Grimes, Albert Herring, The Turn o f the Screw, and the
S t r in g Q u artet n o . 3.

An i n t e r e s t in g fe a t u re o f the rhythmic sequence in the S trin g

Quartet n o . 3 is that i t is c ou pled w ith m elodic in v e r sio n rather

than m elodic sequence (see E x . t, p . 2 2 6 ).

The o s t in a t o theme frcm the Symphony for Cello and Orchestra

c o n s is t s o f fi v e p h r a s e s . Each o f the f i r s t four p h rase s b e g in s with

a repeated open chord fo llow ed by a stepw ise p a s s a g e . T h is can be

regarded as sequence in the bro ad est sense in that the o v e r a ll

struc tu re o f the p hrase s is the same Uee E x. 1, p . 20 5 ).

S equ en ce, th e n , is a conspicuous c h a r a c t e r is t ic o f these o stin a to

them es. The most fr e q u e n tly used type is the e xa ct sequence o f both

p it c h and rhythmic r e l a t i o n s h i p s .

1 .1 .2 C h a r a c t e r is t ic in te rv a ls

W ith the ax cep tio n o f the o s t in a t o theme from Albert Herring, a l l the
o ther themes are c h a r a c t e r iz e d by a predom inance o f one or more
 242

in te rv a ls. The o s t in a t o theme from the V i o l i n C o n c e r to , for ex a m p le ,

c o n s is t s e n t i r e l y o f step w ise movement in to n es and sem itones

(see E x . 1 , p . 4 5 ) . The o s t in a t o themes from "D e a t h , b e not p r o u d i"

an d the Symphony for Cello and Orchestra ar e als o dom inated b y move­

ment in tones an d sem itones (see E x . i, p . 91 and E x . 1, p . 2 0 5 ).

Semitone movement predom inates in the o s t in a t o theme o f the "D ir g e ”

(see E x . 1 , p . 6 1 ) , while the o s t in a t o theme from the S tr in g

Q u artet no- 3 c o n s is t s e n t i r e l y o f movement by whole tones (see E x . 1 ,

p. 22 6 ).

In many o f the o s t in a t o themes the preponderance o f c e r t a in i n t e r ­

v als r e s u l t s from the use o f m elodic quence a s , fo r exam p le, in

Noye 's Fludde and the Piano C on c erto .

C on c entratio n on s p e c i f i c in t e r v a ls w it h in the o s t in a t o theme

g iv e s a h ig h l y u n i f i e d s t ru c tu re to the them e.

O f the th ir t e e n o s t in a t o themes a n a l y s e d , o nly o n e , that from

Albert H@rr~ng b e g in s and ends on the same n o t e . E leven o f the themes

have an in t e r v a l o f an o cta ve or le ss b etween t h e ir f i r s t and f i n a l

notes. The most fr e q u e n tly u sed c o n n ectin g in t e r v a ls a r e the semitone

( "D e a t h , b e not oroudS**, Noye *8 Fludde , and t h e "Agnus D e i " ) an d -he

octa ve {Pian o C o n c e rto , "D ir g e ", P e te r Grimes) .

A l l th r ee o f the themes which end an o cta v e ap art b o t h b e g in and

end on the t o n i c . O f th© three sem itone i n t e r v a l s , o n ly one (Noy& fs

Fludde) is a lead in g note e n d in g , the o th ers b e in g subdominant ( "D e a t h ,

b e n ot p r o u d i " ) and submediant ("A g n us D e i " ) .

B r itte n has broken away from the Baroque preferer ce fo r dominant

en din g s. Not a s in g le one o f th es e o s t in a t o themes ends on the

d om in an t.

The extrem ely w ide co n n ectin g in t e r v a l o f two o cta ves p lu s a

p e r f e c t fo u r th occurs in the Symphony fo r Cello and Orchestra.

The p ro g r e s s iv e in tro d u c tio n o f the o s t in a t o theme in Th@ Tarm

o f the Screw r e s u lt s in a chan gin g c o n n ectin g i n t e r v a l . However, the

i n t e r v a l o f an octave is exceeded in o nly two in s t a n c e s , n am ely,

between statem ents f i f t e e n an d s ix t e e n (minor n i n f ’w and statem ents

s ix t e e n and seventeen (minor t e n t h ) , w h ile the most fre q u e n tly used

c o n n ectin g in t e r v a l in t U s p a s s a c a g lia i s a m ajor s i x t h .

It w ould th e r e fo r e seem that the c o n c e n tr a tio n on narrow c on n ectin g

in t e r v a l s o f an octave or less is a means to e n su re smooth r e p e t it io n s

 243

o f the o s t in a t o theme and thus m in im ize the s e c t io n a l e f f e c t o f

these r e p e t it io n s .

1 .1 .3 C hordal in flu e n c e

With the exc ep tio n s o f the js t in a t o themes from Albert Herring, Billy

Budd, Noye's Fludde and the S t r in g Q u artet n o . 3 , a l l the themes

a n a ly se d in t h is study show some c horda l in flu e n c e e it h e r o f a m ajo r,

minor or d im in ish ed t r i a d or seventh c h o r d .

1 .1 .4 T etracho rd in flu e n c e

B r it t e n has shaken o f f the in flu e n c e o f the d esc en d in g and a scen d ing

tetrachord w hich were such an in t e g r a l p a r t o f the b asso o s t in a t o

p ie c e s d ur in g the B a ro qu e. None o f these o s t in a t o themes shovs any

in flu e n c e of the t e t r ic h o r d .

1 .1 .5 T rito n e in flu e n c e

The in flu e n c e o f the t r it o n e is stro ng ly in ev iden c e in fo u r o f the

themes (Pets?*- Grimed, Noye *a Fludde , "Agnus D e i " and S t r in g Quartet

no. 3 ). T h is m elodic use o f the t r it o n e i s a s p e c i f i c a l l y twentieth-

c entu ry t r a i t .

1 .1 .6 Contour

B r itte n has used a wide v ariety o f c onto urs in these o stii tto them es,

w ith a s l ig h t p re fe re n c e for the arch contour and the d e c lin in g

contour.
 244

Ex. t; Contours of ostinato theme#

Arch In ve rse Arch

V i o l i n Concerto "Agnus D e i"

Albert Herring Symphony for Cello and
S t r in g Qu artet n o . 3 Oraheatra

R ise M o d ifie d R ise

The Turn of the Sarev 'The Rape of Luaretia

Noye 'a Fludda

D e c lin e D e c lin e p l u s G ra du al R ise

w ith In t e r r u p t io n
"D ir g e "
Pet&r Grimes " D e a t h , b e n ot p r o u d I"
Billy Budd

D e c lin e p lu s Arch

Piano Concerto

The themes w ith an arch or in v er se arch c onto ur reach t h e ir peak

ju s t p r io r t o , or isanediately f o l l o w in g , the m id p oin t o f the them e.

In the Piano Con certo in w hich an arch contour i s o u t l in e d in each o f

the two p hrase s o f th * o s t in a t o them*!, the peak o f eac h o f these arch

con to urs occurs a t the m idpoint o f each o f the p h r a s e s .

The themes from both The Rape of Lucretia and Noye 'a Fludde
e x h i b i t a r i s i n g p r o f i l e , b u t show a s l ig h t d e c lin e a t tho end o f the

ris e. The o v e r a ll a u r a l im p res sio n , h o w ever, rem ains that o f a r is in g

c o n to u r . They have ther efo r e been c l a s s i f i e d as c on to urs with a

m o d ifie d r i s e .

1 .1 .7 Length

A wide d i v e r s i t y o f thome len gths is u se d .

 245

Ex. 2: Lengths of ostinato themes

Two measures F iv e and seven e ig h th s m easures

The Rape o f Luaretia "D ir g e "

Silly Budd
"Agnus D e i ”
S ix measures

Two and three q u ar ter measures S tr in g Qu artet n o . 3

Pater Grimes
Nine measures

Four measures P ian o Concerto

Noye 's Fludda '

Twenty s i x measures

F iv e measures Symphony for Cello and

Oraheetra
"D e a t h , be not p r o ' i ! ’*
flhert Herring

F iv e and three e ig h th s measures

V i o l i n Concerto

The above l i s t i l l u s t r a t e s that B r it t e n has used scan® h ig h ly

u nusual then® lengths ( " D i r g e ” , Peter Grimes, V io l in C o n c e r to , Piano

C o n c e rto , Symphony fo r Cello and Oraheatra).

The Turn o f the Gorev has a f lu c t u a t in g thome len gth due to the
cum ulative p re se n ta t io n of the theme and th® c o n sta n t ly changing

rhythmic struc tu re on each p r e s e n t a t io n . The len gths o f the

p r e s e n ta t io n s vary £rom three m easures (statem ents one and two) to

twenty s ix m easures (statem ent se v e n t e e n ).

The favoured Baroque four measure o s t in a t o theme length feat u re s

in o nly one o f these p ^ s s a c a g lia s {Noye'a Fludde ) .

Another i n t e r e s t in g featu re which emerges from the l i s t o f

theme lengths above 1b B r i t t e n 's freq uen t use o f asym metrical lengths

which have a p receden t in the fiv e measure theme o f Brahm s's

Variations on a Theme by Haydn, O p . 56a.

 246

1 .1 .8 Tonal centr*

Although aos« o f thr v ’ t in a t o thewes are h ig h ly c h ro m atic, for exam ple,

the theme from the V i o l i n C o n c e rto , n e v e r t h e le s s , they a l l r e la te to

a to n al c e n tr a .

a c e r t a in to n al f ix a t io n is* in e v it a b l e by the mere f a c t o f the

c o n tin uo u s r e p e t it io n o f the o s t in a t o theme which im presses it s

c onto ur and sequence o f m otives on the com position as a w h o le .

1 .1 .9 Metre and tempo

The fo llo w in g is a l i s t o f the m etres an d tempos used in the

p assa ca g lia ® in t h is stu d y .

E x. 3 •, Metres and tempos

P ian o C oncerto 2 /2 <4 /45 Andante len to ( 4 « 46-50)

V i o l i n Concetto 4 /4 A ndante le n to (un poco raeno
mosso) ( 1 • S2-54)
"D i r g e " 4 /4 A l l a m arcia grave { J « 60)
Peter Grr'mea 4 /4 Andante moderate { i * 56)
" D e a t h , be not p r o u d !" 4 /4 A lle g r o molto m oderate e
sostenuto ( J » 63)
The Rape of Luarstia 4 /4 A l l a m arcia grave ( l 'i s t e s s o
tempo) ( ^ a 56-66)
Albert Herrinj 4 / 8 4 3/0 Slow { t « 56)
Billy Budd 6/8 ( J- • 60)
The Turn o f the C>arew 3/4 Slow and re g u la r ( J =80)
Noye ’s Fludde 4 /2 Steady minims { 1 ■ 69-72)
"Agnus D e i" 5 /1 6 Slow ( / - 805
Symphony f i r C e ‘ :o and 1
Oreheetra 2 /2 & 3 /2 Andante a l l e g r o (4 ■ c . 84)
S t r in g Q uartet n o . 3 3 /4 Slo w ly moving { i * c . 50)

In c o n tra st to the fav o ured sim ple t r ip l e metre o f Baroque

p a s s a c a g l i a s , B r it t e n has favoured sim ple q uadruple m etre.

A nother i n t e r e s t in g fe a t u re o f these p a s s a c a g lia s w hich is not

en co un tered in Baroque p a s s a c a g lia s is the use o f c han gin g metres

w it h in the o s t in a t o them e. T h is occuru in both Albert Herring {4 /8

and 3 / 8 ) and the Symphony for Cello and Oraheetra (2/2 and 3 / 2 ) .
B r it t e n has sc ru p u lo u sly a s s ig n e d a metronome in d ic a t io n to

each o f these p a s s a c a g l i a s . D uring the Baroque p e rio d the d e s ig n a t io n

" P a s s a c a g l i a " was an in d ic a t io n o f the mood and tempo o f the p ie c e and

d i d n ot re q u ir e any fu rth er q u a l i f i c a t i o n .
 247

W ritten seems to have adopted a somewhat slower tempo for h is

p a s s a c a g lia s than was the norm d u r in g the Baroque p e r i o d . C ur t Sachs

g iv e s the tempo o f ^ * 63- 100 as b e in g the accep ted tempo o f the

p a s s a c a g lia In Fran ce d ur in g the f i r s t h a l f o f the eig h te e n th

century. 1 Eigh t o f the th ir te e n p a s s a c a g l ia s in t h is study are

slower than the tempo g iven by S ac h s.

However, acco rd in g to L 'A f f i l a r d e * s t a b l e s which E ric h Schwandt

reg ard s a s a f a i r l y >:curate g u id e to the tempos o f e a r ly eighteenth-

i 2
centu ry m u sic , the tempo o f the p a s s a c a g lia i s i » S O. "ttiree of

these p a s s a c a g lia s f a l l b elo w t h is su g gested tem po.

Ten o f the p a s s a c a g lia s are fa s t e r than the tempo o f L ’A * f i l a r d ,

b u t a l l o f them f a l l w it h in the upper lim it o f the ter^po g iv e n by

Sachs.

T h u s , while there is c o n f l i c t i n g o p in io n c on cernin g the exact

tempo o f Baroque p a s s a c a g l i a s , it seems th a t a t the upper end o f the

s c ale B r itte n f a l l s w ith in the accepted l i m i t s , w hile on o c c a s io n s he

adopts a slower tempo than was the norm d u r in g the Baroque p e r io d .

W ith the ex c e p t io n s of the V io l in Con certo and the Symphony for

Cello and Orchestra, these p a s s a c a g lia s r e t a i n t h e ir i n i t i a l tempo

throughout without much d e v i a t i o n . The p a s s a c a g lia o f the V io l in

C rncerto sees a marked red u ctio n o f tempo a t the b e g in n in g o f the c o d a ,

w hile the fan ta sy - like in te rlu d e o f the Symphony for Cello and

Orchestra breaks away from the tempo o f the r e s t o f the p a s s a c a g l i a .

1 .1 .1 0 Rhythm

B r it t e n has used some in t e r e s t in g contem porary rhythmic d e v ic e s in

these o s tin a to themes* which do not occur in Baroque p a s s a c a g l ia s .

Syncopation is used as a means for c r e a t i n g ten sio n and r e s t l e s s ­

ness in the o s tin a to themes from the V i o l i n C o n c erto , Nay# Fludde ,

'Jilly Budd and the Symphony for Cello and Orchestra.
A n a c r u s is , which was used f a i r l y fr e q u e n tly in Baroque o s tin a to

themes occur® in o nly two o f these them es, namely " D e a t h , be not

proud J '* and The Rape o f Luaretia.

1 C. S a c h s , Rhythm and Tempo (New Y o rk: Norton, 1953) , p . 3 1 6.

2
E. Schw andt, " L ' A f f i l a r d e The New Grove Dictionary o f Music
and Musiciana, e d . S. S a d i e , V o l . X , p . 3 5 8.
 248

An i n t e r e s t in g fe a t u r e o f the o s t in a t o theme from Noye*s Fludde

i s the rhythmic a c t i v i t y o f the f i r s t b e a t (see E x. 3, p . 21 7 ).

w hile in the V i o i i n C oncertc rhythmic a c t i v i t y f a l l s in the f i r s t

h a l f o f the measure in * > f i r s t two m easures of che theme (see

Ex. 1 , P- 4 5 ) . Both t.. ? r a c t ic e s ar e in strong c o n tra st w ith

the fav o ured tr o c h a ic rhy.n/i o f Baroque p a s s a c a g lia s in w hich the

g re a t e r rhythmic ac tiv ity C alls in the l a t t e r p a rt o f the m easure.

Furtherm ore, in none o f these p a s s a c a g lia s has B r it t e n used a troc haic

rhythmic p a t t e r n .

An u nusual fe a t u r e o f the o s t in a t o theme from the Symphony for

Cello and Orchestra i s the use o f ru n nin g s c a l i c p a s s a g e s .

H ie av o idance o f m etric a c cen ts in the o s t in a t o theme from

Pater Grimes c r e a te s a s u b t l e , free- flo w in g rhythm. A fu r th e r d ev ic e

in Peter Grimes which i s p ro bably uniq ue in twentieth- century

p assa ca glia s, is the occurrence o f the o s t in a t o one b e a t e a r l i e r on

each r e p e t i t i o n . T h i s ingenuous d e v ic e g en er ates tremendous v i t a l i t y

w it h in the them e, and furtherm ore has the e f f e c t o f g ro u p in g the

r e it e r a t io n s o f th© o s t in a t o in to larger groups o f fo ur statem ents

each. T h is creates* a type o f macro-rhythm fo r the o s t in a t o theme

sp an nin g each group o f fo ur statem ents.

In g e n e r a l , the rhythmic a c t i v i t y o f these o s t in a t o themes is

f a i r l y su b du ed . The m iddlt-range theme o f the " D i r g e " is more a c tiv e

rhy thm ically than any o f the o ther them es. T h is c o u ld be a t t r ib u t e d

to the fact that it is a middle-range and not a low-range o stin ato

theme. On the other h a n d , h o w ever, the o s t in a t o theme from the Piano

C o n c e rto , w h ile a ls o a m iddle-range theme, does not % ow a greater

rhythmic a c t i v i t y than the low-range themes

1.1.11 M elo d ic ten sio n

Apart from the four themes which ar e t o t a lly d ia t o n ic ( "D e a t h , be not

proudt H, The Rape o f Luaretia, Billy Budd, S t r in g Q uartet n o . 3) all

the o ther themes e x h ib it v ary in g le v e ls o f chrom aticism from only

s l ig h t chrom aticism (Albert Herring) to a very h ig h degree of

chrom aticism {The Turn o f the Sarew) , where the chrom aticism sym bolizes
the tig h t e n in g o f the Screw.

A d ev ic e used in Baroque o s t in a t o themes to g enerate momentum is

the open-ended dominant en d in g . B r it t e n u ses t h is d e v ic e in the

 249

V i o l i n Concerto a id the Symphony for Cello and Orchestra. However,

the o s tin a to themes from both Nay* 'a Fludde and the S t r in g Quartet

no. 3 have le a d in g note e n d in g s which a l s o c re a te a c om pelling forward

momentum. Other open-ended en din g u used ar e the subdom inant ("D e a t h ,

be not p r o u d l") m ediant ( Billy Budd) and submediant ("A g n us D e i M>.

1.1.12 D e riv a tio n

None of the p assa ca g. «.as in t h i s study is an is o la t e d movement. They

all jelo n g w it h in the framework o f multi-movement form s. The o v e r a ll

them atic o r g a n is a t io n o f such forms may b e such th a t the o s t in a t o theme

o f the p a s s a c a g lia i s based on p rev io u sly hear d m a t e r ia l.

Five o f these o s t in a t o themes (Peter Grimes, Pie Rape of uuaretia,

Billy Budd, The Turn of the Samw, Symphony for Cello and Orchestra)
are d e riv e d com pletely or in p a r t from e a r l i e r m a t e r ia l.

Change o f r e g is t e r to a lower r e g is t e r is the most freq uen t

a l t e r a t io n o f the them atic m ateria l when i t i s used a s an o s tin a to

theme. Rhythmic a lt e r a t io n s freq uen tly cause a com plete change o f

c ha ra c te r when the theme or motive is used as an o s t i n a t o . B r itte n ,

how ever, has n ot [Link] w ith the Baroque p r e d il e c t io n fo r t r ip l e

m etre. Only in The Turn o f the Sarew does he change the o r i g i n a l

sim ple quadruple metre to sim ple t r ip le metre fo r most o f the

p re se n ta t io n s o f the o s t in a t o .

T hus, in these p a s s a c a g l i a s , the most b a s ic change when p re v io u sly

u sed thematic m aterial fu n c tio n s as an o s t in a t o i s that o f a change o f

re g ist e r.

1.1.13 C on c lusio n s

The most obvious c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the o s t in a t o themes o f Baroque

p a s s a c a g lia s were the four or e ig h t measure l e n g t h , slow tr ip le m etre,

trochaic rhythmic p attern an d the tetrachord in f l u e n c e .

B r itten has used a wide d iv e r s it y o f theme lengths in thcae

p a s s a c a g lia s and has hown no preferen ce for the four or e ig h t measure

theme. W hile he has p r e fe r r e d a slow tempo fo r a l l the p a s s a c a g l i a s ,

o nly in the S tr in g Qu artet n o . 3 and some o f the statem ents o f the

o s tin a to in The Turn o f the Sarew does he use t r i p l e m e tr e .

He has a ls o abandoned the Baroque p re fe re n c e for trochaic

rhy chins.
 250

In t e r e s t in g rhythm ic in n o v a tio n s o ccur in Peter Grimes. F urtherm ore,

w h ile the t y p ic a l l y twentieth- century t r a i t o f the m elodic u se o f the

t r i t o n * i s prom inent in many o f these them es, there i s no e v id en c e o f

the in flu e n c e c f the t e t r a c h o r d .

1 .2 USE OF THE OSTINATO THEME

1.2.1 F i r s t statem ent s e t t in g

E igh t o f the th ir te e n p a s s a c a g l ia s in t h i s study have accompanied

f i r s t statem ents. T h is i s in accordance w ith the u sua l Baroque p r a c t i c e .

The rem aining f i v e p a s s a c a g lia s have unaccom panied f i r s t statem ents

and in t h is reg ard fo l l o w the precedent o f B a c h 's C minor P a s s a c a g l ia .

The r e l a t iv e l y large number o f unaccom panied f i r s t statem ents i s perhap s

symptomatic o f a l in e a r approach to c o m p o sitio n .

An unaccom panied f i r s t abatement can be reg ard ed as a type o f

ii trod u ctio n in th a t it allo w s fo r the u n fe t t e r e d p re se n ta t io n o f the

raw m aterial p r io r to any v a r ia t io n t a k in g p l a c e .

The accom panied f i r s t statem ent, on the othe*. u ^ n d , can als o be

viewed as a type o f in tro d u c tio n in t h a t the s e t t in g i s u s u a lly f a i r l y

meagre and subsequent statem ents g e n e r a lly c o n ta in more in ten se

accompanying m ateria l so that a p atter n o f growth i s e s t a b l is h e d .

T h u s , both unaccom panied and accom panied f i r s t statem ents fu nc tio n

as lowpoints which i n i c i a t e a r i s i n g p r o f i l e .

1.2.2 V a r ia t io n s in length

Most o f these p a s s a c a g lia s e it h e r r e t a in a c on sta nt o s tin a to theme

len gth throu g hou t, or ar e s u b je c t e d to o nly o cc asio n al minor m o d ifi­

c a t io n s o f the theme le n g t h .

H a b it u a l d e v ia t io n s from the o r i g i n a l length o f the o s t in a t o them e,

h o w ever, in d ic a t e a fr e e r approach b ased on a f l e x i b l e theme le n g t h ,

such as i s the case in the V i o l i n C o n c e rto , The Turn o f the Screw and
the Symphony for Cello and Orchestra. It i i p o s s ib le that in these

p a s s a c a g lia s B r it t e n may have been in flu e n c e d by the "fret:"

p as a c a g l ia s o f Berg ( Funf. Orcheeterlieder and Wozzeck) and Schoenberg

{Pierrot L unaire), whose p it c h s e r ie s p a s s a c a g lia s presuppose a

co n sta n t ly chan gin g theme le n g t h . In eac h statem ent, the in t e r e s t

is fo cu ssed on the new rhythm ic g u is e o f the o s t in a t o theme.

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1 .2 .3 V a r ia t io n s in tone c olo u r

V a r ia t io n o f the tone colo u r o f the o s t in a t o i s an in t e g r a l p a rt o f

the v a r ia t io n p rocedure when i t i s a p p l ie d to the o r c h e s tr a l medium.

Even w it h in th e c o n fin e s o f the b i%s r e g i s t e r s , chan ges in instrum ent­

a t io n can e f f e c t v a r ia t io n s in d o u b l in g , timbre and i n t e n s it y .

A simple means o f v ary in g the tone colo u r is to add to or reduce

the o r c h e s t r a l w e ig h t . Most o f th es e p a s s a c a g lia s re ly to some degree

on t h is a d d it iv e method o f in c r e a s in g the in t e n s it y o f the o s tin a to

theme (fo r exa m p le, Peter Grimes, Billy Budd, ltse Turn o f the Sarew,

Symphony for Cello and Orchestra) . W it h in such a c r e s c e n d o , v i t a l i t y

can be in fu se d by v ary in g th e o r c h e s tr a l c o m b in a t io n s .

A nother p o s s i b i l i t y is to r e t a in the tone c olo u r o f the o stin a to

theue unchanged throughout. T h is B r it t e n does in the p a s s a c a g lia

o f the " D i r g e " . When t h is o c c u r s , the e n t ir e r e s p o n s ib il it y for

c r e a t in g i n t e r e s t and v i t a l i t y o f tone c o lo u r r e s ts w ith the

accom panim ent.

In the p a s s a c a g lia from Peter Grimes B r itte n has u sed a h ig h ly

o r i g i n a l and im aginative method o f tone colo u r v a r i a t i o n , in th a t each

v a r ia t io n o f the v io la theme above the o s t in a t o i s accom panied by a

new tone colo u r in the o s t in a t o i t s e l f . An o v e r a ll crescendo is c reated

by the use o f the a d d it iv e method o f in c re a sin g in t e n s it y by w eig h t,

w hile w ith in t h i s c re sc e n d o , there ar e v a r ia t io n s o f the instrum ental

c o m b in at io n s.

1 .2 .4 Tempo changes

The m ajority o f these p a s s a c a g lia s m aintain a f a i r l y c on sta nt tempo

throughout. The one exc eption i s the p a s s a c a g lia from the V io lin

Concerto which sees a sudden marked drop in tempo in the c o d a . T h is

drop in tempo in the c o n clu d in g stag es of t h i s p a s s a c a g lia can be seen

as a b ro ad en ing p ro cess a s the p a s s a c a g lia draws to a c o n c lu s io n .

B r i t t e n ’ s m aintenance o f a f a i r l y c on sta nt tempo in these

p a s s a c a g lia s fo llo w s the t r a d it io n a l approach in c o n tra st to the

p a s s a c a g lia s o f some twentieth- century composers which are su b jected

to many changes o f tempo d u r in g t h e ir c o u r s e . The p a s s a c a g lia from

B e r g 's Wozzeck, for exam p le, is su b ject ed to a c o n sta n t ly flu c tu a tin g

tempo scheme in which alm ost every v a r ia t io n has a d i f f e r e n t tempo.

W e b e r n 's P a s s a c a g l ia , Op. 1 is als o su b ject ed to many teng?o c h a n g e s .

1 .2 .5 Variations in the fundamental pitch and intervallic structure

As waa sometimes the c ase in Baroque p a s s a c a g l i a s , f o r example

[Link]'s P a s s a c a g lia in D minor (see E x . 11, p . 2 9 5 ), the o s tin a to

theme is sometimes tran spo sed to o th er fundam ental p it c h e s d u r in g the

c ou rse o f the p a s s a c a g l ia , f o r example in the V io l in C oncerto and

Billy Budd. In the V i o l i n C o n c e rto , each o f the twelve p it c h e s o f the

chrom atic s c ale a t some time fu n c t io n s as the fundam ental note o f the

o s t in a t o them e, a *[Link] fe a t u re o f t h i s p a s s a c a g lia is th a t the

e x a c t in t e r v a l l i c struc tu re o f the o s t in a t o theme is not r e t a in e d

throu g hou t. Ii. Billy Budd n in e d i f f e r e n t p it c h e s fu n c tio n a s the

fundam ental note o f the o s t in a t o d u r in g the c ourse o f the p a s s a c a g l i a .

t .2 .6 Other v a r ia t io n s o f the o s t in a t o theme

O ther v a r ia t io n s in clu de in v er sio n o f the o s t in a t o theme in the V io l in

C o n c e rto , Billy Budd and the "A g n us D e i " . In Noye'a Fludde the i n t e r ­
v a ls o f the p atter n from which the sequence i s d e r iv e d remain i n t a c t ,

b u t the d ir e c t io n o f the sequence i s changed in th a t i t becomes a

f a l l i n g sequence in s te a d o f a r i s i n g seq uen ce.

Another in t e r e s t in g d ev ic e i s the use o f e l i s i o n in c e r t a in s e c tio n s

o f the p a s s a c a g lia from Billy Budd. Fhe f i n a l note o f one statem ent of

the o s t in a t o fu n c tio n s as the f i r s t note o f the fo llo w in g statem ent.

1 .2 .7 Theme drop-out and themp fragm entation

Minor drop-outs o f the o s t in a t o theme occur in the Piano Con certo ,

Billy Budd, the "Agnus D e i " and the S trin g i^uartet n o . 3 . More

extensive drop- outs, how ever, occur in Albert Herring, The Turn o f the
Sc .*ew, Noye 'e Fludde and the Symphony for Cello and Orchestra.
In both The Turn o f the Screw and the Symphony for Cello and

Orchestra, the drop-out o f the o s t in a t o is a s s o c ia t e d with a drop in

in te n sity . In Pie Turn o f the Screw the drop-out occurs imm ediately

fo llo w in n the peak o f the a r c h , w hile in the Symphony for Cello and

Orchestra it occurs during an in terr u p tio n o f the gradu al r i s e p r o f i l e .

E xten siv e fragm entation o ccurs in The Turn Oj the Screw as a
r e s u lt o f the cum ulative method o f p re se n tin g the o s tin a to theme.

In the Symphony fo r Cello and Orchestra fragm entation occurs in

statem ent fiv e o f the o s t in a t o theme imm ediately preced in g the cot&l

drop-out o f the o s t in a t o .
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F a ir l y e x t e n s iv e use o f fragm entation occurs in the V i o l i n C on c erto .

The c o n s id e r a b le freedom and lic e n c e which B r it t e n e x h i b i t s in the use

o f t h i s o s t in a t o theme in clu de s marked v a r ia t io n s in le n g t h , in t e r v a l

struc tu re and rhythm in a d d it io n to fra g m e n ta tio n . In s ec tio n ten

the fragm entation c o in c id e s w ith the d e c l in in g arch c o n to u r , w hile in

s e c t io n three i t i s a s s o c ia t e d w ith a r i s i n g c o n to u r .

Sev eral o f the o s t in a t o themes e x h i b i t fragm en tatio n o f the

o s t in a t o theme in the c lo s in g stag es or f i n a l statem ent ( "D e a t h , be not

p r o u d !". The Rape o f Luc: :tui, Noye 'e Fludde and the s t r in g Q uartet n o . 3) .
T h is can b e seen as a p ro cess o f b ro ad en in g towards the c o n clu sio n o f

the p a s s a c a g lia .

1 .2 .8 A u d i b i l i t y o f the o s tin a to theme

S im ila r it y o f re p e t it io n is e s s e n t ia l i f a theme is to bo r e c o g n iz a b le .

I f the r e p e t it io n s are too e la b o r a t e ly v a r ie d , t h e ir c on n ectio n w ith

the o r i g i n a l theme w il l be l o s t . In a l l b u t one o f the p a s s a c a g lia s

a n a ly s e d , the o s t in a t o is c le a r ly a u d i b l e . In The Turn o f the Screw,

h o w ever, the cum ulative p re se n ta t io n as well as the c o n sta n t ly changing

rhythmic struc tu re o f the o s tin a to render it ra ther o b s c u r e .

Two r a d ic a lly d i f f e r e n t approaches are p resen ted by contemporary

p a s s a c a g l ia s . E ith er the o s tin a to i s a true o s t in a t o around w hich the

accompanying m aterial is v a r ie d , o r , on the other h a n d , the main

in t e r e s t may be in v a r ia t io n of the o s tin a to theme i t s e l f w h ile the

accompanying m aterial is o f secondary im portance.

The idea o f varying the o s tin a to is n ot e s s e n t i a l l y a twentiech-

centu ry in n o v a tio n . Many Baroque com posers, n otab ly Handel for example

in h i s S u it e n o . 7 (see Ex. 5 , p. 289) o ften p resen ted h ig h ly ornamented

v e rsio n s of t h e ir o s t in a t o themes.

B r it t e n has g e n e r a lly adopted the more co n ser v at iv e approach o f

v a ria t io n above the o s t ir a t o in h i s p a s s a c a g l ia s . However, in The Turn

o f the Screw and the v i o l i n C oncerto he has com bined th is with expansion
o f the o s t in a t o . In the V io l in C o n c erto , how ever, the contour o f the

theme remains c o n s t a n t , w h ile in The Turn o f the Screw the contour of

the f i r s t s ix notes o f the theme remains c o n s t a n t .

1 .2 .9 Octave r e g ist e r

T r a d it io n a lly most p a s s a c a g lia themes are basso o s t i n a t i , that i s ,

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they occur in the b a ss r e g is t e r s and are c o n sta n t ly r e it e r a t e d more

o r le s s u nchanged. W h ile there may b e o c c a sio n a l ex c u r s io n s in to the

upper r e g i s t e r s , the o s t i n a t i are predom inantly c o n fin e d to the b ass

reg isters.
Most o f the p a s s a c a g lia s in t h i s study fo llo w t h i s t r a d it io n a l

stance. However, there ar e a ls o sev era l full- range c s t i n a t i , namely

chose from the P ian o C o n c e rto , V i o l i n C o n c e rto , "D e a t h , b e n o t p r o u d ! ”

The M p & o f Luaretia. In the Piano Con certo a l l r e g is t e r s ar e fr e e ly

e x p lo it e d by the o s t in a t o throughout the p a s s a c a g l i a .

However, there i s u s u a lly some c o r r e la t io n between the formal

p r o f i l e and the e x p l o it a t io n o f the upper and lower r e g i s t e r s . In the

V i o l i n C o n c erto , the low est r e g is t e r is u sed a t the peak o f the arch

p r o f i l e , w hile in Tke Raps o f Luoratia the in v a sio n o f the upper

r e g is t e r s o ccurs immediately p r io r to the f i n a l su rge to the c lim a x .

In " D e a t h , be n ot p r o u d ! " , on the o ther h a n d , the in v a sio n o f the upper

r e g is t e r s corresp on d s w ith the in t e r r u p t io n s in the formal p r o f i l e .

In the Symphony for Cello and Orchestra, the o s t in a t o is p re­

dom inantly b a ss o r i e n t a t e d , b u t r is e s to the m iddle r e g is t e r s at

the peak o f the r is ir .j c o n to u r .

The o s t in a t o o f the ’’D i r g e " i s p re se n te d in the mid-range

th r o u g h o u t.

A part from the V i o l i n C o n c e rto , a l l these o s t i n a t i w hich are n ot

c o n fin e d to the b a s s r e g i s t e r s , a r e , n e v e r t h e l e s s , the lowest sounding

p a r t throughout. In the V i o l i n C o n c e rto , ho w ever, the lowest r e g is t e r s

are not aom inated by the o s u in a t o , an a the accompaniment is freq uen tly

the lowest sounding p a r t .

The fo llo w in g are some o b s e rv a tio n s on the o s t in a t o them e’ s

octave r e g is t e r :

- The e a r ly stag es o f the p a s s a c a g l i a , d u r in g which time a r i s i n g

contour is u s u a lly b e in g e s t a b l i s h e d , are not prone to marked

changes o f r e g i s t e r .

- E x c ursion s into the upper r e g is t e r s freq u en tly occur ju s t p r io r

to the peak o f a r i s i n g or arch p r o f i l e .

- The one instance o f a sudden drop in r e g is t e r (V io lin C oncerto)

r e in fo r c e s the c ulm ina tion of a r i s e .

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1 ,2 .1 0 Conclusions

B r itte n has b ro ught a v a r ie d approach to h i s treatm ent o f the o s tin a tn

themes in these p a s s a c a g l i a s . The f i r s t statem ent s e t t in g s are e it h e r

unaccom panied or f a i r l y m eagre. However, i t is the m anip u latio n of

the o s t i n a t i in subsequent statem ents which c reates the g re a t e st

in terest. Hi® theme le n g t h s , tone c o lo u r , rhythm, and octave r e g is t e r s

have a l l been su b ject ed to v a r i a t i o n . However, in o n ly one in s t a n c e ,

The Turn o f the Sormw has the e x t e n t o f t h i s v a r ia t io n made the o s tin a to

u n r e c o g n iz a b le . H e r e , B r it t e n has used the technicu e o f v a r ia t io n o f

the o s t in a t o a s w ell as v a r ia t io n o f the s e t t in g o f the o s t i n a t o .

1 .3 INFLUENCE OF THE OSTINATO THEME

The structu re o f the pas a c a g l i a i s one o f c o n tin uo u s r e p e t it io n o f the

o stin ato theme. C o n se q u e n tly , t h is ever-present theme w i l l e x e r t a

strong In flu e n c e on the movement a s a whole and w i l l impact it s

c h a r a c t e r is t ic s such as c o n to u r , rhythm, to n a l centre on the la r g e r

framework o f the c o m p o sit io n , e s p e c ia l l y when, it is u s e d a s a s v r ic t

o s t in a t o .

1 .3 .1 E f f e c t on le n g t h ; time-span

In the p a s s a c a g lia s from the V i o l i n Concerto and The Turn o f the Scr&D

the extreme freedom w ith which the o s t in a t o theme is u sed r e s u lt s in

there b ein g no d ir e c t r e l a t io n s h ip between the length o f the o s tin a to

theme and th© length o f the p a s s a c a g lia a® a w h o le.

The p a s s a c a g lia from the Symphony for Cello and Orchestra has the

few est r e p e t it io n s of the o s t in a t o theme w h ile that from Peter Grimes

has the most r e p e t i t i o n s . It is in t e r e s t in g that Pet&r Grimes has one

o f the sh o rtest o s tin a to themes (two and three q uarter m easures) w hile

the twenty s ix measure o s tin a to theme from the Symphony for Cello and

Orchestra is by far the lo ng est o s t in a t o theme In t h is st u d y . W hile

the o s tin a to from I’eter Grimes is p resen ted thirty n in e t im e s , that

from the Symphony for Cello and Orchestra is stated only s i x t im e s .

There thus seems to be a type o f inverse r e la t io n s h ip between the length

o f the o s t in a t o theme and the number of it s p r e s e n t a t io n s .

1 .3 .2 Sec t io n a1 i za t ion

The d if f e r e n c e between the p a s s a c a g lia and the theme-with-variation form

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l i e s in the c on tin uo u sn ess o f the v a r ia t io n in the p a s s a c a g l ia ,

whereas in the them e-with- variations form the in d iv id u a l v a r ia t io n s

ar e u s u a lly c l e a r l y marked o f f from each o t h e r . N e v e r t h e le s s , d e s p ite

the co n tin uo u sn ess o f the v a r ia t io n in the p a s s a c a g lia the c on sta nt

r e p e t it io n o f the o s t in a t o r e s u l t s in a c e r t a in s e c tio n a l e f f e c t .

Ihemes which c re a t e a minimum o f s e c t io n a l iz a t io n are u s u a lly

d ia t o n ic w ith l i t t l e o r no c hro m aticism , fo r example the themes from

Peter Grimes, "D e a t h , be not p r o u d i " , Albert Herring, Billy Budd and
the S t r in g Q uartet n o . 3.

D e sp ite the h ig h l y chromatic natu re o f the o s t in a t o in The Turn

of the Screw, the c o n sta n t flu c t u a t io n s o f l e n g t h , rhythm an d a u d i b i l i t y
m inim ize the s e c tio n a l e f f e c t .

A h ig h d egree o f s e c t io n a l iz a t io n o cc u r s in the o s t in a t o themes

from the Pian o C o n c e r to , the "Agnus D e i " and the Symphony for Cello and
Orchestra.
In the V io l in C o n c e rto , the c o n sta n t v a r ia t io n s o f le n g t h , rhythm ,

tone c o l o u r , octave r e g is t e r and a u d i b i l i t y r e s u lt in a v a ry in g p atter n

of se c t io n a liza t io n .

2. THE ACCOMPANIMENT

2 .1 TYPE OF ACCOMPANYING MATERIAL

W hile i t is p o s s ib le for the f i r s t statem ent o f the o s t in a t o to be

u naccom paniad, t h e r e a fte r some accompanying elem ents w i l l alw ays be

h e a r d w ith the o s t i n a t o .

Throughout these p a s s a c a g lia s B r it t e n has favoured an accompaniment

b a s e d p r e d o m in a n t !/ on a sin g le theme. N in e o f the th ir t e e n accom pani­

ments are b ased cm a s in g le theme.

In the ta b le b elow the accompaniment o f each p a s s a c a g lia is

c l a s s i f i e d acco rd in g to it s predom inant accompaniment ty p e .

Ex. 4 : Accompaniment types

S in g le theme Two themes

"D ir g e " S t r in g Q u artet n o . 3

Peter Grim<s8
" D o a t h , b e n ot proud I " C ounterpoint
Albert Herring
P ian o Concerto
The Rape of Luaretia
The Turn of the Sarew
Billy Budd
Noye ’a Fludde
M elo d ic m otives
"Agnus D e i "
Symphony for Cello and V i o l i n C oncerto
Orchestra

In g e n e r a l , the accompaniments have a w ider range than the

o s t in a t o them es, and ar e a l s o rh y thm ica lly more a c t i v e . An in t e r e s t in g

exc ep tio n occurs in the Symphony for Cello and Orchestrat where the
o s t in a t o i s both rhy thm ica lly mare a c t i v e than the acconpany ing theme

an d has a w id er r a n g e .

2 .2 THE ACCOMPANIMENT VARIED

2 .2 .1 Octave re g is t e r

R eg ar dles s o f the type o f accsispanying m aterial u s e d , i t u s u a lly

ap pea rs above the o s t i n a t o . Seven o f these th -teen p a s s a c a g lia s

have accompaniments the upper lim it s o f which remain e i t h e r e n t i r e l y

above the o s tin a to or have o nly o c c a s io n a l b r i e f e x c u r sio n s b elo w the

le v e l of the o s t in a t o .

I f an accompaniment remains above the o s t in a t o , there ar e two

p o ssib litie s: e it h e r it w i l l fo llo w the o s t i n a t o 's r i s e s and f a i l s

if the o s t in a t o is not c o n fin e d to a s p e c i f i c octave r e g i s t e r , or

i t w i l l remain f a ir l y c on sta nt above a s t a t ic o s t in a t o .

An example o f the f i r s t method o cc urs in the p a s s a c a g lia from

Billy Budd. B r itten uses the second method more freq u en tly than the

first, for example in Peter Grimes and Noye 'a Fludde..

In the rem aining fiv e p a s s a c a g lia s the accompaniment appears both

above and b elow the o s t in a t o . In no in stance does an accompaniment

remain c o n s is t e n t ly b elow the o s t in a t o , as is the c ase for example

in the P a s sa c a g lia f in a l e o f Ern est B l o c h ’ s Concerto Grosso n o . 2

fo r S t r in g s .

In those p a s s a c a g lia s in which the accompaniment ap pears both

above and b elow the o s tin a to e it h e r the r e g is t e r o f the o s tin a to w il l

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remain c o n s t a n t , or both the accompaniment and the o s t in a t o w i l l char^e

r e g is t e r s f r e e l y .

The use o f a s t a t ic o s t in a t o w ith a fr e e ly moving accompaniment

o ccurs in "The D i r g e ” . In t h i s i n s t a n c e , the arch contour produced

by the r i s e and f a l l o f th e accompaniment r e in fo r c e s the o v e r a ll

iormal arch p r o f i l e .

In the p a s s a c a g lia from The Rape o f Luaretia, on the o ther h a n d ,

b oth the accompaniment an d o s t in a t o change r e g is t e r s fr e e ly w h ile the

accompaniment ap pears both above and b elo w the o s t i n a t o .

2 .2 .2 Tone colo u r

In a p a s s a c a g l i a , the o s t in a t o is u s u a lly c o n fin e d to the low range

instrum ents and is lim it e d to u niso n o r o cta ve d o u b l i n g s . tfte

accom panim ent, ho w ever, has the e n t ir e r e g i s t r a l an d te x tu r a l range

a t it s d i s p o s a l , and t h er efo r e the tone c olo u r p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f the

accompaniment are i n f i n i t e l y g re a t e r than i s the c ase w ith the o s t in a t o .

B r it t e n has fre q u e n tly used the method o f a d d i t i v e crescendo for

vary in g the tone colo u r o f the accom panim ent, as fo r example in the

Symphony fop Cello and Orchestra. T h u s , the in t e n s it y is in creased

by w eig ht and in c re a se s or d ecr eases in w eig ht c o n t r ib u t e to a p r o f i l e

o f growth or d e c 1 i n e .

H© has a ls o fre q u e n tly adopted the r»@thod o f c o n sta n t ly chan gin g

o rc h e stra l co lo u rs to c re a te v i t a l i t y and momentum a s , for o xam ple,

in Albert Hcrrin-j.

The p a s s a c a g lia " D e a t h , be not p r o u d ! " is the o nly one in th is

group w hich r e l i e s on the chan gin g c o lo u rs o f the o s tin a to ra ther than

o f the accompaniment to c r e a t e in t e r e s t and forw ard movement.

2 .2 .3 Texture

The c ha ra c te r o f ’^e o s t in a t o combined w ith the s p e c i f i c type of

accompanying m ateria l used w ith i t , d eterm ines the to ta l o v e r a ll

fa b r ic of sound a t any g iv en p o in t .

Changes o f texture can e it h e r be ab ru pt or g r a d u a l . Sudden

chan ges in tex ture w il l c re a t e an ir r e g u la r growth p r o f i l e . If these

u@[Link] changes c o in c id e w ith r e p e t it io n s o f the o s t in a t o them e, a

stro ng ly s e c tio n a l e f f e c t can be c r e a t e d , for exam p le, in the Piano

C oncerto or the Symphony fo r Cello and Orchestra where a new tex ture
is u sed fo r eac h v a r ia t io n on the accom panying them e, each new

v a r ia t io n c o in c id in g w ith a rep etitio n , o f the o s t i n a t o .

Gradual changes o f tex tu r e c re a t e a p attern o f g rad u al growth

or d e c l i n e .

Most o f theb® p a s s a c a g lia s have a p attern o f g rad u al tex tu r al

changes, ifor exam p le, the ’" D i r g e ", Peter Grimes, The Rape o f Luaretia.

2 .2 .4 C on c lusio n s

In the p a s s a c a g lia s under s t u d y , B r it t e n has g iv e n p r e fe r e n c e to an

accompaniment b ased on a s in g le them e. The accompaniment g e n e r a lly

rem ains above the o s t in a t o althou g h there are in sta n c es in which the

accompaniment appears both above and b elo w the o stin ac o

The tone colo u r is kept a l i v e e i t h e r by the method o f a d d it iv e

crescend o or by c o n sta n t ly c han gin g o r c h e s tr a l c o l o u r s . In v ary in g

the t e x t u r a l fa b r ic he has u sed both sudden and g rad u al changes oc

texture.

2 .3 ROLE OF THE ACCOMPANIMENT

It is the ro le o f the accompaniment both to p ro vid e v a r ia t io n above the

re p e t it io n s o f the o s t in a t o as w ell as to g ive an o v e r a ll sh a p e, that

i s , a f e e l in g of growth or d e c l i n e , to the p a s s a c a g lia as a w h o le .

In so d o in g , it is p o s s ib le for it to focus a t t e n t io n on larger u n it s

than that o f the c o n sta n t ly r e it e r a t e d o s t in a t o .

2 .3 .1 S e c t io n a liz a t io n

In most o f these p a s s a c a g lia s the accompaniment d i s t r i c t s from the

se c tio n a l c h ara cter o f the o s t in a t o by o ver lap p in g the r e p e t i t i o n s ,

fo r exam p le, Veter Grimes where the v a r ia t io n s on the v io l a theme not

only span sev era l statem ents o f the o s t in a t o , 'uut these v a r ia t io n s

usu a lly do n ot c o in c id e w ith the o s t in a t o r e p e t i t i o n s .

2 .3 .2 Accompaniment versus o s tin a to theme

The r e la t io n s h ip between th*« o s tin a to theme and the accompaniment is

not the same in a l l p a s s a c a g l i a s , and may even vary w ith in a j i n g l e

p a ssa ca glia . In the m ajo rity o f the p a s s a c a g lia s in t h i s s t u d y , the

accompaniment haa the dominant r o l e , w hile the o s t in a t o ia a rhythmic

a s well as a harmonic s u p p o r t, for exa m p le, Peter Crimea, t’.oye 'e Fludde.
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I t is p o s s i b l e , ho w ever, fo r the o s t in a t o to be the dominant

f a c t o r , an d t h i s o cc urs in the V i o l i n Concerto where the interest l ie s

in the v a r ia t io n s o f the o s t in a t o theme.

I t is a l s o p o s s ib l e that n e it h e r the o s t in a t o nor the accom pani­

ment dom inates the p a s s a c a g l i a , b u t that they en jo y a f a i r l y equal

r e l a t i o n s h i p , a s , fo r exam p le, in the Symphony for Cello and Orchestra

and the ’Agnus D e i " .

A fu r th e r p o s s i b i l i t y is a v a r ia b le r e l a t io n s h ip between the

o s t in a t o and the accompaniment w it h in the &amti p a s s a c a g l i a . T h is

approach i s i l l u s t r a t e d in the P ian o Con certo and Billy Budd.

2 .3 .3 Grouping

Grouping in to larger u n it s than th a t o f the o s t in a t o theme is

accom plished by the r e t e n t io n o f rhythmic p a t t e r n s in many o f these

p assa ca glia s, for exa m p le, the Pian o C o n c e r to , The Turn o f the Screw

and Noya 'a FI udde .

The use o f an accom panying theme to span s ev era l sta ten an ts o f

the o s tin a to is a ls o a means o f g ro up ing u sed by B r it t e n in sev era l o f

these p a s s a c a g l i a s . In the " D i r g e " the accom panying fugue theme serves

to focus the a t t e n t io n on a lo ng er u n it than that o f the o s t in a t o

t h e m *. In Peter Grimes each o f the v a r ia t io n s on the accompanying

v io l a theme spans s e v e ra l r e p e t it io n s o f the o s t i n a t o , and thus groups

the r e p e t it io n s o f the o s t in a t o in to la r g e r u n i t s .

By th® reappearance o f the same accompany ing theme, rhythm or

c o u nterp oin t a t a la t e r stag e o f the p a s s a c a g l i a , a sense o f return

and u nity i s c r e a t e d . In the Piano C o n c e rto , for exam p le, the

accompaniment to [Link] f i n a l statem ent o f the o s t in a t o r e c a l l s p rev io u sly

used accompanying c o u n t e rp o in ts and rhythm s. T h is restatem ent in a

condensed form o f much th a t has gone b e fo r e c r e a te s a f e e l in g of

rounding o f f on the d e c lin e o f the ar ch .

2 .3 .4 C on c lusio n s

In the m ajo rity o f these p a s s a c a g lia s the accompaniment has the

dominant r o le and ten d s to d is t r a c t from the r e it e r a t io n s o f the

o s t in a t o by o ver lap p in g it s r e p e t i t i o n s . Both them atic and rhythmic

group ing s a r e used to c re a te u n ity and c o h e s io n . T h is has a p receden t

in the p a ir in g o f v a r ia t io n s in the Baroque.

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3. MOTION FACTORS

3 .1 THE PARAMETERS

G rouping w ith in the accompaniment is a means o f c r e a t in g forward

momentum. Vario us d e v ic e s w it h in the o s t in a t o theme i t s e l f can als o

c re a t e forw ard im p etus, fo r exam p le, the use o f an open-ended theme,

rhythm ic m otives which g&n erate a m oto ristic e f f e c t , syncopation

w hich c r e a te s a f e e l i n g o f te n sio n and r e s t l e s s n e s s . In Peter Ginmea

the d evic e o f b eg in n in g each r e p e t it io n o f the o s t in a t o one b eat

e a r l ie r in the measure c r e a t e s rhythmic v i t a l i t y an d m otio n .

However, ap a rt from these minor fa c to rs which a f f e c t m otion,

the fa c to rs which ar e most d i r e c t l y r e s p o n s ib le fo r shapin g the

p r o f i l e o f the p a s s a c a g lia ar e the d e n s it y , t a n g e , dynam ics and rhythm.

3 .1 .1 D en sity

Changes in d e n s ity can be made p r o g r e s s iv e l y , ir r e g u la r ly o r in s t a g e s .

W ithin each p a s s a c a g l ia , how ever, one o f th es e methods u s u a lly

p re d o m in a te s.

When the changes are mad© in s t a g e s , these stag es freq uen tly

corresp on d with the r e p e t it io n s o f the o s t i n a t o , as for example in th©

Pian o C o n c erto , Ncye's Fludde and th© Symphony for Cello and Oroheatra.

In "D e a t h , be not p ro u d t" the stag es correspond with the st an zas of

the t e x t .

The use o f p ro g r essiv e changes occurs fo r example in the " D i r g e " ,

Peter Grimes and The Turn o f the Screw,

Itte most freq uen t d e n s it y p r o f i l e in these p a s s a c a g lia s in vo lves

the arch e ith e r in is o la t io n or uJbined w ith a r i s e or double r i s e .

Hone of these p a s s a c a g lia s e x h i b i t s the ir r e g u la r chan ges o f

d e n s ity which c h a r a c t e r iz e some twentieth- century p a s s a c a g l i a s , a s ,

for exa m p le, the p a s s a c a g lia from B e r g 's Wozzeok. These ir r e g u la r ly

c han gin g d e n s i t i e s are c re a te d by th© s k i l f u l c o n tr a s ts o f the vocal

and o rc h estra l resou rces o f the p i e c e .

3 .1 .2 Range

In most o f these p a s s a c a g l ia s , the lower extrem ity of range ii f a i r l y

con stant due to the presence o f an o s t i n a t o . Much more freedom o f

movement is a v a il a b l e in the upper e x t r e m it y . Most o f these passacag-

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l i a s show a g rad u al w id en in g or narrow in g o f the range c o n c e n t r a t io n ,

w h ile in o t h e r s , p ro g r e s s iv e c hange i s in te r s p e r s e d w ith sudden changes

o f range.

The p a s s a c a g lia from the P ian o Concerto is c h a r a c t e r iz e d by sudden

c o n tra sts o f r a n g e , w h ile in the Sy \ony for Cello and Orchestra not
o nly are there sudden c o n tr a s ts in range- span, b u t o\ere are als o

sudden s h i f t s in the area o f range c o n c e n t r a t io n . In b o t h these w o rks,

the use o f c o n t r a s t in g co lo u rs and te x tu r e s i s a means o f ir-intatriing

In t e n s it y a n a v i t a l i t y .

3 .1 .3 Dynamics

tine in crea ses and d ecr eases in th© o v e r a ll dynamic le v e l p lay a h ig h ly

form ative ro le in the o v e r a ll formal p r o f i l e o f a p a s s a c a g l i a . Motion

is c re a te d b y e i t h e r an in c re a se or decrease in lo u d n e s s . A s t a t ic

dynamic l e v e l s u s ta in e d over a long p e r io d w i l l ten d to thwart the

rowth p r o f i l e .

An in crea se in the dynamic lev el is u s u a lly p ro du ced over sev era l

statem ents o f the o s t in a t o . F urtherm ore, i t i s g e n e r a lly not produced

in one long p ro g r e ssiv e sw eep, b u t u s u a lly r e s u lt s from sev eral sm aller

risttfc each o f which reaches a p r o g r e s s iv e ly h ig h e r dynamic l e v e ? ,

A decrease in the dynamic le v e l can occur suddenly fo llo w in g the

' _ohpoint o f a r i s i n g p r o f i l e . In an arch p r o f i l e the red u ctio n in

the dynamic lev el tends to occur more s lo w ly , b u t i s , n e v e r t h e le s s ,

u s u a lly con cen tr ated w ith in a sho rter time-span than t h a t o f the

c tasc en do on the upward curve o f the a r c h .

In the p a s s a c a g lia s o f th is s t u d y , the changes o f dynamic lev el

most fr e q u e n tly occur in stag es w hich o fte n corresp on d with t’ie

r e p e t it io n s o f the o s t i n a t o . Each stage may span one or several

statem ents o f th.' o s t in a c o . F urtherm ore, there may b e a temporary

d ecrease in the dynamic le v e l w it h in an o v e r a ll r is in g p r o f i l e .

Examples oe. p a s s a c a g lia s in w hich the dynamic cnanges occur in stag es

are the Piano C o n c e rto , Peter Grimes, The Rape of Lucretia , Albert
Herring, Noye's Fludde and the S t r in g Q u artet n o . 3.
On o c c a s io n s , these longer stages o f dynamic motion are

e n liv e n e d by the use o f dynamic waves w ith in the st a g e s , as for exam p le,

in the p a s s a c a g lia s from the V i o l i n C on c erto , the "D ir g e ", "D e a t h , be

n ot p r o i d j ” , Billy Budd, the "Agnus D e i " and the Symphony for Cello

and Orchestra.
 26 J

Dynamic waves alone are u sed to shape the dynamic p r o f i l e o f the

p a s s a c a g lia from The Turn o f the Screw.

None o f these p a s s a c a g lia s u t i l i z e s the method o f g rad u al in c re a se s

an d d ecr eases in the dynamic le v e l in is o la t io n from any o ther m ethod.

In the contemporary p a s s a c a g lia l i t e r a t u r e , t h is method does o c c u r ,

ho w ever, fo r e xa m p le, in W e b e rn s’ s P a s s a c a g l ia , O p . 1.

3 .1 .4 Rhythm

In a l l these p a s s a c a g lia s the rhythm ic changes ar e made in stages which

v ery o fte n corresp on d w ith the r e p e t it io n s o f the o s t in a t o them e.

H ie s e st a g e s o f rhythm ic change form p a r t o f a la r g e r scheme o f e it h e r

g rowth or d e c lin e in rhythmic a c t i v i t y .

3 .2 INTERACTION OF PARAMtxftRS

In a p a s s a c a g lia the shapin g o f the formal p r o f i l e i s depen dent on the

in t e r a c t io n o f the p aram eters. B r it t e n ha® m anip u lated the v ar io u s

param eters in d iv e r s e ways in o rd er to c re a te a forward momentum.

The most o bv io us way in which to c re a te a g r a d u a lly r i s i n g p r o f i l e

i s to have a l l the param eters g r a d u a lly progress* in i n t e n s i t y . W ithin

t h i s o v s r a ll r i s i n g p r o f i l e some or a l l o f the param eters may pro gress

ir s t a g e s .

T h is very c lo s e c o r r e la t io n o f the param eters is demonstrated

in the p a s s a c a g lia from Peter Grimes, in which a l l the parameters

c o r r e la t e to form a g rad u ally r i s i n g p r o f i l e w ith a temporary h ig h p o in t

about one- third o f the way through the p a s s a c a g l ia .

In the p a a s a c a g iia of the " D i r g e " a l l the param eters c o r re la te to

form thfe upward curve o f the arch p r o f i l e . On the dcvnward c u rv e ,

ho w ever, there are sev era l ir r e g u la r surges o f rhythmic a c t i v i t y .

The rhythm d e v ia te s from the o v e r a ll p r o f i l e more freq uen tly

than the other p aram eters. It o ft e n slows down at the peak o f a

r i s i n g contour or an arch contour when the param eters o f d e n s ity and

dynamics are a t a h ig h p o in t . Examples o f such rhythmic divergen ce

occur in " D e a t h , be not p r o u d ! " , The Rape o f Luaretia, Billy Budd,

'’■**?<? Turn c f the Screw and iVoyc 'a Fludde.
On the o ther h a n d , it is o fte n l e f t to the rhythm to c arry op

the o v e r a ll p ro gress while the o ther param eters are a t a lo w p o in t, as

i s the c ase in the p a s s a c a g lia s from the V i o l i n Concerto and the

Symphony for Cello and Orchestra.

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to the downward c urve o f an arch p r o f i l e , the rhythm sometimes

shows an in crea se o f a c t i v i t y w hile the other param eters are d e c lin in g

a s for example in the p a s s a c a g lia s from the "Agnus D e i " , the "D i r g e "

and The Turn o f the Screw. In t h is way v i t a l i t y is m aintain ed on the

downward c u r v e .

An i n t e r e s t in g fe a t u r e o f the in te rr u p tio n o f the g rad u al r is e

p r o f i l e o f the p a s s a c a g lia in Albert Herring is the s t a g g e r in g o f the

in te rr u p tio n in the v ario us p aram eters so that the in te rr u p tio n is

le ss abrupt. In t h is ay v i t a l i t y a r d momentum a r e r e t a in e d during

th e i n t e r r u p t io n .

The p a s s a c a g lia s from b o t h Noye 'a Fludde and the "Agnus D e i " show

some s l ig h t d e v ia t io n s o f range on the downward c urve o f t h e ir arch

p r o f i l e s , as a means o f c r e a t in g c han gin g colo u r c o n t r a s t s .

3 .3 SENSE OF FINA LITY

By the end o f any p a s s a c a g l ia a c o n s id e r a b le _ ant o f momentum has

been b u i l t u p , the c h a r a c t e r is t ic s o f the o s t in a t o theme have become

em bedded, and a p a tte r n o f r is e or d e c lin e has b een e s t a b l is h e d .

A f e e l i n g o f c o n c lu sio n w i l l either have to be e s t a b l i s h e d d uring

the la s t few statem ents o f the o s t i n a t o , or by the a d d it io n o f some

other m a t e r ia l.

A d e c l in in g p r o f i l e in the f i n a l stag es o f a p a s s a c a g lia u sua lly

in v o lv es a d e c lin e in a l l the param eters w ith the o c c a sio n a l exc eption

o f the r a n g e . T h is d e c lin e w i l l , o f its e lf, fo llo w in g a p erio d of

h ig h i n t e n s i t y , c re a te a f e e l i n g o f com pletion .

A c o n clu sio n fo llo w in g a r i s i n g p r o f i l e is more d i f f i c u l t to

a c h ie v e , and the sense o f f i n a l i t y may need to b e e s t a b l is h e d by some

such d evic e a s the a d d it io n o f a coda or a short d e c l i n e , the connection

to new m a t e r ia l , or a b ro ad en ing o f rhythm or o f o v e r a ll tempo.

Of the t h ir te e n p a s s a c a g lia s an a ly se d in t h i s st u d y , n in e end

on a lowpoint o f the formal p r o f i l e w h ile the rem ain ing fo ur end on a

h ig h po in t. The rhythm is in v a ria b ly at a lo w po in t as a p ro cess of

b ro ad en in g is a most e f f e c t i v e way o f a c h ie v in g a f e e l in g o f f i n a l i t y

and c o n c lu s io n .

In the Symphony for Cello and Orchestra the long g rad u al r is e is

b ro ught to c o n clu sio n by the a d d it io n o f a short c o d a . Another

p a s s a c a g lia in t h i s study w hich wakes use o f a coda is that from Billy

 %

265

Budd, where the coda i s appended to the d e c lin e o f the arch p r o f i l e .

However, the d e c lin e o f the param eters on the downward curve o f the

arch p r o f i l e o f i t s e l f produces a f e e l in g o f c o n c lu s iv e n e s s , and the

coda in t h i s in sta nc e i s s u p er flu o u s to the c o n clu sio n o f the

p a s s a c a g lia i t s e l f and i s , in s t e a d , a short sweeping g estu re which

b r in g s Act 1 o f the o pera to a dram atic c l o s e .

W h ile the p a s s a c a g lia form o f i t s e l f does not in c lu d e any form

o f r e c a p i t u l a t i o n , n e v e r t h e le s s , fre q u e n tly a sense o f r e c a p it u la t io n

is c r e a te d by the return o f p r e v io u s ly u sed accompanying m ateria l above

the r e p e t it io n s o f the o s t i n a t o . T h is i s o ft e n accom panied by a

bro ad en ing o f the rhythm o f the o s t i n a t o , as fo r exa m p le, in the

p a s s a c a g lia s from the Piano C o n c erto , "Agnus D e i " and the S trin g

Qu artet no. 3 , a l l o f which have arch p ro file s.

In the “Dirge*' the o s tin a to i s used as a framing d e v ic e in that

the o pening unaccom panied statem ent is b alan c ed a t the end b y an

o & tin a to statem ent w ith very sparse accompaniment which fad es in to

o bliv io n .

The p a s s a c a g lia cam be c onnected to another movement, and in such

a c a s e , the need for f i n a l i t y is a v o id e d . In the p a s s a c a g lia from

Petti* Crimes, for exam p le, the long g rad u al r is e p lu n ge s st r a ig h t into

the enuu ing dram atic ac tio n o f the o p e r a . In the o r c h e s tr a l v ersio n

o f t h is p a s s a c a g l i a , ho w ever, there is a short coda rem in is cen t o f

the o pening v io la theme.

The a d d itio n o f a short d e c lin e to an o v e r a ll r i s i n g p r o f i l e is

another method o f e f f e c t i n g a s a t is fa c t o r y c o n clu sio n as is the case

in Albert Herring.

A g eneral bro ad en ing e f f e c t c re a te d by the slow ing down o f

rhythmic a c t i v i t y c r a red u ctio n in the o v e r a ll tempo is a ls o a means

o f c r e a tin g an e f f e c t i v e c o n clu sio n a s , fo r exam ple, in the Symphony

for Cello and Orchestra w h e r e , in the f i n a l statem ent o f the o s t in a t o

tbom e, the accompanying theme is p reso rted in much longer note values

than is the c ase at any other p oin t o f th is p a s s a c a g l ia .

An i n t e r e s t in g d ev ic e used on the downward curve o f the arch

p ro file in The Rape o f Lucreiia is the d is in t e g r a t io n o f the o s tin a to

themf , fo llo w in g which the p a s s a c a g lia d o v e t a ils Into the [Link]

dram atic a c t i o n .

T h u s , the fo llo w in g are the d evic n s u sed for e f f e c t i n g a

s a t is fa c t o r y c o n clu sio n in these p a s s a c a g l ia s :

 - the a d d it io n o f a short coda

- r e c a p it u la t io n (u s u a lly a s s o c ia t e d w ith an arch p r o f i l e )

- d i s in t e g r a t io n o f the o s tin a to theme

- the a d d it io n o f a short d e c lin e to an o v e r a ll r i s i n g p r o f il e

- the d o v e t a ilin g o f the p a s s a c a g l ia in to ano ther movement or

fu rth e r dram atic a c t io n .

A l l these methods o f e f f e c t i n g a c lo s e a r e u s u a lly a s s o c ia t e d

w ith a b ro ad en in g o f the rhythm.

4. FORMAL PLAN

The p a s s a c a g l i a , b e in g a monothematic form, does n ot have any c o n tr a s tin g

theme or s e c t io n s . I t i s n ot c h a r a c t e r iz e d by any major st ru c tu ra l

d i v i s i o n s b u t c o n s is t s in s te a d c f numerous se c t io n s (o s t in a t o r e p e t it io n s )

strun g together to form a c o n tin uo u s movement. I t i s fo r t h i s reason

t h a t the term "co n tin u o u s v a r i a t i o n " is u sed to d e s c r ib e the p a s s a c a g l ia .

As a p a s s a c a g lia movement p r o g r e s s e s , c e r t a in con to urs w i l l a r is e

r e s u l t in g from the in te r a c tio n o f the p aram eters and these contours

form the o v e r a ll r i s i n g or d e c lin in g in t e n s it y p r o f i l e .

An exa m in atio n o f the p a s s a c a g lia s in t h i s study re v e a ls that

in c r e a s e s in in t e n s it y are sp read over longer p e rio d s o f tiiae than are

the d ecr eases o f i n t e n s i t y . An unaccom panied or sc a n tly accom panied

o pening fo llo w ed by p ro g r e ssiv e growth in both d e n s it y and dynamics

in the accompaniment w i l l c re a te a r i s i n g p r o f i l e . T h is r i s i n g p r o f il e

may e i t h e r be brought to a c o n clu sio n a t it® h ig h p o in t , o r i t way be

f a llo w e d by a f a i l i n g p r o f i l e , in which c ase an arch- lik e shape w i l l

result. I t i s al'-*o p o s s ib l e fo r both the r i s e and arch shapes to be

com bined to produce a more complex p r o f i l e .

Below i s a l i s t of the p r o f i l e s o f the p a s s a c a g lia s in t h is st u d y .

 26 7

Ex. 5: P a s sa c a g lia p r o f i l e s

Arch R is e w ith In te r ru p tio n

"D i r g e " P e te r Grime3

The Rape o f Luaretia " D e a t h , be not p r o u d i"
The Turn o f the Sa'ew Symphony for Cello and
Noyh r8 Fludde Orchestra
"Agnus D e i "
S t r in g Q uartet n o . 3

R is e p l u s Arch Double R is e p lu s Arch

Piano Concerto V i o l i n Concerto

M o d ifie d r is e Arch p l u s Rise

Albert Herring Billy Budd

The arch p r o f i l e predom inates in the p a s s a c a g lia s under st u d y .

In a l l these arch p r o f i l e s the peak occurs in the second h a l f o f the

p ro file so that the contour is in a state o f r is e fo r a longer p e rio d

than i t is in a state o f d e c l i n e .

The r i s i n g p r o f i l e , on the other h a n d , g iv e s g reat er opportunity

fo r a v a rie ty o f treatm ent in th a t the r is e n-ay be in te rr u p te d d uring

it s cou rse or it may even be fo llo w ed by a second r i s e .

The com bination of the arch p r o f i l e w ith a r i s i n g p r o f i l e occurs

only o c c a sio n a lly in th is group o f p a s s a c a g l ia s .

4 .1 LARGES FORM

During the tw en tieth c e n t u r y , composers have g e n e r a lly tended to veer

away from the Baroque p r e fe r e n c e o f composing p a s s a c a g lia s as in d e ­

pendent p i e c e s , and tl > m ajo rity o f twentieth- century p a s sa c a g lia s

form p a rt o f multi-movement w orks.

The fo llo w in g ar e examples o f in dep en den t twentieth- century

p a ssa c a glia s:

N ,V . B er tzo n , P as sac ag lia for P ia n o , O p . 31 (1944)

A . C op lan d, P a s s a c a g lia for Piano (1922)

K. Jep peson , P a s sa c a g lia for Organ (1965)

F. M a rtin , P a s sa c a g lia for Organ U944)

A . W ebern, P a s s a c a g lia for O r c h e s t r a , O p . 1 (190 8)

S. Wolpe, P a s s a c a g lia for P ia n o , from Four Studies for Piano on

Basic P o w ( 203 5-1936) .

 268

The i n t e r e s t !* g fe a t u r e o f these independent p a s s a c a g lia s is that

the m ajo rity o f them are w rit ten fo r the medium o f keyboard in stru m ents.

The ju x t a p o s it io n o f the p a s s a c a g lia w ith tne fugue occurs

o c c a s io n a lly in twentieth- century lit e r a t u r e a s , fo r exaraple, in the

Passacaglia- Fugato of H in d e m ith ’ s S tr in g Q uartet n o . 4 , where the

fu ga to f u l f i l l s the fu nc tio n o f a c o d a ; in the P a s s a c a g lia of

H in d e m it h 's sytqphony Die Ham onie d@r Welt where the p a s s a c a g lia is

preceded by an in troductory fu g u e ; the Passacaglia- Fugato f in a l

movement o f W a lt o n ’ s Symphony n o . 2.

B r itte n has n ot made use of the ju x t a p o s it io n o f the p a s s a c a g lia

and fu g u e . He h a s , ho w ever, combined the two forms o f p a s s a c a g lia

and fugue w it h in one movement in the " D i r g e " .

A l l the p a s s a c a g lia s in th:.s study are a s s o c ia t e d w ith other

movements. Many o f them are s it u a t e d a t or very n ear the end o f these

w o rk s, fo r exam p le, the V i o l i n C o n c e rto , “ D e a t h , be n ot p r o u d ! " , the

Symphony for Cello and Orchedtrc\ The Rape o f Luar&tia, w h ile others
are more c e n t r a l l y situated, for e xa m p le, Peter Grimes, the "D i r g e " and

ffoye 'a Fludde.

P a s s a c a g lia s u sed a t or near the end o f multi-movement: works g ive

the o pp o rtu nity for a return and co n firm atio n o f to n a lit y as w ell as

o f p r e v io u s ly used them atic m a t e r i a l . Both the o s t in a t o i t s e l f as

w ell as the accompaniment may be th em atic ally lin k e d w ith e a r l ie r

movements, a s , for e xa m p le, in the Symphony for Cello and Orchestra

and the St t in g Q uartet n o . 3.

When a p a s s a c a g lia occurs in * more c e n t r a l p o s it io n in a m u lt i­

movement w o rk, it i s freq u en tly the fo c a l p o in t around which the tonal

c e n tr e s o f other movements tend to g r a v i t a t e , fo r example Peter Grimes .

In t h is p a r t ic u la r i n s t a n c e , both the o s t in a t o and accompaniment are

b ased on the key motive o f the o p e r a . I t rep res en ts the tu rn in g p o in t

o f the work a ft e r which G rim e s’ s journey to s elf- d es tru ct io n becomes

in ev jtab le.

4 .2 RELATION OF LARGER FORM TO INTENSITY PROFILE

There ap pears to be no d ir e c t c o r r e la t io n between the in t e n s it y p r o f i l e

used and the placem ent o f th** p a s s a c a g lia w ith in the larger form.
 269

Ex. 6 : Location of passacaglias and intensity profiles

P ian o Concerto C en t ral R ise + Arch

V i o l i n Concerto Old Double Ris«* + Arch
“D ir g e " C en tral Arch
Peter Grimes C en tral Rise
"D e a t h , be n ot p r o u d !" End Rise
The Rape of luoretia Near end Arch
Albert Herring Near end Rise
Billy Budd C en tral Arch ♦ Risci
Th® Turn of the Sarew Near end Arch
Noye*a Fludde C en t ral Arch
'Agnus D e i" Near end Arch
Symphony fcr Cello and Orchestra End R ise
S t r in g Qu artet n o . 3 End Arch

Arch c ontours and r i s i n g p r o f i l e s occur in both c e n t r a l and f i n a l

p o s it io n s T h u s , B r itte n has n ot fav o ured a p a r t ic u l a r type o f p r o f i l e

fo r a p a r t ic u la r p o s it io n w ith in a multi-movement work.

He h a s , how ever, shown a p r e fe r e n c e in the p la c in g o f h is

p a s s a c a g lia s w ith in multi-uovemant w o rks, in th a t they e it h e r occur in

a more or le s s c e n t r a l p o s it io n or a t or n ear the end o f the work. At

no time is a p a s s a c a g lia used as an in tro d uc co ry movement or in the

e a r ly stag es o f a lar g er form.

4 .3 CONCLUSIONS

In the p a s s a c a g lia s under st u d y , B r it t e n has shown a p r eferen ce fo r

the arch-type p r o f i l e re g ar d less o f the p o s i t i o n o f the p a s s a c a g lia

w it h in the o v e r a ll tramework o f the larger c o m po sitio n .

W it h in the lar g er formal fram ework, B r it t e n has fav o ured a

c e n t r a l or f i n a l p o s it io n for the p a s s a c a g lia movements. In <» c e n tr a l

p o s it io n the p a s s a c a g lia freq u en tly has a s t a b i l i z i n g in flu e n c e and

tends to fu nctio n as a fo ca l p o i n t , w h i l e , when used as a [Link] move­

m ent, it has a c on firm ing f u n c t i o n .

 CHAPTER 16

CONCLUSION

1. REVIVAL OF THE PASSACAGLIA IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

The fa c t th a t o s t in a t o forms demand an e s s e n t i a l l y c on tra pu n tal type

o f treatm ent is one p o s s ib le reason fo r them f a l l i n g in t o d is u s e a f t e r

the Baroque p e r i o d . H ie c l a s s i c a l and romantic composers had a more

homophonic appzoach to com position and c on tra pu n tal treatm ent was

used p r im a r ily as a means o f te x t u a l c o n tr a s t and developm ent.

It i s in t e r e s t i n g , t h e r e f o r e , th a t the c o n tra p u n tal approach to

com position d ur in g the e a r ly tw en tieth c entu ry b rought w ith it a

r e v iv a l o f the o s t in a t o type o f v a r i a t i o n .

In t h i s r e g a r d , Leon S t e in echoes an o p in io n o f C ur t S ac h s:

What s ig n i f i c a n c e i s to be found in the f a c t th a t i t is

in the p a st three d ecades th a t the r e v iv a l o f th©
p a s s a c a g lia has o ccurred? In the answer to t h i s q uestio n
we fin d an in t e r e s t in g corro bo ratto n o f the hy p o th es is
suggested by C urt S achs in 'T he Commonwealth o f A r t * ,
where the terms ''ethos'* and "p a th o s" ar e u sed to
d e sig n a te the two b a s ic c o n t r a s t in g types o f exp ressio n
c orresp on d ing roughly to the a n tin o m ies o f o bjectiv e-
s u b j e c t i v e , or c la s s ic - r o m a n tic . The p atho s types
in v a r ia b ly fo llo w the ethoa ty p e s, in both sm aller and
larger c y c l ic p a t t e r n s . Thus in th© same p e r i o d , for
exam ple, the c l a s s i c , the e a r l i e r phase ^Haydn) tends
towards the e t h o s , the la t e r (Beethoven) towards the
pathos ty p e . In the p atho s m u sic , . . . there is a
g re a t e r r e l a t iv e p ro po rtio n o f lower and b ass- lin e
m elody. T h e r e fo r e , i t is o f In t e r e s t to note that
the r e v iv a l o f the p a s s a c a g lia occurs d u r in g the second
q u a r te r o f the tw en tieth c e n t u r y , when exp e rim e n t a l,
motoric and anti-rom antic music g ra d u a lly y i e l d to a
more e x p re s siv e use o f the d e v ic e s e s t a b l is h e d in the
e a r ly decades c f the c e n t u r y . The p a s s a c a g l i a ,
d evelo p ing w ith in t h is p h a s e , us a bass-melody form ,^
o f f e r s a fu rther c orro bo ra tio n o f the Sachs theo ry .

1 L Ste in , "The P a s s a c a g lia in the T w en tieth C cm tu ry ,"

Muetio and uette r>a, 4 0 , N o . 2 < 1 9 5 9 ), p . 153.
2. POSSIBLE REASONS FOR B R IT T E N 'S USE OF THE PASSACAGLIA

2 .1 FREEDOM W ITH IN CLEARLY DEFINED L IM IT S

The p a s s a c a g lia form p resen ts a very strong c o n str u c tio n a l p r i n c i p l e .

On the one han d , it allo w s fo r constant repetition, w hile on the o ther

hand, i t demands c on sta nt v a r i a t i o n . The p o s s i b i l i t i e s fo r co n tra st

depend for the most p a rt on the chan ges w hich occur in the accompanying

m a t e r ia l s . T h is c on tra sc is e s s e n t ia l in v iew o f the unwavering

r e p e t it io n o f the o s t in a t o .

The p a s s a c a g l i a , t h e r e f o r e , allo w s fo r tremendous freedom , w h ic h ,

n e v e r t h e le s s , i s c o n ta in e d w it h in c l e a r l y d e l in e d l im it , so that the

p o s s i b i l i t y o f the freedom o eg en er atin g in t o fo rm lessn ess i s o b v ia t e d .

The to nal and rhythmic s t a b i l i t y o f the p a s s a c a g lia theme impart a

u n i t y , cohesion and symmetry to the o v e r a ll form.

2 .2 LINK WITH TRADITION

As a n eo - clas sic al com poser, B r it t e n tended to work w ith in the context

of t r a d it io n a l forms w hich he Imbued w ith a new l i t e .

T . S . E l io t has commented on t r a d it io n and the a r t i s t as f o l l o w s :

Thore is . . . something o u t sid e o f the a r t i s t to which

he owes a l l e g i a n c e , a d evo tio n to which he must surrender
and s a c r i f i c e h im self in o rd er to earn and to o b t a in h is
unique p o s i t i o n . A common in h e rita n c e and a common cause
u nite a r t i s t s c o n sc io u sly or u n c o n s c io u s ly : it roust be
adm itted that the union is m ainly u n c o n sc io u s. Between
the true a r t i s t s o f any time there i s , I b e l i e v e , an
unconscious community. A n d , as our i n s t in c t s o f t id in e s s
im peratively command us not to leave to thw hap hazard of
u nc onscio usness what we can attempt to do c o n s c io u s l y ,
we are fo rced to con clu de that what happens u nccn sciou sly
we c ou ld b rin g a b o u t , and form in to & p u rp o se, i f we made
a c on sc iou s a t te m p t. The necond-rate a r t i s t , o f c o u r s e ,
cannot a ffo r d to surrender h im se lf to any common a c t i o n i
for h is c h i e f task is the a s s e r t io n o f a l l the t r i f l i n g
d if f e r e n c e s which are h i s Jistinctio n ,* only the man who
has so mucn to g iv e that he can forget h im se lf in h is 2
work can a ffo r d to e l a b o r a t e , to e x c h a n g e , to c o n t r i b u t e .

T . S . E l i o t , "T r a d it io n and the In d iv id u a l T a l e n t " ( 1 9 1 9 ) ,

in T . S . E l i o t , Util noted Essays, 2nd a d . ( 1 9 3 4 ; rpt. London: F abor,
1 9 80), p . 24.
 272

B r itte n h im self h a s comnentcd on h i s aw areness o f t r a d itio n s

I can o nly work / t a l l y '©cause o f the t r a d it io n I *ra

co n sc io u s o f b e h in d me. . . . 1 c a r r o t und erstan d why one
should want to r e j e c t the p a s t . . . . I on g iv e n strength
by th a t t r a d i t i o n . I know i t cht*/»yti — o f course
t r a d it io n s c h a n c e . But the [Link] b e in g rem ains
c u r io u s ly the same.

2 .3 NEED FOR UNITY AND COHESION

D u r in g the n in e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , the i n t e r n a l formal d i v i s i o n s were not

alw a ys c l e a r l y d e f i n e d . W h ile g r a a t v a r ie t y in the len gth o f p e r io d

was cornuon in the C l a s s i c a l s t y l e , n e v e r t h e le s s the b eg in n in g a n d , in

p a r t i c u l a r , the end o f these p e r io d s was alw a y s c l e a r l y d e f i n e d by

th e harmony as w ell as the rhythm an d m elody.

D uring the n in e t e e n t h centu ry the ise o f expanded t o n a lit y w ith

freq uen t m odulation and c hro m aticism , com bined w ith the p r i n c i p l e o f

c o n tin uo u s development and tran sfo rm atio n o f a l l m usical d im ensions

le d to a weakening o f the in te r n a l fo n ea l d i v i s i o n s . C o n se q u e n tly ,

music ten d ed to d evelop into a co n tin u o u s stream (b a se d on a l l the

p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f f u l l y chrom atic har m o n y ), and the dem arcation o f the

p e r io d o r p hrase en d in g s became more a r d more e l u s i v e . T h is approach

to c o n p o sit io n led to i weakening o f the in te r n a l form al d i v i s i o n s .

In the tw en tieth c e n t u r y , one o f the g re a t e st problem s c o n fro n tin g

ato n al composers was the lack o f c o h es io n w ith in th e s e works which

n e c e s s it a t e d an extreme b r e v it y o f le n g t h .

W hile B r itte n is not an at o n a l composer by any m eans, n e v e r t h e ’ « s s ,

h is use o f an expanded t o n a lity r e s u lt s in a weakening o f the to nal

fo rce. W h ile the t o n a lit y may be e v id e n t on p a p e r , it may n e v e r th e le ss

elu de the l i s t e n e r . T h u s , w h ile h i s music is t o n a lly o r ie n t a t e d ,

n e v e r t h e le s s , it is d e s ir a b le th a t at important st r u c t u r a l p o in t s of

a work the t o n a lit y be c l e a r l y d e f i n e d .

The advantage o f the p a s s a c a g lia is that it p ro v id es the composer

w ith alm ost u n lim ite d freedom w h ile a t th s same tii p r o v id in g cohesion

through the c on sta nt r e p e titio n o f a to nal impulse in the o s t in a t o .

T h is freedom a llo w s the accompaniment to take o f f in an i n f in it u d e

of d ifferen t t ire c tio n s.

3 C. P alm er, ed , The Britten Companion (London j Faber, 1 9 8 4 ),

pp. 95- 96.
 273

F urtherao re, the i n e v i t a b i l it y o f the re p e t it io n * o f the o s tin a to

g en e r a te s tremendous t e n s i o n , and t h is makes the p a s s a c a g lia a

p a r t ic u la r ly s u ita b le form fo r use as the c lim a c tic or f i n a l movement

o f a mu1time mt w o rk. Not only does the c o n sta nt re it e r a t io n o f

a p a r t ic u la r to nal o r ie n t a t io n e s t a b l i s h a to n al c en tr e very f o r c i b l y ,

b it the p a s s a c a c lia a ls o a llo w s for the re t r r n o f previously- used

m ateria l both in the o s t in a t o and the accom panim ent, so th a t ic can

serve to draw t 'r the most s a l ie n t threads o f the work as a w h o le .

Ju rin g the Baroque p e r i o d , the o s t in a t o v a r ia t io n s were g e n e r a lly

in d iv id u a l self- co ntain ed p i e c e s . B r it t e n has used the p a s s a c a g lia

u s u a lly as p art o f a multimovement work whsre i t f u n c t io n s as a

c o n firm ing or s t a b i l i z i n g f a c t o r . Tho s t a b i l i t y ( t o n a l , r •’■uctural,

rhy thm ic, them atic) in h e re n t in the p a s s a c a g l ia i s u n r iv a l l e d by any

o ther m usical form.

2 .4 iuCCESS 1BILXTY TO THE LISTENER

Throucihout h is l i f e , B r ittu n showed tremendous aw areness o f the need

to communicate with the l i s t e n e r .

I d o n 't alw a ys f o P o w th© nev d i r e c t i o n s , and nor do I

always approve o f them, but that i s only p u re ly perso n al
to me. . . . I sometimes fe e l th a t seek in g a f t e r a new
language has be*, ^.oe more important than sa yin g what you
mean. I .ixrnn, I alw a ys b e l ie v e th a t language in a
means and n ot an e n d . . . . I m ean, why b ther to w r it e 4
your music down i f you d o n 't want to commuricate it?

H is g reat fo ndness of the v a r ia t io n form in g e n e r a l , and o f the

p a s s a c a g lia in p a r t i c u l a r , i s p o s s ib ly a r e s u lt o f h is awareness o f

the n * * d fo r a c c e s s i b i l i t y to the average l i s t e n e r .

The p a s s a c a g lia form , w ith it s c o n sta nt r e it e r a t io n o f a me’ odic

ostir*ato, provides the l is t e n e r with a thread by means o f which he is

g uidod through the m yriad o f v a r ia t io n s in the accompanying m a t e r i a l .

I t p ro v id es a balance between re p e t it io n and v a r ie t y .

J. TRADITIONAL APPROACH TO PASSACAGLIA

B r i t t e n 's approach to the p a s s a c a g lia form is b ased on the textbook

d e fi it io n s of the p a s s a c a g lia around 1900. His p a s s a c a g lia s are b ased

^ Palmer, p. 94.
 274

on a m elodic o & t in a t o w hich i s adhered to f a i r l y s t r i c t l y throu g hou t.

The importan ce and v a r ie t y o f the m ateria] which he u n fo ld s above the

o s t in a t o make any pronounced v a r ia t io n o f the o s t in a t o theme i t s e l f

u n n e c e s sa r y .
In o nly two p a s s a c a g l i a s , those from the V io l in Concerto and

The Tu.m of the Screw does B r it t e n adopt a s l ig h t l y fre e r approach

w h ic h , n e v e r t h e le s s , rem ains w it h in the bounds o f the t r a d it io n a l

p a ssa ca glia .

In the V i o l i n C o n c e r to , which is B r i t t e n 's f i r s t exc u r sio n in to

the p a s s a c a g lia form , w hile the contour o f the o s tin a to theme rem ains

c o n s t a n t , the rhythmic st ru c tu re i s n ot s t r i c t anO undergoes c o n sta n t

va: L a tio n , and the o s t in a t c theme i t s e l f is fre q u e n tly expanded so

th a t the leno-h o f the o s t in a t o theme is f l e x i b l e .

T h is le s s s t ric v approach to the p a s s a c a g lia form c o " l d p o s s ib ly

be e x p la in e d by the fa c t t h a t , a t ti.. *• com paratively e a r ly 5 tage of

h is coirtjositional c a r e e r , B r itte n may have found the s t r i c t p a s s a c a g lia

form too r e s t r i c t i v e , that he was u nable to work w it h in such c l e a r l y

d e fin e d l i m i t s . Q u ite ap a rt from t h i s , ho w ever, the foreground

: o s it io n o f the o s. .[Link] theme throughout most o f t h i s p a s s a c a g lia

r 'c & s s it a t e s a c e r t a in d e v ia t io n from the monotony o f it s s t r i c t

repc .^ z i o n .

In The Turn o f tne Screw, B r it t e n s t a r ts out w ith a b asic

o stin a to theme c o n s is t in g o f s ix p it c h e s . During the course o f the

p? s s a c a g lia the theme is expanded to in clu de till twelve p it c h e s o f the

[Link] •• for v a r ia t io n s given out at the seginning o f the o p er a. T h is is,

th«->»I'fore, another example o f the e x t e n s io n o f the o s t in a t o them e, b ut

th..', -irae, in d e a r l y d e f in e d stag es whirh sym bolize the gradu al

ti<|ht m in g o f the screw as the opera draws to it s c lim a x . Once a g a in ,

the U 'thmic structu re o f the o s t in a t o i s su b jected to c on stant

var:> *t an.

ir is id ea o f a l t e r in g the rhythmic st ru c tu re o f the o s t in a t o theme

car raced back to Bach and Handel who, how ever, re t a in e d the o verall

l e n o i o f the theme in t a c t . The rhythmic a lt e r a t io n s to ;>hich B r itten

has s u b je c t e d the o s t in a t o theme in the V io l in Conccrto and Ike Turn,

o f the Screw, however, do not presuppose an unchanging theme le n g t h .

4. GENRE

In c o n tra st to the Baroque p e r io d when the vast m ajo rity o f p a s s a c a g lia s

were keyboard works, B r it t e n has n ot c o n fin e d h is pag>sacaglias to any

p a r t ic u la r g e n r e . H is p a s s a c a g lia movements occur in h i s v oc al works,

o p e r a s , o r c h e s t r a l and chamber w o rks.

5. DEATH-RELATED PASSACAGLIAS

An i.n teres_ing fe a t u re o f the p a s s a c a g lia s in the voca1 works is that

they ’ re a l l a s s o c ia t e d w ith d e a t h , fu n c t io n in g e it h e r as a threno d y ,

a fore a r n in g o f imminent d e a t h , or as a m editatio n on d e a th .

Th 4 a s s o c ia t io n o f the form o f the p a s s a c a g l ia w ith g r i e f goes

back Lu the time o f M onteverdi (156 7-1643) when i t became the t r a d i ­

tio n a l form o f lamentos,

W hile extend ed dram atic r e c it a t iv e lamentos, a s e x e m p lifie d by
M onteverdi *s Lamento d 'Avianna (160 8) were in vogue u n t i l n e a r ly the

m iddle of the seventeenth c e n t u r y , a t the same time a s i g n if ic a n t

development in the ..reatraent o f [Link] was h e r a ld e d in M o n te v e r d i's

Ld-iento della rinfa from h is e ig h th book of m ad rig als (1 6 3 8 ). T his

lemento was c o n str u c ted over the descend in g tetrac hor d p a s s a c a g lia
bass.

Acco rd ing to E. Rosand " . . . i t <3 f u l l e x p lo it a t io n o f the a f f e c t i v e

im p lica tio ns o f the p attern a s s e r t e d a r e l a t io n s h ip between tetrachord

and lament th a t soon became fundam ental to the g e n r e ". ^

In the Ven etian opera repertory o f the 1640s there was a d e f i n i t e

a s s o c ia t io n between the tetrachord b asso o s t in a t o and the lamento.

T h is is con firm ed in C a v a l l i 's o peras which rep res ent the most

com prehensive su rv iv in g m usical documentation o f V en etia n opera from

1640- 1660. In h i s earliest, lamentos c a v a l i i adopted a r e c it a t iv e

a e t tin -. However a ft e r the lament o f A po llo in Gli amovi di Apo i I o

e di Daphne {1640) which was p a rtly a r e c it a t iv e s e t t in g and p a r tly

based on a desc end in g tetrac hord basso o s t i n a t o , C a v a l i i used the

desc en d in g tetrac hor d b ass in a l l h is lamentos. These lamentos were

u s u a lly p la c e d at the dram atic [Link]\ut o f the o p o ra , and were

c h a r a c t e r iz e d by slow tempo and t r ip le m etre.

E. Rosand, "L a m e n to ", The New Crwve I .jtionary o f Music and

Musicians, e d . S . S ad ie (Lon d on : M a cm illan , 1 9 8 0 ) , V o l . X , p . 4 1 3 .
 Lam&ntoa b ased e it h e r e n t i r e l y or in p art on the descend in g
tetrac hor d a ls o occur in c o l l e c t io n s o f a r i a s and c a n ta ta s from 1640

onwards b y composers such a s R o s s i , C a r is s im i an d C e s t i .

Lament a r i a s on a t etrac hor d b ass o o s t in a t o rem ained p op ular in

o p e r a s , o ra t o r io s and c a n ta ta s o f the lat e sev en teen th and e a r ly

eig h te e n th c e n t u r i e s . P u r c e ll's : Dido and Aeneas and The Fairy Queen,

fo r exam p le, both have Laments b ased or» a d esc end in g chromatic t e t r a ­

chord, Handel too h a s u sed s im ila r lament a r i a s in [Link] o p e r a s , fo r

exa m p le, in Orlando (1 7 3 3 ). The most freq u en t p o s it io n fo r these

lament a r i a s w i t h 2 the o v er all framework o f th e o pera was at the

d ram atic h ig h p o in t o f the o pera imm ediately p r io r to the r e s o lu t io n o f

the p l o t .

Perhaps the laost famous example o f a lament i s the o pening chorus

from j . s . B a c h ’ s c a n ta ta BWV 1 2 , Weinen, Klagen, Sorgen, Zagen (17 1 4 )

w hich is b ased on a d esc end in g chrom atic t e t r a c h o r d . T h is same move­

m ent, w ith a d i f f e r e n t t e x t , was su b sequ en tly used by Bach as the

"C r u c ifix u s" in h ia Mass in B . M in o r, BWV 232 m the late 1 7 4 0 's .

B r i t t e n 's d eath- related p a s s a c a g lia s a l s o fr e q u e n tly o ccur a t

the dram atic c lim a x o f the w crk, fo r exa m p le, the " D i r g e " from the

Serenade, " D e a t h , b e not p r o u d ! " from The Holy Sonnets o f John Donne,

Peter Grime8 , The Rape o f Luaretia, Albert Herring, The Turn o f the
Sorev, ftoye’s Fludde and the "Agnus D e i ’*.
In the p a s s a c a g lia s under st u d y , the fo llo w in g occur in d ir e c t

a s s o c ia t io n wx? leath:

- "D i r g e " from the Cerenad

- "D e a t h , be not p r o u d !" from The Holy Sonnets o f John Donne

- The Rape o f Lucre tia

~ Albert Herring
- The Turn of the Sorew
- Noye’a Fludde
- "Agnus D e i " from the War Requiem.

In both Peter Grimes and Billy Budd the p a s s a c a g lia movement is

a fo rew arnin g of imminent d e a th . In these irs ta n c e s th© r e l e n t l e s s

r e p e t it io n o f the o s t in a t o is sym bolic o f the i n e v i t a b i l it y o f d e a t h .

In Peter Crimea the p a s s a c a g lia movement, s it u a t e d as it is in a

c e n t r a l p o s it io n o f the work as a w h o le , marks the tu rn in g p o in t of

the opera a f t e r which G r im e s 's journey to s e l f d e str u c tio n becomes

 277

in ev ita b le. The p a s s a c a g lia from Billy Budd is a l s o s it u a t e d in a

c e n t r a l p o s it io n and foreshadows the i n e v i t a b i l it y o f B i l l y 's u ltim ate

d e str u c tio n by C ia g g a r t .

In Noye'is Fludde the p a s s a c a g lia movement r ep res en ts the r i s i n g

w aters o f the f lo o d a t the h ig h p o in t o f the work as a w h o l e . Here

the p a s s a c a g l ia mourns n ot only the lo as o f l i f e through the fl o o d ,

b ut a l s o the d \ ing to an o ld c o n sc io u sn e ss by those who su rv ived the

flo o d .

In view o f the e x p l i c i t r e l a t io n s h ip o f the p a s s a c a g lia o f the

S t r in g Qu artet n o . 3 to the opera Death in Venice , O p . 3 8 , 19 73,

through the p asaa ca gl •. i 's s u b t i t l e "La S e r e n i s s im a ", Peter Evans sees

t h i s movement a s a threnody both fo r the coaposex h im se lf and fo r

A sc henb ac h, the c e n t r a l fig u r e o f Death in Venice. 6 A s t h is S tr in g

Q u artet war w r it t e n in V e n ic e , the p a s s a c a g l ia can als o b e c onstrued

as lam enting the decay o f the c it y o f V e n ic e .

In the true n e o - clas sic al s p i r i t , B r itte n h a s worked w ith in the

framework o f the p a s s a c a g lia in it s ro le as a lam ent.

An i n t e r e s t in g fe a t u re o f these d eath- related p a s s a c a g lia s is

th a t tne o s t in a t o theme i t s e l f i s fre q u e n tly b ased on h ig h ly

s i g n i f i c a n t them atic m a t e r ia l.

In Peter Grimes, fo r in s t a n c e , the- o s t in a t o is b ased on the

Grim es motive which i s c e n tr a l to nh*> -.itire o p e r a . The use o f t h i s

p a r t ic u l a r motive as tha o stin a to of the p a s s a c a g lia c o u ld be a fore­

warning to Grimes that h is u ltim ate d e s tr u c tio n w i l l be s e l f - i n f l i c t e d .

In The Rape o f Luoretia , the o s t in a t o is f i t t i n g l y a com bination

o f both T a r q u i n i u s ’ s motive (the elem ent o f d es tr u c tio n ) and L u c r e t i a ' s

m otive (the d e s t r o y e d ) .

The p a n sa c a g lia in Billy Budd w hich is a fo rew arnin g to B il l y

o f the in e v i t a b i l it y o f h is d e str u c tio n by C ia g g a r t , h a s an o s tin a to

theme which is based d ir e c t ly on C ia g g a r t *s m otive.

6 . CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE PASSACAGLIA FORM

6 .1 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE OSTINATO THEMF.

B r it t e n has thrown o f f the Baroque c h a r a c t e r is t ic s o f fo u r or eight-

^ E vans, p . 34 7.
 278

m easure o s t in a t o them es, slow t r i p l e m etre, tr o c h aic rhythmic p attern

an d the tetrac hord i n f l u e n c e .

He has used a w id e v a r ie t y o f theme length-? r a n g in g from two

m easures to twenty s i x m easu res. He a ls o ra re ly u ses the favoured

t r i p l e metre o f the B a ro qu e, and h i s abandoned com pletely the Baroque

p r e fe r e n c e fo r troc haic rhythm.

An i n t e r e s t in g rhythm ic in n o v atio n o cc urs in Peter Crimea where

the o s tin a to occurs one b e a t e a r l i e r in the measure on each r e p e t it io n

so th a t the rhythm is imbued w ith tremendous v i t a l i t y and the r ep e­

t i t i o n s o f the o s t in a t o a r e grouped in to la r g e r u n i t s o f four s t a t e ­

ments ea c h .

W h ile the t r ito n e i s prom inent in many o f tnese them es, there is

no e v id en c e o f the in flu e n c e o f the t e t r a c h o r d .

6 ,2 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE TYPE OP ACCOMPANYING MATERIAL

Du r in g the Baroque p e r i o d , the p a s s a c a g l ia was e s s e n t i a l l y a monothemattc

form in which the o s t i n a t o , fu n c t io n in g a s the them e, was s u b je c t e d to

v ar io u s s e t t in g s above i t . B r i t t e n 's co n tra p u n tal in g e n u it y , hcw evec,

a llo w s the o s t in a t o to fu n c tio n m erely a s a fo u n d atio n Which supports

o th er themes or st ru c tu re s above i t . T h is use o f m u ltip le themes

re p re s e n ts a r a d ic a l d ep a rtu re from the monotheraatic p r a c t ic e o f e a r l i e r

p a s s a c a g lia com posers.

H is method o f ffoaturijv-, a g a in s t the g ro u n d , c o n tra stin g

them atic m ateria l o f eq ual im p o rtance, and m aintain ing
with m asterly s k i l l a f l u c t u a t in g p o la r it y between the
two, ar e what g iv e h i s p a s s a c a g lia s t h e ir rem arkable
e x p r e s s iv e fo rce and v i t a l i t y , an d alm ost c e r t a in l y
a r is e from the in t u i t i v e sense o f drama t h a t h a s made
him onp o f the foremost o pera composers o f our tim e . 7

6 .2 .1 C om bination of c o n tin uo u s v a r ia t io n s w ith theme an d v a r ia t io n s

The o stin a to s o f the p a s s a c a g lia s from both Peter Crimea and the

Symphony for Cello and Orchestra both support a theme w ith v a r ia t io n s

in the accompaniment.

In Peter Grimes the theme on w hich the v a r ia t io n s are b ased has

c e r t a in resemblances to the o s t in a t o i t s e l f . N e v e r t h e le s s , t h i s theme

and the subsequent v a r ia t io n s on i t s u c c e s s fu lly d iv e r t a t t e n t io n from

/ D . H a n d e l, " B r i t t e n 's Use o f the P a s s a c a g l i a ," Tempo, 94

(197 0) , p . 6 .
the o s t i n a t c , so that i t s d is c r e e t p resen ce fu n c tio n s as a rhythm ic

and harmonic support and a to nal an c h o r .

In th«s Symphony fo r Cello and Orchestra, the theme on which the

v a r ia t io n s in the accompaniment a r e b ased forms a stro ng c o n tra st

to the o s t i n a t o . Here a g a i n , B r i t t e n 's co n tra p u n tal in g en u ity has

e n ab led him to i u i l d a complex formal st ru c tu re above the o s t i n a t o .

6 .2 .2 Com bination o f p a s s a c a g lia an d fugue

W h ile d u r in g the Baroque p e r i o d , the p a s s a c a g l ia was freq uen tly

fo llo w e d by a fu g u e , n e v e r th e le s s in the combination o f these two

forms in the "D ir g e '’ from the Serenade, B r it t e n has c r e a t e d a h y b rid

c r o s s in g between the p a s s a c a g l ia and the fu g u e , which is probably

u niq ue in the p a s s a c a g lia l i t e r a t u r e o f the tw en tieth c e n t u r y . Th

o s t in a t o theme and the fugue su b je c t t e a r no r e l a t io n s h ip to each

other.

6 .2 .3 Com bination o f p a s s a c a g lia and canon

In the c e n t r a l p o r tio n o f the p a s s a c a g lia from The Rape o f Luoretia tne

o s t in a t o supports a fo u r p a rt canon which i s b a s e d on the o s t in a t o

theme i t s e l f , but which n e v e r th e le ss i s h an d led in such a way that

i t d iv e r t s a t t e n t io n from the c o n sta n t ly r e it e r a t e d o s t i n a t o . T h is

i l l u s t r a t e s not only B r i t t e n 's h ig h ly im a g ina tive co n tra p u n tal s k i l l ,

but als o the economy o f resources w ith which he was a b le to work.

6- 2 .4 Com bination o f m elodic and harmonic o s t in a t o v a r ia t io n

The p a s s a c a g lia in Albert Herring rep res en ts a unique com bination o f

the m elodic «*nJ harmonic typas o f o s t in a t o v a r i a t i o n . Here B r itten

com bines an unchanging m elodic b ass lin e with a con stant su cc ession

o f chords above i t . He has thua com bined the harmonic type o f o s tin a to

v a r ia t io n , which does not presuppose an unchanging b a ss lin e with

a s t r ic t m elodic o s t in a t o .

6 .2 .5 Use o f m ultip le themes

The accompaniment o f the p a s s a c a g lia from th * S ir in g Q uartet n o . 3 is

b aaed on two c o n t r a s t in g themes w hich occur in an ABA p a t t e r n .

 280

6 .2 .6 Shift of emphasis

B r i t t e n 's c on tra pu n tal s k i l l h a s cau s ed a s h i f t o f em phasis in the

p a s s a c a g l ia fr u a a v e h ic le fo r v it t u o s ic d i s p l a y on the p a r t o f the

p erform er d u r in g the Baroque p e r i o d , to a v e h ic le fo r the d is p la y o f

c o n tra p u n tal in g e n u ity on the p a r t o f the com poser. The l i s t e n e r ,

h o w ever, rem ains unaware o f t h i s co n tra p u n tal v ir t u o s it y and responds

o nly to the s p i r i t and the magic o f the music i t s e l f .

7. P OS ITION W ITHIN THE OVERALL FRAMEWORK

B r it t e n h a s u s e d h i s p a s s a c a g lia movements both in a c e n tr a l and a f i n a l

or n ear- fin al p o s i t i o n . When [Link] in - c e n t r a l p o s it io n h is p a s s a ­

c a g l i a s i'w- *s ti p o in t o f to n al an d rhythm ic s t a b i l i t y w it h in the

o v e r a ll in a f i n a l p o s i t i o n , on the other hand# they serve

to con£ i_ a l c entr e and them atic m a t e r ia l.

8. B R IT T EN ’ S ACHIEVEMENT

In the p a s s a c a g l ia s under s t u d y , B r itte n h a s igmonstrated d ra m a tic a lly

th a t the t r a d it io n a l means of m usical e x p r e s s io n a r e n ot o utda ted and

exhausted. He has been c a p a b le o f renewing o ld pro ced ures in w r it in g

m usic which i s u n d e r s t a n d a b le , re le v a n t an d m ean in g ful to the present-

day s o c ie t y . H-i achievem ent is well summarized by Robin Ho llo w ay:

T h i s o u s ic has the power to c on n ect the avantgarde

with the l o s t p a r a d is e o f t o n a l i t y ; it c on serves and
ren o vates in the b o ld e s t and s im p les t m anner; it
shows how o ld usag es can be r e fr e s h e d and remade,
and how the new can l.q saved from mere r o o t le a s n e s s ,
e t i o l a t i o n , lack o f c on n ectio n and com m unication. ®

® R . H o l l o w l y , ’’Benjamin B r it t e n : T r ib u t e s and M e m o rie s,"

Tempo, 120 (197 7) , p . 6 ,
 281

APPENDIX A

THE PASSACAGLIA PRIOR TO THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

1. SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES

1 .1 OR IGIN OF TERM ’

The p a s s a c a g lia was f i r s t documented in S p a in . In S p a n is h , it s name

i s paaaoalie from p a sa r, to w a lk , and cat l e , s t r e e t . The e a r l i e s t

known l it e r a r y Mention o f the word is in an anonymous pros« wcrk

Ftfeara «. u szina {160S) .

1. 2 EARLY SOURCES

The Nuova invention «? d ’ intavolatuva (16 0 6 ) o f Girolam o Montesardo was

the firs t It a l i a n t a b la * -e for the S pa nish g u i t a r . ^ I t c o n t a in s the

f i r s t extant example of a p a s s a c a g l i a . At the b e g in n in g o f h is book,

>nte«ardo pro vid es a long s e r ie s o f paszaaaglie on a l l the l e t t e r s of

the g u i t a r ’ s chord a lp h a b e t . For each t o n a l i t y , th a t is, l e t t e r , he

prr d e i two 1w , c o n s is t in g o f simple p a tte r n s on I-IV-V-I,

and wh.-rr. d i f f e r only m th r- [Link] p o s itio n o f the harm o n ies.

T hus, here, the p a s s a c a g lia is a short p iece in ch o r da l s t y l e ,

usu a lly two to fo-r ■m t r .p l e rr.t'tre and in e it h e r m ajor or

, 4
riun :>r kr*y .

Example ! !a) on p . JB2 •sh'-ws M O A trua rd o 's f i r s t example

for the key o f G. rri,ror, in d ic a te d in the It a l i a n t a h le tu r e by the

In view of the fact that B r i t t e n ' s use o f the p a s j a c a a l i a was

a conscious revival o f an h is t o r ic <1 fern , I deem it n eces sary to
tr a c e the o r ig in and hi st or y of the p a s s o c a q l ia .

^ In T t a l / during the f i r s t h a l f o f the sev en teen th c en tu ry a

m asculine noun was u s u a lly u sed : ' . . v., io Ln the s i n g u l a r , paeaaaagli
in the p l u r a l . S u b s e q u e n t ly , f e i m n i v •’ ndings became more common, thus
pasaaaaglia in the s i n g u l a r , p^so . • m the p l u r a l .

Quoted in T . W a lker, "Cia cc o na and P a s s a c a g l i a . " Journal o f the

American Muaicologiea? Society, 21 ,1 9 6 8 ) , p p . ^05-j06 .

4 W a lk e r, p . 306.
 23?

letter A . H is second example fox each key has a d i f f e r e n t rhythm

(see E x . 1 (b ) b e l o w ).

Ex. 1: G . M on to sardo , Nuova inventions d H n t a v o la tu m 5

(downward stems in d ic a t e downward stro kesj upward stams
in d ic a t e upward stro kes on the g u it a r )

a) " P r ima p a s s a c a g l i e , o r it o r n e l l o d e l prim© wodo sopra la l e t t e r a , A ”

iv v :

bj "D el secondo modo1’

i iv v 1

T h is sequence o f harmonic steps (I-IV-V-I) in t r i p l e metre remained

c h a r a c t e r is t ic o f the e a r ly p a s s a c a g l i a .

Almost every re fe r e n c e which Montesardo made to these form ulae was

phrased in some such way as "Passacaglia overo r i t o m e l l i " (paaaaaaglie

or r i t o m e l l i ) . 6 The a s s o c ia t io n o f these two terms b r in g s one to

the c o n clu sio n t h a t , to M o n tesa rd o, the elem ental passaaaglie were no

p ie c e s in th em selv es, but were o u t lin e s fo r im p ro visatio n fo r instrv

mental p r e l u d e s , in te r lu d e s o r p o a tlu d es in a r i a s and d a n c e s , and also

in instrum ental stage music a s accompaniment fo r e n t r i e s . T h is seems to

be the o nly feasib .j> e x p la n a tio n fo r the in c lu s io n o f a p a s s a c a g lia fo r

every t o n a l i t y , a procedure w hich does n ot occur w ith any o ther p iece

in the b o o k .

G tet i n t e r e s t in g exam ples o f p a s s a c a g lia s which fu nc tio ned as

r i t o m e l l i o cc ur in L . de B r i c « n o ’ s M4todo mui faailiaeimo (P a ris , 1 6 2 6 ),

^ Quoted in R . H udson, "The P a s sa c a g lia and Ciacco na in It a l i a n

Keyboard Music o f the 17th c e n tu ry ; Part i , ” The Diapason , 6 0 , N o . 12
(1 9 6 9 ), d , 23.

6 Hu d so n , "P a r t 1 ," p. 23.

 283

B. S a n s e v e r in o 's I I Primo libra d'intaoolat'iva per la ahitarra alia

apagnuola (M ila n , 1622) and G . S a n z 's [Link] de muaiaa sobr*> la

guitarra eapanola (S a r a g o s s a , 1 6 7 4 ).

Th».'™ . it would seem that at l e a s t u n t i l a ft e r 1625, the word

p a s s a c a g lia c o u ld be used as a synonym for r i t o m e l l o , and that it in

f a c t had no o ther m eaning in the p r in t e d sources o f the tim e.

F urtherm ore, ac co rd in g to Von F i s c h e r , it i s in th is lig h t of

fu n c t io n in g a s a r it o m ello that the p a s s a c a g lia s found in the operas

o f M onteverdi and the Ven etia n composers must be u nd ersto od . Sometimes

in these o peras the com poser, demands a r ito m e llo w itho u t w rit in g

an y th in g in n o t a t io n , b ut sim ply in d i c a t i n g "P a s s a c a g lio ". 9

As was the case w ith o ther r it o m e llo forms such as thfe sixteenth-

c entu ry ripresa where the b a s ic harmonic p ro gressio n was repeated

sometimes a s many as twenty tim e s, i t seems fe a s ib l e that the sin g le

I-IV-V-I p hrase s c o n ta in e d in the a lp h ab et s e r ie s g u it a r books were

intended to be rep eated sev era l tim e s. T h u s , the p r i n c i p l e o f o s t in a t o

re p e t it io n o f a s in g l e short harmonic phrase would a lr e a d y have been

p resen t in the e a r ly p a s s a c a g lia .

1 .3 THE CHACONNE

The chaconne o r ig in a t e d as a dance-aong in L a tin America and became

9
popular in Spain e a r ly in the seventeenth c e n t u r y . About 1600 it

rep laced the a arabanda as the most popular dance ir. S p a i n . I t was a

l iv e ly a n d , by a l l a c c o u n t s , a ra ther obscene d a n c e , and wis accom­

p a n ie d by the Spa nish g u i t a r , p e rcu ssion in stru m ents, auch as the

c a sta n e t s and tam bourines, as w ell as a sung tex t w ith r e f r a i n .

During the f i r s t quarter o f the seventeenth c e n t u r y , the S panish

g u it a r was p lay ed in an e x c lu s iv e ly strummed or chordal s t y l e , and the

most freq uen tly used harmonic form ula for the chaconne was I-V-vl-V.

’ Quoted in W aJker, p . 307- 309.

® K . von F is c h e r , 'P a s s a c a g l i a ," Mi4sik in Ueaahiohte und Geg en w avt ,

ed. F . Blume, V o l. X iti s s e l : B A r e n r e it e r , ! 96 2 } , c o l . 8 7 1 .
g
In S p a n is h , thr sp ell ing ts ehaaona in the s i n g u l a r , and ahaaonas
in the p l u r a l . In i t i l i a n , the s p e llin g is* oiaaonna in the «ting ;r ,
and inaccone in the p l u r a l .
T h i s form ula was spread over four m easures and in It a l y t h is four

measure p hrase o f chords was ap pa ren tly rep eate d a s an o s t in a t o for

every li n e o f th# t e x t . The g u it a r chaconnes were alm ost a l l in t r ip le

metre and in the m ajor k e y .

Ex. 2: E a r ly harmonic p a tte r n o f the chacorme w ith g u it a r chords and

r e f r a i n tex t (th# stems in d ic a te the d ir e c t io n in exec u t in g
the stro ke) 10

The m elody to which the tex t was sung seems to have been l o s t .

The e a r l i e s t p u b lis h e d p a s s a c a g lia s and chaconnes th er efo r e had

d i f f e r e n t fu n c t io n s . The p a s s a c a g lia s fu n c tio n e d as r lt o m e lll* w ith

the harmonic p ro gr essio n I-IV-V-t spread over tw o , three or four

m easures in v ar io u s rhythmic arran g em en ts. T h is harmonic framework

served a s a b a s i s fo r im p ro v izatio n fo r p r e l u d e s , in t e r lu d e s and post-

lu des in both major and minor k e y s.

The c h aco n n es , on the o ther h a n d , wore d^nce-songs b a s e d on the

harmonic form ula I-V-vi-V, and o c c a s io n a lly I-V-IV-V or I-V-ii-V.

Th® chaconne p hrase was c o n fin e d to the m ajor k e y , to t r ip l e metre and

to a f a i r l y f ix e d rhythmic stru c tu re w ith ac cen ted second b e a t .

1 .4 THE BAROQUE VARIATION PASSACAGLIA AMD CHACONNE

From the e a r ly elem ental p a s s a c a g lia s in which the [Link] phrase

I-IV-V-I was used as the b a s is fo r im p r o v iza tio n , i t was only a matter

o f time b e fo r e composers r e a liz e d it s o bv io us p o t e n t ia l as a b a s i s for

v ariatio n s.

As a b a s i s o f con str u c tio n in v a r ia t io n form s, the harmonic formula

had two p o s s i b i l i t i e s ! e it h e r the chordal struc tu re c o u ld be re t a in e d

as the b a s is o f the v a r i a t i o n s , o r the gaps between the b a ss n o tes o f

th© chords c ou ld be f i l l e d in raelodically to form a m elodic o s t in a t o .

^ Quoted in Hu d so n , "P a rt J ," p. 23.

 285

lo th these p o s s i b i l i t i e s were a p p lie d when, in the second quarter

o f the seventeenth c e n t u r y , the harmonic form ulae o f the p a s s a c a g lia

and chaconne bagan to form the b a s i s o f v a r ia t io n forms fo r g u i t a r ,

v o ic e and c o n tin u o , keyboard instrum ents and v ario us c on tin uo chamber

1 .4 .1 The e a r ly t h e o ris ts

The Baroque t h e o r is ts who are known to have commented on the p a s s a c a g lia

and chaconne were unable to a r r iv e at a c le a r d i s t i n c t i o n between

th e two form s, as it ap pears that the terms were used ra ther l o o s e ly ,

in d is c r im in a t e ly and in terc han g eab ly d u r in g t h i s p e r io d .

S . de Brossard p ro b a b ly o ased h is d e f i n i t i o n in 1703 on h i s

e x p erien ce o f French opera and the c l a v e c in p ie c e s o f the tim e:

PASSACAGLIO, v eut d i r e , PASSACAILLE. C 'e s t proprement

une Chaoone. V o y e z, CIACQNA. T oufe la d if f e r e n c e est
que le mouvement @n e s t o rd ina irem ent p l u s grave que
c eluy de ia Chaoone, le Chant plus ten/ire, & le s exp res sio n s
m i n e u v fu e e , c *est pour c e la que le s Paesaoai I les sont
p resque tovljours c r a v a i l l i e s sur d es Modev mineurs, c * e i t
k d i r e , dont la Mddiante n 'e s t iloigntie de la F in a l l e que
d 'u n e 3 s mi leure .

{Passacag lio means p a s s a c a i l l e , an d t h a t is in r e a lit y

a c haco n ne. (See c h a c o n n e .) The o nly d if f e r e n c e l ie s
in the fa c t that the movement of the P a s s a c a il l e s is
u s u a lly slower than that o f the c h a c o n n e , and the melody
more tender and the exp res sio n le s s l i v e l y . For th is
reason the p a s s a c a il l e s ar e almost always w ritten in
minor m odes, that i s , the >ode t i which the mediant is
a minor third above “he f i n a l .) * *

J . G . Walther *s d e s c r ip t io n in 1732 seems to have been b ased on

that o f Brossard:

P a s sa c a g lio o le r P ^s sag ag lio ( t t a l .) P a s s a c a ille 'g a l l . )

is t e ig e n t l ic h e in e C haconne. D^r g an tze Unterscheid
b e ste h e t d a r in n , d asa s ie o r d in a 're m e n t langsamer als
d ie Chaconne g e h e t , d ie M elodie m atthertzig er ( z i r t l i c h e r ) ,
und d ie Exp ressio n n icht so le b h a fft ist? und eben
deswegen warden d ie P a s s a c a ille n fa s t a l l e z e i t in den
Modis m in o r ib u s , d . i . in solchen Tone.i g e s e t z t , d ie e in e
weiche T e rtz h a b e n . s . B r o s s. D i c t i o n . Nach dem
D Ic t io n a ir e Etymdlogique des Manage is t es e ig e n t lic h
e in S p a n iis c h e r T e rm in u s, d e r , s in t der I ®it d ie Opern
in Fran ck reich aufgekommen, in d ie F ran tzd sjsch e Sprache
eirgeftlhret worden i s t , und so v ie l a ls Passe-ruti, einen
G as sen h au er, e in Ga3sen-Lied b e d e u t e t .

S. de B r ossard, Di a tivn 'iaiv e de Mnaique ( P a r i s , 17 03; rpt.

Amsterdam: A n .i q u a , 1 9 6 4 ) , a i g . UJV . T r a n s la tio n by P .C . S tro u x.
 286

(P a ss a c a g lio or p a s s a g a g lio ilta l ) , p a s s a c a il l e {French)

is r e a lly a c haco n ne. The whole d i ffe r e n c e c o n s is t s in
that the p a s s a c a g lia is u s u a lly s^-wer than the c haco n ne,
the m elody more tender and the e x p re s sio n not as l iv e ly
and for t h is reason the p a s s a c a g lia i „ always in minor
k e y s , that i s , k ey s w ith a minor t h i r d . (Sea B r o s p a rd ,)
A cco rd ing to the Dictionaire tlymologique by Manage?, the
word is in r e a l i t y a Spanish t«?rm which has been i n t r o ­
duced in France and it meaxis the same as Passe-rue which
means a st r e e t s o n g .) ^

The th e o r is t J . M attheson in 1739 a l s o commented on the

p a ssa ca glia:

. . . the d i s t i n c t i o n between t*>e chaconne and tha

p a s s a c a il l e c o n s is t s in fo u r th in g s which one cannot
e a s i l y ig n o r e . These fo ur c h a r a c t e r is t ic s are the
f o llo w in g : T h at the chaconne proceeds more d e lib e r a t e ly
and slowly than the p e s s a c a i l l e , not the o ther way
a .'iun d j th a t the former p r e f e r s the ma3or k e y s , w hile
the l a t t e r p r e f e r s the m inor; that the p a s s a c a il l e is
never used in s i n g i n g , lik e th ? c haco n ne, b ut o nly for
d a n c in g , hence n a t u r a l l y has a q uic ker movement; and
f i n a l l y , th a t the chaconne h a s a c on stant b a ss theme,
w h i . , f.h'* qh one o c c a s io n a lly d e v ia te s from it for
vail*.--ion and f>~. t f a t i g u e , soon reappears and m aintain s
it s p o s i t .o n ; w hile on the o th e r hand the p a s s a c a il l e
is r e s t r ic t e d to no d e f i n i t e s u b je c t , and r e t a in s
almost n o t rin g e l s e o f the chaconne than the mere
Mouvement, tnouyh sonewhat a c c e le r a t e d For these
reaso ns one has goo J cause to g iv e the p a s s a c a ille
preferen ce over the chaco n ne. ^

Mattheson is of the o pin io n that the p a s s a c a g lia has no d e f i n i t e

s u b je c t , but that the chaconne has "a con stant b a ss theme” . W hile no

o ther th e o r is t o f the time seems to have shared h i s v ie w , chaconnes

and p a s s a c a g lia s can be found which g iv e credence to t h is v ie w p o in t .

One example is the Chaconne in D minor fo r organ by J . Pachelbel

(1653-1 706) .

Muoika 1ioahee lexicon C e i p z i g , 1 7 3 2; rpt.

K a s s e l: B A r e n r e it e r , 1953)., p p . 46 4 - 4 6 5 . T ra n sla tio n by P . C . S tr o u x .

^ J . M attheso n, Der* Vollkormene Capellmeistev (Hamburg: 17 39),

t r a n s . E .C . H a i r i s s (Ann A rb o r: UMI Research P r e s s , 1 9 8 * / , p p . 46 5- 46 6.
 287

14
E s . 3; J. P a c h e lb e l, C iac on a in D m ino r, mm. 1-9

As a n exe ■>£ a p a s s a c a g lia w ith no d e f i n i t e b ass theme, one

may c it e the P. 3 **opra P a s s a c a g li from I I Seaondo Lihvo di T

(16 2 7 ) o f G . F re sc o b a ld i (1 5 8 3 - 1 6 4 3 ).

J.
P a c h e lb e l, C iacon a in D m in o r, in J . F-achelbel, Selected
Organ Works, V o l . 1, e d . K. M a t t h a e i, 4t h e d . {B a se l: B S r e n r e it e r ,
n .d .), p. 46.
 288

15
Ex, 4; G . F ro s c o b a ld i, P a r t it e sopra P a s s a c a g l i, mm. 1-9
(notas form ing p art o f the d esc end in g tetrachord ar e marked *)

On c lo s e r ex a m in a tio n , how ever, it is e v id e n t t h a t , w hile there is

no s t r i c t b asso o s t i n a t o , the as cen d ing or d esc end in g d ia t o n ic tetrachord

is the u n ify in g f a c t o r . At any given p o in t in the w o rk, the d ia t o n ic

tetrachord is p r e s e n t , u s u a lly in It s d esc end in g form, b ut o c c a sio n a lly

in it s ascen d ing form . Cm occasions* i t ir c o n sid e ra b ly d i s g u i s e d ,

w hile at other tim es it is f a i r l y o b v io u s . Mattheson may have c o n sid e re d

such a p ie c e to be without a theme.

The p assa ca ille- ro n dea ux o f the French com posers, where much of

the m a te ria l which occurs between the rondeau theme ap pearances c ould

be [Link]* as "t h e m e ie s s " , might a ls o have been in M actheson ' s m ind.

An example o f such a work is the P a s s a c a g lia in G minor for organ by

Georg M u ffa t (1 6 5 3 - 1 7 0 4 ). 16

Matheson m ight als o have regarded a chordal p ro gr essio n as being

without a them e, as in the fo llo w in g P a s s a c a g lia in G minor by G .F . Handel.

G. F resc n b a ldi., Pa r tite sopra P a s s a c a g l i, from 1 1 Seaondo Libra

di Toceate, Canzone, . . . di oimbalc et organo di Girolamo Fresoobaldi
( 1 6 2 7 ) , in Corpus o f Early Keyboard Music , V o l . XXX, e d . W .R . Sh in dle
( n .p .: American In s t it u t e o f M u sic o lo g y , 1 9 6 8 ) , p . 46,

^ G . M u ffa t , P a s s a c a g l ia , in Historical Anthology of Musio,

V o l . I I , e d s . A , T . Davison and w. A pel (Cam bridge, M a ssa ch u setts :
Harvard U n iversity P re s s, 1 9 5 0 ! , p . 1 1 3.
E x. 5: G .F . H a nd el, P a s s a c a ille from S u it e n o . 7 , 1 7 mm. 1-4
(noces marked * form part o f the descending tetuachord)

However, in t h is txaraple, the d esc end in g tetrac hord is c l e a r l y

e v iden t.

CM the other hand an eq u a lly strong case can be n a^ 'o r the

argument that a p a ssa c a g lia does have a d e f i n i t e them e. An example of

such a P a s sa c a g lia is that for v io l in so lo in G minor b y H . i . F . B ib e r

(1 6 4 4 - 1 7 0 4 ).

18
Ex. 6 : H .I .F . Bii ->r, P as sac ag lia for V io l in S o lo ,

* 7 G.F'. H a n d e l, Pass.-.-aille from S u it e n o . 7 , in G . F . Hand el,

Klavien)erke 1, e d . R . S t«g l ich (K a s s e l: M r e n r e ite r) , 1955, p . 6 9 .

^ H .I .F . B ib e r , P as sac ag lia for V i o l i n S o lo , in K . von F is c h e r ,

The Variation (C o lo g n e : Arno Volk V e r la q , 19 6 2 5 , p . 7 1 .
 290

From an exam ination o f the p a s s a c a g lia s and chaconnes of

M a t t h e s c n 's tim e, it is e v id e n t that the composers had a great v a r ie ty

o f approach to these two fo rm s, and o ften used the terms in d is c r im i­

n ately .

1 .4 .2 L ater d e f in it io n s

Jean Jacques R o u s s e a u 's comments on the p a s s a c a g lia in 1 7 6 3 , seem to

be b a s e d on B r o s s a r d ’ s d ic t io n a r y o f 1703i

PA SSACAILLE. s .f . Esp&ce de Chaconne dont le Chant e s t

p lu s tendre & le mouvement p lu s le n t que dams les
Chaconnes o r d i n a i r e s . (Voyez C h a c o n n e .) L es P a s s a c a ille s
d ’ Armide & d'Iss<S sont c d ld b r e s d an s I ’ Op ^ra F r a n c i s .

( P a s s a c t i i l e , n o u n , fe m a le . A type o f chaconne o f which

the melody is more tender and the movement more alow than
in the normal c haco n ne. (See C h a c o n n e .) The p a s s a c a il l e s
from Armide and IssǤ ar e famous in French o p e r a .) ^

S in ce the time o f Birossard’ s d e f i n i t i o n in 1 7 0 3 , t h e o r is ts (with

the ex c e p t io n o f Matthesonj seem to have c ccepted the d if f e r e n c e in mood

and tempo between the p a s s a c a g lia and the chaco n ne.

A .F .C . K allm an n , w r it in g in 17 99, has the fo llo w in g d e f i n i t i o n

o f the p a s s a c a g lia :

Th® p a s s a c a il ie is w rit ten in and b eg in s w ith the

t h ir d c r o t c h e t . It s movement I s m oderate, and it s
chara cter a s e r io u s te n d e rn e ss. I t g e n e r a lly c o n s is t s
b u t of one sec tio n o f e ig h t b a r s , to which v a r ia t io n s
are made. S u lt z e r m entions those in the o peras A m ide
and lead as c exeb rated in F ran ce; and one w ritten in
common tim e , which b eg in s w ith the f u l l b a r , and
con seq uen tly d e v ia t e s from the above d e s c r ip t io n in
two p a r t i c u l a r s , see in H a n d e l 's S u i t e s , V o l . 1 , S u it e 7 .

Of the eighteenth- century t h e o r is ts c i t e d , Mattheson is the only

one who c o n sid e rs that the p a s s a c a g lia does not have a basso o s t in a t o .

j . J . R o usseau , Dictionnaire dc Musique (P a r is , 1768; rpt.

N e w Y o rk : Johnson Corporation, 1 9 6 9 * , p . 3 6 6 . T r a n s la tio n by
P .C . S tr o u x .

20
A .F .C . Kollm ann, An Essay on Practical Music Composition
(London, 1799; r p t . New York: Da Capo P r e s s , 1 9 7 3 ) , p . 105.
 291

1 .4 .3 More rec en t research

1 .4 .3 .1 Hudson

In t e r e s t in g new research on the Baroque p a s s a c a g lia and chaconne has

been undertaken by K . Hudson and is in co rp orated in The New Grove

21
Dictionary o f Mueic Muatcrtans.
hccot^is q to Hu d so n , the o r i g i n a l I-IV-V-I harmonic formula o f the
p a s s a c a g lia and the I-V-vi-V harmonic form ula (and the le s s freq uen tly

u sed I-V-1V-V and I-V-ii-V form ulae) o f the chaconne were g rad u ally

expanded r a elo d ic ally .

These formulae* had d evelo p ed in c horda l g u it a r m usic . However,

in the second q uar ter o f the sev en teen th centu ry in punteado * st y le

g u it a r music and in keyboard m usic , a lin e a r in flu e n c e was e xer ted on

th® chordaJ fo rm ulae, and the leap s in the o r i g i n a l ro o t p ro gressio n s

were f i l l e d in m e lo d ic a lly . Two set s o f form ulae d e v e lo p e d , one set

fo r the p a s s a c a g l ia , and one set fo r the chac€»ine, and these formulae

a r e the p r in c ip a l means o f d i s t in g u is h in g the two form s.

21
" R . H udson, " P a s s a c a g l ia , " ’’'he New Grove Dictionary of Muaic and
Muaioiann, e d . S . Sadie (London: M a c M illa n , 1980) , V o l . Xi'V,
pp. 267- 270.

^ The p lay ing o f s elec ted notes on sep arate c ourses o f the g u i t a r .
 292

23
Ex. 7: The p r in c ip a l p a s s a c a g lia formulae (u s u a lly minor)

^ Hudson, "Pas- sacaglia, " p . 268.

 293

N4

24
Hudson , " Part I , "..p .

^ Hu d so n , "P a r t 1 ," p . 23.

^ In h i s a r t i c l e "P a s s a c a g l i a " in The New GroVe Dictionary o f

Music and Musicians Hudson in clu de s t h is form ula under those D elo ng in g
to the p a s s a c a g lia .
 294

Acco rd ing to H u d so n , w hile U ie most fav o ured chaconne form ula was

I-V-vi-V, the form ulae t-V-H'-v and I-V-ii-V were a ls o u s e d . These

l a t t e r two form ulae ar e [Link] as C lb and C ic in E x . 8 , p . 293. The

n eutr al forms, showr in E x . 9, p . 2 9 3 , c ou ld be used in e it h e r

p a s s a c a g lia s or c h a c o n n e s .

In I t a l y , the p ro c e ss o f com position in v o lv e d e it h e r choo sin g a

d i f f e r e n t m elodic form ula fo r eac h phrase o f the p i e c e , or r e s t r ic t in g

o n e s e lf to one p a r t i c u l a r form ula fo r the e n t ir e p i e c e . Acco rd ing to

H udson, g u it a r p ie c e s a f t e r about !6 4 0 as w ell as keyboard m usic were

p redom inantly b ased on a chan gin g polythem atic b a ss l i n e , in vocal

m u sic , ho w ever, composers tended to favour the use o f one s p e c if ic

formula th r ou g hou t, r e s u l t in g in a basso o s t i n a t o . W hile a b ass o

o s t in a t o is one p o s s ib le use o f these fo r m u la e , it i s , n e v e r t h e le s s ,

a h ig h ly r e s t r ic t e d u s e .

T h u s , ac co rd in g to H udson, the It a l i a n p a s s a c a g l ia v a r ia t io n s were

u s u a lly in t r ip l e m etre, in a minor k e y , and were b a s e d on the concept

o f c o n tin u a l v a r i a t i o n . In the c ase of a p o ly th em atic b a s s , t h is

v a r ia t io n in vo lved a l l the v o ic e s , w hile in the c ase o f a b ass o o s t in a t o

o nly the upper v o ic es w ^re in vo lved in th& v a r i a t i o n .

In F r a n c e , the v a r ia t io n p a s s a c a g lia ap peared around the m id­

sev en teen th c e n t u r y . I t was freq u en tly found in instrum ental dance

m u s ic , and was in flu e n c e d by the French i n t e r e s t in se c tio n a l form .

A ccording to H u d so n , most oi ’-•** French solo and o rc h estra l p a s s a c a g lia s

re t a in e d the chara cteristic s* nor mode, t r i p l e m e tr e , and formulae

which d i f f e r from tho^e o f the v. h a c o n n e . As in I t a l y , there was no

d i s t in g u is h in g rhythmic c h a r a c t e r is t ic between the two form s.

Hudson adm its to a r a th e r cc 'u s in g p ic t u r e in Germany due to both

the It a l i a n and French i n f l u e n c e . fin d s that th© German organ

chaconnes and p-assacagli »s tended to fas^-ur a b asso o s t in a t o . However,

in Germany the use o f the two terms is rather c o n t r a d ic t o r y , for

exam ple, the cbaconne in E minor fo r organ by D . Buxtehude (c . 1637­

1707) is b u i l t on formula P'S.

 295

E x. 10: Bass form ula o f D. B u xte h ud e, C iacona

P5: 8- 7-(5)-6 -(4)- 5- (3)

B u x te h u d e 's P a s s a c a g lia in D minor fo r o rg a n , on the other

h a n d , w ould appear to be b ased on the cnaconne formula C l a .

28
Ex. 11; Bass formula o f D . Bu xte hud e, P a s s a c a g iio in D minor :
CU: 8-5-(7-8-5)-6-5

Hudson sees the b ass theme o f B a c h ’ s C [Link] P a s s a c a g li? for o r g a n ,

BWV 582 as b e in g d e r iv e d from the P6 form ula. Bach ends che f i r s t

p hrase w ith the 6-4-5 ending o f t h i s form ula and p recedes it by the

same motive one d egree lower (5- 3- 4). In the second p h r a s e , the 6-4-";

motive is tr e a te d s e q u e n t ia lly and the in terv al o f a t h ir d is expanded

to a fo urth (3-7-1).

E x. 12: ^jassacaglia formula

27
D. Buxtehude, C ia c o n a , in D . • *d e, ')vian Works, V o l . 1,
e d s . P. S p it t a and M S e i f f e r t , 3rd i . , r p t . w ith in tro d uc tio n
by W. K r a f t , W ie s b a d e n : B r e it k o p f , :■ * , p . 12.
28
D . B u xte hud e, Pa s sa c a g L io , ir D B uxtehude, Organ Works, V o l. 1,
e d s . P. S p it t a and M. S e i f f e r t , 3rd d . ( n . d . , r p t . w ith in tro ductio n
by W. K r a f t , W iesVuden: B r e it k o p f , , p . 1,
 296

29
Ex. 13*. Bass form ula o f B a c h 's P a s s a c a g lia in C m ino r, BWV 582

Some fe a t u re s rem ain t h e n , even in the Bach work, to

reirind oue o f the p a s s a c a g lia an d c ia c c o n a development
that began more then 100 y ears e a r l i e r in the g u it a r
book o f Girolam o M ontesardo. The d ance o f the cxacona
o r i g i n a l l y p ossesse d a f ix e d rhythm in t r i p l e m eter,
c h a r a c t e r iz e d , as were other g u it a r forms o f the p erio d
b y second-beat a c c e n t s . The p a s s a c a g l i a , as a r i t o r n e l l o ,
had no set rhythm o f it s own, b u t when u sed fo r v a r ia t io n s
im itated the t r i p l e meter o f the c ia c c o n a , and o ft e n the
second-beat a c c e n t s . The c ia c c o n a was alw ays i i the
n jo r mode; the p a s s a c a g lia r i t o r n e l l o was in e it h e r
m ode. In p a r t it e the p a s s a c a g lia g r a d u a lly tended to
fav o r minor as a c o n tr a s t to the c ia c c o n a . The p r in c ip a l
w ay , how ever, in which the two forms were most c le a r ly
and c o n s is t e n t ly d i f f e r e n t i a t e d was by the fo rm ulae.
. . . I t is a rhythm ic o s t in a t o in the sen se that a short
rhythmic length is o b s t in a t e ly re p e a te d . It is a
harmonics o s t in a t o to t*’e ext e n t that the o pening and
c lo s in g chords o f each phrase u su a lly cor resp o n d . It
is a baBBQ c 3 t in a t o o nly i f the composer w ishes i t . 30

From H u d s o n 's re s e a rc h , it would appear that two p r a c t ic e s for the

com position o f the p a s s a c a g lia and chaconne e x is t e d sid e . y s i d e , namely ,

the use o f a monothematic basso o s t in a t o the use o f a polythem atic

b ass l i n e . In the n in e t e e n t h and tw en tieth c e n t u r i e s , it is the former

p r a c t ic e which has s u rv iv e d .

1 .4 .3 .2 Von F isch er

Acco rd ing to Von F isch er in 1962, there were two types o f p a ssa c a g lia s
31
d ur in g the Baroque:

29 ,
J .S . B a ch , P a s s a c a g lia and F u g u e , BWV 5 8 2 , in J . S . B a c h , The
Complete Organ Worka, V o l . V I I {New Y o r k : Kalm us, 1 9 6 8 ) , p . 39 .

30
R . H u d scn , "The P a s sa c a g lia and C iac co na in I t a l i a n Keyboard
Music o f the 17th C e n t u r y : Part I I , " The Diapason, 6 1 , N o . 1 ( 1 9 6 9 ) , p . 7.

31 Von F i s c h e i , c o l . 872.
 297

- the I t a l i a n and S p a n is h type w itho u t a s t r i c t l y observed, basso

o s t in a t o ; and

- the Fren ch type w ith a more s t r i c t l y observed b asso o s t in a t o .

In G e .A a n y , he sees both French and It a l i a n in flu e n c e a t w o r k .

T h u s , works in w hich a s t r ic t basso o s t in a t o p e r s is t s would in d ic a te

32
F rench in f l u e n c e , fo r example B i b e r 's P a s s a c a g lia fo r solo v i o l i n ,
33
B u x t e h u d e 's P a s s a c a g lia for o rg a n , and B a c h 's P a s s a c a g lia for
34
org».n •

1 .4 .3 .3 Other th eo ris ts

Apel b~‘ is h is d e f i n i t i o n on B a c h 's P a s s a c a g lia in C m inor fo r o rg a n ,

BWV 5 '1, a n i h i s chaconne in D m inor fo r unaccompanied v i o l i n , BWV 1 0 0 4 :

A p a s s a c a g l ia , th e n , is a continuous v a r ia t io n b ased on
a c l e a r l y d is t in g u is h a b l e o s t in a t o that norm ally appears
i n the bass b ut that may o c c a s io n a lly be t r a n sfe rre d to
an upper v o i c e , as in B a c h 's p a s s a c a g l i a . A chaconne,
on the o tlo r han d , is a c ontinuous v a r ia t io n in which
the "them e'’ is a scheme o f harmonies ( e . g . 1-V1-1V-V)
u s u a lly tveated so that the f i r s t and l a s t chords are
fix e d whoreas the in te rv e n in g ones can be rep laced by
s u b s t it u t e s . 35

T h is d e f i n i t i o n is in accordance w ith that o f G o etsc hius in 1 9 1 5 ,^

T h e o r is ts such as B e r r y , 37 S t e i n , a n d Hutcheson ^ agree w ith A p e l 's

d istin ct io n . Green d is t in g u is h e s between v a r ia t io n s on a basso

40
o s t in a t o an<5 v a r ia t io n s on a su cc ess io n of h a r m o n ie s.

32 B i b e r , p . 71.

^ Buxtehude, Prtssa'.agl lo , p. 1,

B ach, Pas. iacaql j a , p . 39.

’ ' A pel, p. 3 41.

^ G o e t s c h iu s , pp. 29- 40.

11 a » r r y , pp. 279-2'>0.
38
‘ S te in , Structure and Style, pp. 142-145.

39
Hutcheson, pp. 172-195.

40
Green, pp. 11*.-123.
 298

1 .4 .4 Some fe a t u r e s o f Baroque p a s s a c a g lia s

1 .4 .4 .1 Metre

In g e n e r a l , the Baroque v a r ia t io n p a s s a c a g l ia and chaconne r e t a in the

t r i p l e metre o f the r i t o r n e l l o p a s s a c a g lia and the dance c h a c j n n e . An

i n t e r e s t in g example o f a p a s s a c a g l ia in sim ple quadruple metre is that

from H a n d e l 's S u it e n o . 7 in G t..inor (see E x . 5, p. 28 9 ).

1 .4 .4 .2 Descending tet rac h o r d b a ss form ula

The most freq u en tly used b a s s form ula for both the p a s s a c a g lia and the

chaconne was that o f the d e sc e n d in g t e t r a c h o r d , in it s m ajo r, minor or

chrom atic form . T h i s w ould j u s t i f y it s in c lu s io n under the [Link]

forms (see E x . 9 , p . 2 9 3 ) . Examples o f the minor form occur in B i b e r 's

Pa s sa c a g lia fo r v i o l i n so lo (see E x . 6 , p . 28 9) and in the chaconne in

G minor by T . A . V i t a l i (1^65- ?}.

Ex. 14 : Basso o s t in a t o theme from T . A . V i t a l i , C iaro n na ^

Molto moder*to

A frequent v a r ia n t o f tho d esc en d in g tetrachord theme, is that of

the a s cen d in g tetrac hord from to n ic to d om in an t. V a ria n ts o f both the

as cen d ing and descend in g te trac hord s have been u sed .

In h is P a s s a c a g lia in G m ino r, Georg M u ffa t u ses a theme which

c o n s is t s o f two statem ents o f the as cen d ing minor te t ra c h o r d .

42
Ex. 15 : Basso o s tin a to theme frorr. G. M u ffat, P a s sa c a g lia

41
T . A . V i t a l i , C ..accona for V i o l i n and Piano (L e ip zig : B r e it k o p f,
n .d .), p. 2.

42
M u ffat, p . 1 1 3.
 Buxtehude in h is Chaconne in E minor for organ uses a v arian t

ofc the d esc en d in g minor te t r a c h o r d .

43
Basso o s t in a t o theme from D . Bu xte hud e, C iacon a in E minor

Du r in g the course o f the movement he a ls o u ses the chrom atic form

o f the d esc end in g tetrachord (statem ents tw en ty , twenty one and twenty

f i v e ) , a 3 w e ll a s the chromatic tetrac hor d in i t s a scen d ing form

(statem ents twenty two and twenty t h r e e ) .

When both the as cen d ing and d esc en d in g forms o f the tetrac hor d are

used in the same c o m po sitio n , such works may perhaps be reg ard ed as

b ein g con struc ted on a s in g le theme and it s in v e r s i o n . The V i t a l i

Chaconne uses both forms o f the tetrachord (see Ex. 14, p . 2 9 8).

1 .4 .4 .3 Length o f theme

t h e basso o s t in a t o theme is u su a lly short c o n s is t in g o f a s in g le phrase

ending on the dom inant or a p a ir o f p hrases en d in g on the t o n i c . Some­

times the theme c o n s is t s e n t ir e l y o f notes o f eq ual v alue a s in the

V i t a l i Chaconne (see Ex. 1 4 , p. 2 9 8 ).

An in t e r e s t in g feature o f some p a s s a c a g lia themes is that they are

con structed on a sin g le rhythmic p a t t e r n .

44
Ex. 17: Basso o s tin a to theme from J . S . Bach, P a a s a c a g lia , BWV 582

^ Bu xte hud e, Ciacona, p. 12.

Bach, P a s s a c a g lia , p . 39.

 300

1 .4 .4 .4 F i r s t statem ent o f the theme

The b ass theme is u s u a lly announced in an accom panied form; however,

in t e r e s t in g ex c e p t io n s are the themes from B a c h ’ s P a s sa c a g lia (see E x. 17 ,

p . 2 9 9 ), and the Lament from A. P u r c e l l 's (1659- 1695) Dido and Aeneas.

Ex. 13s H . P u r c e l l , Lament from Dido and A&neaa, 45 III, ii,

score number 38

tfh«n mm laid— Bui

pp sampre

1 .4 .4 .5 C o n tin u ity

A most important fe a t u re o f b & js o o s t in a t o v a r ia t io n s is t h e ir con tin uo u s

structure, in which the v a r ia t io n s occur one a f t e r the other in an un ­

broken s u c c e s s io n . It is important th a t the s e c t io n a l e f f e c t c reated

by the c on sta n t re p e t it io n o f the b a ss theme b e o f f s e t b y c o n t in u it y in

the upper p a r t s , and fo r t h is reason, the dominant h a l f c adence w ith

which most b a s s o o s t in a t o themes end is o f the g re a t e st importance because

o f the forward momentum it c r e a t e s . In themes which la c k a dominant

e n d in g , such as B a c h ’ s P a s s a c a g l ia , BWV 5 8 2 , m elodic b r id g in g o f the

r e p e t it io n s o f the o s tin a to in the accompaniment is the most important

means o f m ain t ain in g c o n t in u it y .

1 .4 . 4 . 6 Grouping

W it h in J;he o v e r a ll p r o f i l e o f g eneral g ro w th, the v a r ia t io n s are some­

times d iv id e d in to sm all g r o u p s . A s t i l l more freq uen t d evic e is the

c o n str u c tio n o f the second o f a p a ir o f v a r ia t io n s from ti.e f i r s t , as

tor exam ple, in the P a s s a c a g lia in G minor by L . Couperin (1626- 1661)

where the composer v a r ie s one statem ent by f i g u r a l em bellishm ent in the

n ext.

H. P u r c e l l , Dido and Aeneas (S even o aks: N o v e llo , 1 9 7 9 ),

p p . 94- 95.
 301

46
E x. 19: L . C o u p e rin , P a s s a c a ille in G m in o r, mm. 17-25

Such gro up ing s g ive u n ity and cohesion to the con tin uo u s v a r ia t io n s .

1. 4 . 4 . 7 T ra n sp o sitio n o f theme to anothe

O c c a s io n a lly the o s t in a t o is transposed to t . v o ic e , as for example

in the P a s s a c a g lia in G minor by L . C ou p erin .

47
Ex. 20: L . C o u p e rin , P a s s a c a i l l e , mm. 45-52

46 ,
L . C o u p e r ir , P a s s a c a i l l e , in L . C o u p e r in , P tic ee de ClaVeam,
A. C-irtis ( P a r is : H e u g e l, n . d . ) , p . 161.
47
C o u p erin , p . 16 2.
Author De Villiers Bernadette
Name o f thesis Benjamin Britten's use of the passacaglia. 1985

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University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg
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