Chapter 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

This study deals with literature and studies of both local and foreign that the

researchers consider relevant to the present day.

Related Literature and Studies in Local Settings

The Policy Guidelines on Awards and Recognition for the K to 12 Basic

Education Program articulates the recognition given to learners who have shown

exemplary performance in specific areas of their school life. These guidelines are

anchored in the Classroom Assessment for the K to 12 Basic Education Program

(DepEd Order No. 8 s. 2015), which supports learners’ holistic development in order

for them to become effective lifelong learners with 21 st century skills. This policy

aims to give all learners equal opportunity to excel in relation to the standard set

by the curriculum and focus on their own performance rather than to compete with

one another. It recognizes that all students have their unique strengths that need

to be identified, strengthened, and publicly acknowledged.

In support of the holistic development of Filipino learners, it is important

to veer away from valuing only academic achievement based on high grades and

move toward valuing and celebrating a wide range of student achieveme nts. The

awards aim to acknowledge and promote student excellence in various areas and

to provide formal recognition of student achievements that can motivate learners to

strive for excellence in academic, leadership, and social responsibility. In effect,

the policy encourages all learners to remarkably and skillfully perform specific kinds
of tasks critical to their success in school and at work. Consequently, the policy will

include all learners and encourage them to be proactive members of their school

and community.

Motivation refers to reasons that underlie behavior that was characterized

by willingness and self-determination. Motivation can also be define as one’s

behavior and vice versa. (Wikipedia)

Rewards can be used to encourage your child’s good behaviors. It also

helps your child to do more of the things you want her to do. Rewards that happen

right after a behavior are best. Sometimes rewards can’t be given right away but

should be given as soon as possible. Rewards don’t work as well when they a re

given long after a behavior rewards are important in many reasons. First, rewards

can be used to increase self-esteem. Toddlers are preschoolers hear the words

“no”, “don’t”, “stop”, and “quit” many times during the day. This is normal and one

of the ways they learn right from wrong. When a child earns a reward, he knows

what he has done something good and something that you like. Rewards can build

good relationship with your child. When you give rewards to your child, both of you

receives joy and happiness. In giving such material rewards, it must be an item that

your child’s like to have and enjoys. Praise and attention must be always

accompanied with some rewards.

The use of rewards may either encourage or diminish motivation,

depending on the type of rewards and the context in which they are given.

Teachers should attempt students more autonomy or control over their own learning
by allowing them to make choices and use collaborative and cooperative

approaches.

Motivation refers to reasons that underlie behavior that is characterized

by willingness and volition (Lai, 2011). Guay et al. (2010) defined motivation as

the reasons underlying behavior. Motivation was regarded by experienced and

inexperienced teachers’ alike as a prerequisite for effective learning, and the

greatest challenge for teachers is to make students want to learn (Odera, 2011).

In the study of Glynn and Koballa (2006), they identified six components of

motivation. These components include the following: intrinsic motivation, e xtrinsic

motivation, relevance of the task to personal goals, self-determination, self-

efficacy, and assessment anxiety. A wide range of literature discusses these

different motivational components. Intrinsic motivation was defined by Oudeyer

and Kaplan (2008) as the driver of spontaneous exploration and curiosity.

Ryan and Deci (2000) defined intrinsic motivation as the doing of an activity

for its inherent satisfaction rather than for separable consequence. Froiland et al.

(2012) posits that intrinsic motivation to learn, if cultivated, can lead to academic,

social and emotional improvement. While, extrinsic motivation was defined by

Ryan and Deci (2000) as “a construct that pertains whenever an activity is

done in order to attain some separable outcome.” Deci, Koestner and Ryan

(2001) provided a strong support to the concept that rewards have substantial

undermining effects on motivation.

Among Philippine students, besides parents, peers and teachers were

identified as important motivational sources (Bernardo, Salanga, & Aguas, 2008). Positive
relationships with peers and teachers have been mentioned as major facilitators of

learning for students on their way to obtain a degree (Reyes & Galang, 2009). In this

sense, students are motivated by their peers to become high achievers as well as by

teachers who are viewed as authority figures (Bernardo et al., 2008). The current study

tackles the role of peers and teachers as motivational source for Filipino students by

providing a reliable measure of socio-motivational relationships in school. The self-report

measure consists of five dimensions namely, peers as positive motivators, peers as

negative motivators, individual learning behavior, teachers as positive motivators, 4 6

REMO-P and teachers as negative motivators.

According to Pearson, motivation involve constellation of closely related

beliefs, perceptions, values, interests, and actions. Motivation within individuals

tends to vary across subject areas, and this domain specify increases with age.

Motivation in children predicts motivation later in life, and the stability of this

relationship strengthens with age.

The control-value theory of academic emotions by Pekrun (2006) contends that

students’ emotional experiences in achievement-related situations have sources from the

appraisals students make about the importance and value of academic tasks they engage

in. The present study looked into Filipino students’ structure of academic emotions, as

well as intrinsic and extrinsic motivation as antecedents of academic emotions, upon the

assumption that students’ motivations are shaped by their appraisals of importance and

value of schooling. Results showed that intrinsic motivation had a positive predictive utility

on positive emotions but negatively associated with any negative types of emotions.

Extrinsic motivation positively predicted negative emotions.

markets this created by the desirable situation where, because you value stuff that

I have but you don’t, and value stuff that you have that I don’t, we can trade in such

way that we are both happier as a result. Part of the theory of motivation tries to d o

is explain and predict who has which wants. This turns out to be exceedingly

difficult. ,any theories posit a hierarch needs, in which the needs at the bottom are

the most urgent and need to be satisfied before attention can be paid to the others.

Related Literature and Studies in Foreign Settings

The New Age hype about praising and rewarding children for what we call

“good” behavior has gained massive popularity. “Find something good your child

has done, and praise them for it” say the Nouveau “how-to” books and seminars.

Psychologist all over recommended the “star chart” treatment to modify the child’s

behavior. This offspring of particular school of psychology the “behaviorists” - whose

thinking currently much a mainstream psychological and educational theory.

Contrary to a popular myth, there are many studies showing that when

children expect or anticipate rewards, they perform more poorly. One study found

that students’ performance was undermined when offered money for better marks.

A number of American and Israeli studies show that reward system suppress

students’ creativity, and generally impoverish the quality of their work. Rewards can

kill creativity because they discouraged risk-taking. When children are hooked in

getting a rewards, they tend to avoid challenges, to “to play it safe”. They refer to

do the minimum required to get the prize. Here is a good illustration of why we
made a mistake of believing a rewards, based on the benefits that appear on the

surface.

When an American fast-food company offered food prizes to children for

every book they read, reading rate soared. This certainly look encouraging -at first

glance. On closer inspection, however it was demonstrated that the children where

selecting shorter books, and that their comprehension test-scores plummeted. They

were reading for junk-food, rather than for the intrinsic enjoyment of reading.

Meanwhile, reading outside the school (unrewarded situation) dropp ed off. There

were more studies showing that, while rewards may well increase activity, they

smother enthusiasm and kill passion. Individuals anticipating rewards lose interest

in activities that were otherwise attractive. It seems that the more we want th e

reward, the more we come to dislike what we have to do to get it. The activity

required of us stands in the way of our coveted prize. It would been smarter to just

give the children more interested books, as there are plenty of evidence that

intrinsically enjoyable activity is the best motivator and performance enhancer.

Alistair Smith (2002) believe that, motivation causes physiological

changes in the brain. Research shows that with proper motivation more areas of

the cortex become involved and learning is quicker.

Children are naturally doing something to learn and assimilate. According

to Richard M. Ryan he quoted that “to be motivated is to be moved to do something”.

Children who are energized and activated in school are being motivated that

learning is the part of life that needs attention and understanding. Learning to know

what are the right things to do in school and they are send to school give them
accomplishments of being intrinsically motivated to do good in class.

(Contemporary Educational Psychology, 2000)

Motivation that are performed by giving of rewards, praises,

encouragements, grades and other external motivation are intrinsic motivation this

is given for students to participate in class and limits this appropriate to perform

well in class activities. This help teacher to keep children listens in their instruction

during class discussion and tries to keep their performance at their best.

With or without incentives, education should be a “Disneyland of learning.”

Both students and educators should enjoy “living, learning, and laughing” in learning

institutions, according to Richard Gerver, the world-renowned motivational and business

speaker.

Theories have developed several approaches to motivation which fall in four

broad categories. Adopting these approaches can assist teachers in their endeavor to

provide the right conditions for student learning: (1) the behavioral view, (2) the

cognitive view, (3) the humanistic view, and (4) the achievement motivation theory.

The behavioral interpretations of motivation rests on B.F. Skinner’s

behavioral learning theories and focuses on the reinforcement of desired behavior

through the use of extrinsic reward. Biehler and Snowman (1993) state that behavioral

interpretations of learning help to explain why some pupils react favorably to particular

subjects and dislike others. Social theorist, such as Albert Bandura, emphasize the
impact of students’ identification and imitation of someone, pointing out their resulting

positive academic outcomes.

Psychologists have noted that excessive use of extrinsic forms of motivation

such as praise and rewards may lead to resentment, limitation of transfer, may cause

dependency on teachers, the undermining of intrinsic motivation, and viewing learning

as a means to an end. They suggest that to limit the negative effects to extrinsic

rewards, teachers should use extrinsic forms of reward only when correct or desired

response occur.

The cognitive view of motivation emphasized the arousal of cognitive

disequilibrium as a means to motivate students to learn something new. For example, if

students face a problem, they will desire to solve it. This is consistent with Piaget’s

concepts of organization, adaptation, and schemes. According to Piaget, when people

experience a discrepancy between something new and what they already know or

believe, it produces a state of disequilibrium they are driven to eliminate in order to

achieve equilibrium. To achieve the state of disequilibrium, Jerome Bruner recommends

posing questions that will cause students to recognize gaps in their thinking, which will

want to fill.

Cognitive theory emphasized intrinsic motivation. When teachers utilize

intrinsic motivation techniques, such as the arousal of disequilibrium, students value

learning for its own sake.

difficult to “induce students to experience a cognitive disequilibrium sufficient to

stimulate them to seek answers” (Biehler and Snowman, 1991).

Biehler and Snowman (1993) pointed out that Maslow described cognitive

needs and aesthetic needs to play a critical role in the satisfaction of basic needs. They

said that Maslow maintained that such condition as the freedom to investigate and

learn, fairness, honesty, and orderliness in interpersonal relationship are critical

because their absence makes satisfaction of the five basic needs impossible.

In the social cognitive perspective of motivation, psychologists, such as

Atkinson and Pintrich, argued that individuals' choices and persistence expended in

performance can basically be predicted by expectations of achievement and the value

attributed to the task (i.e., expectancy-value beliefs. Expectation refers to students' beliefs

that they are capable of accomplishing a task, and self-efficacy is an essential component

of expectation. Pintrich & DeGroot (1990) found that it is important to teach students

different cognitive and self-regulatory strategies. These can improve students' academic

performance. Motivation can produce perseverance that brought success (achievement),

and the successful experiences will motivate the students to work on the next task. When

a person is convincing that she/he can do something, then it will increase efforts to do

something (Pintrich and Groot, 1990). Intrinsic motivation correlates positively toward

student learning performance and attitude of the students towards learning (Byman et al.,

2012).
 Similar to control, students who place more value on their education were more

likely to be engaged, invest more effort in the classroom, and persist during learning tasks

(Eccles, 2005; Pintrich & De Groot, 1990). Task value has been shown to increase

motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 1995), increase student engagement (Simonton,

Simonton, Dasinger, & Garn, 2016) and improve learning and achievement outcomes

(Pekrun, Elliot, & Maier, 2009; Myres stated that people who believe in their own

competence and effectiveness, as well as having an internal control center, perform better

handling and achieve more than others. Of all the rewards given, grades are the most

common reward (Seoane and Smink, 1991). These good intentions, though, are missing

the mark. When rewards are given, children don't perceive themselves in control of

learning, they approach and complete tasks differently than when rewards are not given,

and their work is judged as less creative (Amabile and Gitomer, 1984; Condry, 1977;

Ryan and Grolnick, 1986).

Specifically, students do not see the cause/effect link between the actions they

take and the things that happen to them. Repeated failures in school cause them to build

barriers to protect themselves, and therefore they become uninvolved in school (Long

and Bowen, 1995). Rewards, then, should be replaced with teaching that is focused on

the intrinsic motivation of the student. A common goal should be to have the student’s

interest be at the center of their learning, not a reward. Students who are taught to

perceive themselves as causal agents in the classroom engage in more risk-taking

behavior, and increase their achievement (DeCharms, 1972). Also, students who

perceive themselves as more in control of learning have better self-esteem (Ryan and

Grolnick, 1986).