COMPARING THE IMPACT OF MONETARY AND

NON-MONETARY REWARD PROGRAMMES TOWARDS

EMPLOYEE AND ORGANISATION MOTIVATION

A research project submitted to the Gordon Institute of Business Science, University

of Pretoria, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of
Business Administration.

Date: 7th November 2012

Name: Neelkamal Narsee

Student Number: 10665651

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© University of Pretoria
Copyright © 2013, University of Pretoria. All rights reserved. The copyright in this work vests in the University of Pretoria. No part of this work may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, without the prior written permission of the University of Pretoria.
Abstract

Given the current economic climate, organisations and their management teams are

faced with many decisions. Cost cutting policies, restructuring decisions and

downsizing decisions are under consideration before implementation. Furthermore,

these decisions and policies may have a negative effect on employees and could

sway motivation, loyalty, morale, attitudes and views of employees.

This research considers the impact of the reward systems and programmes,

monetary and non-monetary rewards, as a means of motivating employees to

achieve organisations identified strategic objectives. Many organisations face the

dilemma around what the ideal reward programme should be in order to increase

employee motivation and at the same time achieve the organisational objectives.

The purpose of this research was to discover whether a well-designed reward

programme would result in the motivation of employees.

A questionnaire was developed using reward categories from the WorldatWork Total

Reward Model and the Towers Perrin Total Rewards Effectiveness Blueprint. This

was administered to a sample of past and present MBA students from a

Johannesburg based business school in order to elicit responses around the aspects

of their individual reward preferences and their organisations reward preferences.

Data was gathered to understand the preferences between the various monetary

and non-monetary reward categories and elements. The sample group of 180

respondents participated through a self-administered on-line survey. Statistical

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analysis was conducted on the data which involved both descriptive and inferential

statistics.

The results of the survey indicated that both organisations and employees

recommend financial benefits as being the most important reward category.

However, there was more of a preference from employees for career development,

coaching/mentoring and work life balance than there was from the organisations.

Furthermore it is evident from the results that organisations are utilising a

combination of both monetary and non-monetary rewards, as a share of the reward

package in relation to the varying needs of the labour force. Given the current

economic climate, there is a major case for providing more value on non-monetary

rewards to motivate employees, given the cost pressures faced by organisations.

Although monetary rewards were rated as being the most important, there is an

opportunity to combine them with non-monetary rewards and presented to an

individual as a reward package.

The reward approach can only be maximised by organisations if they understand the

needs of employees based on the understanding of employee preferences; the

dynamic nature of the work force and the potential impact on external factors. It is

recommended that a new reward framework be designed to incorporate the reward

preferences and expectations of both the employee and the organisation whilst

taking into account the effect of the external environment, the job design and the link

between the expectations from the organisation and the individual.

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Keywords

Motivation

Reward Programmes

Monetary

Non-Monetary

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Declaration

I declare that this research project is my own work. It is submitted in partial fulfilment

of the requirements for the degree of Master of Business Administration at the

Gordon Institute of Business Science, University of Pretoria. It has not been

submitted before for any degree or examination in any other University. I further

declare that I have obtained the necessary authorisation and consent to carry out

this research.

Neelkamal Narsee

Signed at Sandton on the 7th day of November 2012

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Acknowledgements

I wish to extend my sincere appreciation and gratitude to the people who supported

me and provided the necessary encouragement to see the research to the end.

I would like to extend my sincere gratitude and appreciation to my supervisor, Colin

Rowley for his patience, insight, guidance and support during this period. Your

advice and positive attitude allowed me to get through this trying time. Thank you!

Petra Gaylard, thank you for the amazing statistical analysis.

My wife, Soodheshni, thank you for encouraging and pushing me to succeed

throughout this journey. You have never stopped believing in me. Thank you for

being more than I could ever hope for.

To my parents (Jay and Sheila Narsee), thank you for my upbringing and sacrifices

made to give me a good education. Without those sacrifices, I would not have

achieved this success.

This thesis is dedicated to my late grandparents, Devkaran Vasanjee Soni and

Saakar Ben Narsee.

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Table of Contents

Abstract ...................................................................................................................... 2

Keywords ................................................................................................................... 4

Declaration ................................................................................................................. 5

Acknowledgements .................................................................................................... 6

1. Introduction ........................................................................................................ 11

1.1. Research Objective ........................................................................................ 11

1.2. Research Problem .......................................................................................... 13

1.3. Research Questions ....................................................................................... 20

1.4. Chapter Summary .......................................................................................... 20

2. Literature Review ............................................................................................... 21

2.1. Introduction..................................................................................................... 21

2.2. Theories of Motivation .................................................................................... 22

2.2.1. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs ...................................................................... 24

2.2.2. Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory of Motivation .............................................. 28

2.2.3. Alderfer’s ERG Theory of Motivation ........................................................... 32

2.2.4. Expectancy Theory of Motivation ................................................................ 36

2.3. Monetary Rewards ......................................................................................... 39

2.4. Non-Monetary Rewards.................................................................................. 41

2.5. Monetary and Non-Monetary Implications ...................................................... 46

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2.6. The Value of Reward Programmes ................................................................ 47

2.6.1. Implications ................................................................................................. 51

2.7. Elements of Reward Programmes .................................................................. 52

2.7.1. Implications ................................................................................................. 54

2.8. Employee Choices and the Reward Programme Models ............................... 54

2.8.1. Employee Choices ...................................................................................... 54

2.8.2. Reward Programme Frameworks ............................................................... 57

2.8.2.1. WorldatWork Total Rewards Model ......................................................... 58

2.8.2.2. Hay Group Total Rewards Framework..................................................... 61

2.8.2.3. Towers Perrin Total Rewards Effectiveness Blueprint ............................. 62

2.8.3. Implications ................................................................................................. 63

2.9. Conclusion...................................................................................................... 64

3. Research Questions .......................................................................................... 66

4. Research Methodology ...................................................................................... 67

4.1. Introduction..................................................................................................... 67

4.2. Research Design ............................................................................................ 67

4.3. Population ...................................................................................................... 69

4.4. Sampling ........................................................................................................ 69

4.5. Data Collection ............................................................................................... 71

4.5.1. Data Collection Process .............................................................................. 72

4.6. Survey Pre-Test ............................................................................................. 76

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4.7. Research Advantages and Limitations ........................................................... 76

4.8. Chapter Summary .......................................................................................... 77

5. Presentation of Results ...................................................................................... 78

5.1. Introduction..................................................................................................... 78

5.2. Response Rate ............................................................................................... 78

5.3. Analysis of the Demographic Profile ............................................................... 79

5.4. Analysis of the Reward Preferences .............................................................. 89

5.5. Analysis of the Organisation Preference to Reward Categories ..................... 99

5.6. Analysis of the Individual Preferences for Reward Categories ..................... 100

5.7. Conclusion.................................................................................................... 118

6. Discussion and Recommendations.................................................................. 119

6.1. Introduction................................................................................................... 119

6.2. Research Questions ..................................................................................... 119

6.3. Research Method Review ............................................................................ 120

6.4. Research Question 1 Discussion ................................................................. 121

6.5. Research Question 2 Discussion ................................................................. 126

6.6. Research Question 3 Discussion ................................................................. 134

6.7. Research Question 4 Discussion ................................................................. 135

6.8. Recommendations ....................................................................................... 140

7. Conclusion ....................................................................................................... 144

7.1. Future Research Opportunity ....................................................................... 148

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8. Appendices ...................................................................................................... 149

8.1. Reward Preferences Questionnaire ............................................................. 149

8.2. References ................................................................................................... 156

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 1. Introduction

1.1. Research Objective

To compete successfully in today’s worldwide economy, human capital need to be

motivated by their organisations. As such, certain organisations are employing a

extensive range of monetary and non-monetary reward programmes to surge

employee retention and motivation, thereby enhancing organisational productivity

and shareholder value. It’s been argued by Boninelli and Meyer (2004) that a new

model for human resource management will lead to a shift in approaches to the

management of human resources, by improving employee relations.

Organisation growth and survival is progressively being determined by the way its

people are treated (Lawler, 2003). Organisations are now recognising the need to

create a balance among individuals influence to the organisation and the

organisation’s influence to the individual. Taking this into consideration, it is

reasonable to assume that organisations need to have an understanding of how to

motivate and what motivates employees to achieve higher levels of performance

(Amos; Ristow & Ristow; 2004).

Although financial rewards are undeniably an important form of rewarding employees

for their exceptional performance, other forms of recognition are often overlooked as

part of an organisation’s reward system (Luthans, 2002). Nienaber (2009) argues

that organisations need to understand the preferences and needs of employees and

offer more than just a good pay-check when responding to today’s workplace

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demands. According to Ferguson & Brohaugh (2009), remuneration is important to

employees, however, what really impacts people are the quality of their work

experience. Therefore, effective reward management involves an close

understanding of employee preferences.

The management of rewards and reward programmes has broken through the

monetary categories and has increasingly shown that some non-monetary rewards

have been of importance in the reward structure design. Sarvadi (2005) argues for

the importance of non-monetary rewards, as according to Sarvadi, organisation’s

sometimes miss the most important reward elements of appreciation and

recognition, which are the inexpensive and high return elements to a reward

programme. Wiscombe’s (2002) study suggests evidence that there exists a robust

relationship between non-monetary rewards and better job performance.

An organisation’s reward system is an important tool that can lead to employee

motivation. Understanding the impact of both monetary and non-monetary rewards,

based on employee preferences, is crucial for an organisation to deliver growth and

shareholder value. Lawler (2003) argues that for a reward programme to work, it

must be developed with a few limitations. Lawler states that a reward programme

must provide necessary rewards to motivate employees; provide employees with a

clear view of their roles going into the near future; give employees the authority to

influence their performance and deliver on it.

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The outcome of this paper will provide evidence for organisations to construct,

develop or structure an enhanced rewards programme for their employees through

the development of a reward framework.

To address this need, this study will explore the impact of non-monetary and

monetary reward programmes on employee motivation through an administered

survey.

1.2. Research Problem

Fulfilled and motivated employees incline to be more committed and productive to

their organisation (Syptak, Marsland, & Ulmer, 1999). To better employee work

performance, organisations must attempt to maintain their motivated employees.

Munsamy and Venter (2009) argue that in the current world of work, where the

competition for talented individuals is prevalent, capable individuals have an

extensive choice of employment, in both local and international markets. Stander

and Rothmann (2008) argue that it is vital for organisations to adapt to changing

circumstances. Human resource management is therefore viewed as a vital source

of an organisations competitive advantage. Consequently, the manner in which

employees are managed in an organisation will gradually define whether an

organisation will grow or continue to survive (Lawler, 2003). It is essential that

organisations adapt to these changes by proposing monetary and non-monetary

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rewards unique to today’s workforce. To address this need, this study will explore the

impact of monetary and non-monetary reward programmes on employee job

motivation by understanding the preferences and insights of employees and

organisations.

Motivation, as defined by Baron (1983) is a “set of processes concerned with the

force that energises behaviour and directs it towards attaining some goal”. In the

organisational environment, motivation plays a vital role in ensuring organisational

success. According to Armstrong (2007), well-motivated people become proactive

when they believe they can accomplish their objectives. Consequently, it becomes

the objective of organisations to examine for the signs to motivate and retain

employees; or else the organisation may face difficulty to maintain its workforce.

A variety of influences motivates employees in their organisations, some of which

are tangible or monetary, such as salary compensation, and some of which are

intangible or non-monetary, such as a feeling of achievement (Spector, 2003).

Organisations are seeking to improve retention and motivational concerns and

diminish employee turnover through various monetary and non- monetary reward

elements.

Monetary incentives are important because, according to Sweeney & McFarlin

(2005, p. 113), “pay is one of the most important rewards that people get from

working”. However monetary rewards alone are not adequate. According to Drucker

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(1954), people, whether managers or workers; require the rewards of prestige and

pride. Roth (1989) echoes this by stating that monetary remuneration by itself no

longer serves as reward for the exertion of energy. Non-financial rewards, such as a

pleasant work environment, training, learning and development, role fulfilment and

time-off from work, are by and large being overlooked (Chaing &Birtch, 2008). Non-

monetary rewards are sometimes referred to as internal rewards, as they meet the

internal needs of employees such as work and performance recognition, self-esteem

and job fulfilment, thereby influencing employee motivation (Hijazi, Anwar, &

Mehbood, 2007).

A partial replication study was done on to findings compiled by other researchers

and resources by adapting, augmenting and developing further theories and

frameworks. Thumbran (2010) in his study to determine if South African

organisations are utilising non-financial rewards as a competitive advantage in

attracting and retaining employees found that non-financial rewards are indeed

positioned as part of the holistic total reward approach, however, organisations and

individuals place primary emphasis on financial rewards. It was found that

organisations utilise remuneration as the main reward component to attract

employees whilst performance, recognition and career management were

highlighted as the main reward components for retaining employees. Thumbran’s

(2010) findings did show demographic variances in terms of preferences by

individuals. Thumbran, in his study, found that males had a higher inclination

towards a quality work environment. He found that executive management had a

higher preference for variable pay and employees with 0 to 5 years of service had a

higher inclination towards work/home integration.

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Thumbran (2010) suggests that non-financial rewards have the potential to improve

the competitiveness of organisations in attaining and retaining the services of

talented people. He states that non-financial rewards are flexible, personal and easy

to use, however they are much more difficult to replicate and can be customised

according to individual preferences.

The implications of Thumbran’s study are that both monetary and non-monetary

rewards have a place in a holistic total reward approach. However, given the cost

effectiveness of non-monetary rewards, organisations need to understand employee

preferences to reward elements and must make allowances based on the

demographic factors of their employees in order to more effectively utilise non-

monetary rewards.

Berberian (2008) in his qualitative study to consider the impact of non-monetary

rewards on employee job satisfaction at a Fortune 500 institution indicated that 42%

of the participants had a positive reaction to non-monetary rewards, 33% had a

positive reaction to both non-monetary and monetary rewards, and 25% had a

positive reaction to monetary rewards. Berberian (2008) found that the majority of

the employees had positive reactions to both monetary and non-monetary forms of

compensation.

Berberian concluded his research by stating that organisations should not seek to

substitute monetary with non-monetary rewards, instead a combination of both forms

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of rewards would be ideal. According to Berberian (2008), organisations should note

the five prevailing themes that appeared from the research: (a) non-monetary

rewards, (b) monetary and non-monetary forms of rewards, (c) work-life balance, (d)

recognition, and (e) morale. The implications of this research are that these themes

indicate an organisational environment that encourages obligation for both monetary

and non-monetary types of rewards.

Kirstein’s (2010) study was aimed at finding which motivation factors are seen as the

most important by future business people. A questionnaire was distributed to the

sample of 152 respondents from Aarhus School of Business, and 148 participants

from Management and Marketing Department at University of Gdansk in Poland.

Respondents were asked to rank thirteen motivation factors in the order of their

importance. According to Kirstein (2010), the distribution of positions was similar in

both groups. Interesting work and good wages were the most important indicated by

all the respondents (Kirstein, 2010). This suggests that the respondents felt that both

types of monetary and non-monetary reward were preferred. Kirstein’s (2010) results

suggest that future business people are motivated by factors from many different

categories. Therefore, the implications of this study are that motivation as

approached by students should be based on both monetary and non-monetary

motivators.

Adams’ (2007) study to measure work motivation amongst employees in a

government department in the Western Cape Provincial Government highlighted that

motivated and satisfied employees are more productive and there are improvements

17
in service delivery. A biographical questionnaire and the organisational motivation

questionnaire (OMQ) were administered to respondents to elicit responses on how

the aspects of their work, compensation, advancement, recognition, working

conditions, work benefits, interpersonal relations and supervision, influence work

motivation. According to Adams (2007), factors that are said to have influenced

employee motivation included: achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility,

advancement, growth, the need for a serious income and being treated with respect.

According to Adams (2007), Roberts (2005) suggests that organisational policies

should enhance a healthy balance between work-life management concerns, as this

could definitely influence motivation and consequently, may end in increases in job

performance and job productivity. These organisational policies, according to Adams

(2007) may well include flexible working hours, employee assistance programmes

and childcare facilities.

Are monetary rewards the best method to inspire employees or are there other cost

effective non-monetary incentives? If employees are requested to select between

money in remuneration, work recognition, learning, training and development or work

life balance, what would their preferences be? Do organisations utilise a reward

framework that takes into consideration the dynamic aspects of the workforce? Do

organisations understand employee preferences to rewards?

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The study assesses the impact of the reward systems, both monetary and non-

monetary, as a means of motivating employees. As argued, the organisation

dilemma is to understand what the ideal reward system which can be utilised to

increase employee motivation and at the same time achieve the organisational

objectives? The purpose of the research is to discover if various reward and

incentive options have specific impacts on employees from a motivation perspective.

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 1.3. Research Questions

The objective of this research dissertation is to determine if organisations are

utilising both monetary and non-monetary rewards within their reward programmes

as a competitive advantage tool in motivating employees. The following research

questions will assist in the exploration of this:

 What are the elements that form part of the reward and incentive offering to

employees in organisations?

 Do various rewards and incentive options have specific impacts on employees

from a motivation perspective?

 To what extent are organisations utilising non-monetary rewards and

monetary rewards in their offering to motivate employees?

 What are the reward preferences by employees?

1.4. Chapter Summary

This chapter has provided an introduction and an overview of the study. The

background and justification of the study were set, and the theories at hand were

defined by means of reference to the literature. The chapter was concluded by a

explanation of the objectives, purposes and research questions of the study. In

Chapter 2 the theory underlying the constructs is presented and discussed.

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 2. Literature Review

2.1. Introduction

The theory builds a platform of understanding the importance of non-monetary

rewards within the context of the total reward structure. This literature review will

focus on the following areas:

 Theories of Motivation

 Monetary Rewards

 Non-Monetary Rewards

 The Value of Reward Programmes

 Elements of Reward Programmes

 Employee Choices and the Reward Programme Frameworks

Cascio (2003) argues that organisations cannot exist without a valuable resource, its

people. Cascio (2003) further notes that it is through people that in many ways

influence organisational performance.

For strategy to be executed, Meyer (2002) argues that it is imperative that the

organisation obtains the right capabilities and competencies, which are the skills,

knowledge and behavioural characteristics it owns in its workforce. Considering the

aforementioned, it would thus make good commercial sense for the organisation to

attain sufficient understanding regarding what motivates employees to satisfy their

full potential (Lawler, 2003).

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According to Lawler (2003), the way in which individuals are managed determines

progressively whether an organisation will succeed or continue to survive. The

argument from Lawler and Meyer is their belief that employees within organisations

should be treated with more importance than the organisations financial capital. For

an organisation to be effective, its people must be viewed as the major foundations

of an organisations competitive advantage.

Organisations are continuously pressurised to enhance and improve their

performance and it is through these pressures that they realise that a mutually

dependent association exists between organisational performance and employee

performance (Roberts, 2005).

The following section will place emphasis on the motivational theories and the impact

which these theories have on enhancing employee motivation. This should offer a

better understanding of not only how motivation is felt by individuals, but also what

motivates them in an organisational environment.

2.2. Theories of Motivation

An often difficult material function is to motivate employees. The uniqueness of

human beings as well as a wide range of internal and external factors, impacts the

complex nature of motivation.

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Motivation can be described as intentional and directional (Nel P.S. et al., 2001).

According to Nel P.S. et al. (2001) intentional refers to ‘personal choice’ whilst

directional refers to the ‘presence of a driving force towards attaining a specific goal.’

Shulze and Steyn (2003), suggest that motivation represents the complex forces and

desires which provide the drive for an individual to perform a particular job.

Chiu (1999) alternatively defines motivation as a “function of an individual’s

personality and environment”. Chiu (1999) further argues that differences in an

individual’s character may be meaningful in the job role motivation of that individual.

If, as according to Oosthuizen (2000) it is the managers role to effectively motivate

their staff and guide their performance and behaviour to realise superior

organisational effectiveness, it is therefore reasonable to assume as according to

Amos et al.(2004), that these managers are required to have an understanding of

what and how to motivate their employees.

According to Heathfield (2008), participation of employees in the workplace may be

hampered due to barriers to motivation. These include poor supervisory skills,

obsolete equipment and a destructive employee attitude. To some extent, it can be

assumed that these barriers do not only affect employee motivation adversely, but

also affect the morale of the organisation.

Roberts (2005) maintains that although motivation influences performance,

performance if followed by rewards also has the potential to influence motivation.

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Motivation is considered an important aspect in “initiating, guiding, sustaining and

stopping” the employee’s ability to perform in the workplace (Amos et al., 2004).

The following section will focus on the motivational theories and the impact that

these theories have on enhancing employee performance.

2.2.1. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Figure 1: Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Self-actualisation Needs

Esteem Needs

Social Needs

Safety Need

Physiological Needs

Source: Kreitner, R & Kinicki, A., 2004. Organisational Behaviour (6th ed.). McGraw-Hill/Irwin: New York.

Maslow suggests that “people are motivated to satisfy needs” (Maslow et al., 1998).

Furthermore, these needs can be arranged in a hierarchy of importance (Maslow et

24
al., 1998). According to Maslow, individuals continually want improved situations.

According to Maslow, people always want what they do not yet have. Maslow splits

human needs into five levels namely physiological needs, safety needs, social

needs, esteem needs, and self-actualisation needs. This is depicted in Figure 1

above.

The different levels of this hierarchy offer some important insights into how the

employees ‘needs’ could be met so that reward programmes are effective.

Level 1 Needs: Physiological Needs

This level of needs is considered vital for survival and includes water, healthy food,

relaxation and recreation. In the organisational workplace this physiological need can

be met by a common strategy used by management to motivate employees, for

example, the use of money; service benefits; job security; meals and smoking

breaks; and compulsory leave for holidays etc.

Level 2 Needs: Safety Needs

This level of needs, according to Schultz (2003), includes feeling protected against

both physical and psychological harm within a surrounding. Organisations may react

to these needs by providing a safe, non-toxic and healthy working environment, job

security and organisational benefits such as reward packages that are in compliance

with the legislative and regulatory framework. Added interventions from the

25
organisation could possibly include appropriate salaries, benefits and job satisfaction

(Grobler et al., 2006).

Level 3 Needs: Social Needs

This level of needs includes sense of fitting into an environment, relationship

building, connection with colleagues and superiors, support, recognition by others

and social interactions (Meyer & Kirsten, 2005). Social needs are difficult for an

organisation to establish in a work environment as it becomes difficult to develop a

strategy that translates these needs into an incentive to improve an employee’s

performance. However, Grobler et al. (2006) suggest that in the workplace these

needs may be addressed by encouraging a team driven environment, providing

close personal leadership from senior managers and executives and encouraging

community and group participation.

Level 4 Needs: Esteem Needs

This level of needs refers to the need for self-confidence and respect from others.

Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation originates from this need. The requirement for

recognition and acknowledgement of who we are and what we do is highly important.

The organisation could address these needs by using helpful support programmes,

providing symbols for recognition and including lower level employees in strategic

conversations (Grobler et al., 2006).

26
Level 5 Needs: Self-actualisation Needs

This level of needs refers to the opportunity to realise one’s potential and to nurture

into exceptional individuals. Organisations which recognise this level of need within

the organisation places emphasis on opportunities for employees to address

personal growth matters (Roberts, 2005). Grobler et al. (2006) suggests that

organisations should, amongst others, provide opportunities for personal

development and reward exceptional performance.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs theory has had a substantial influence on

organisational approaches to motivation. The following reasons according to Roberts

(2005) have resulted in Maslow’s theory being very popular amongst organisations:

 Its simplicty

 Its inferences are strong and clear

 It forms settings in which employees’ lower level needs can be fulfilled so that

they are motivated to reach their full potential

 It offers a corridor to self-actualisation

Implications

Maslow’s theory highlights that organisations must identify the level of needs at

which the employee is present at, and then the needs must be addressed as a drive

for motivation. If the basic needs such as physiological and safety needs are not

met, organisations will not be able to fulfil the other level of needs indicated. Not all

employees are directed by a similar set of needs. It is through this realisation that

27
organisations are required to tailor reward programmes that suite an employee’s

needs.

2.2.2. Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory of Motivation

Figure 2: Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory of Motivation (Herzberg, 1968)

Dissatisfaction and Not Dissatisfied but Positive Satisfaction

Demotivation Not Motivation and Motivation

Hygiene Factors Motivational Factors

- Company policies - Achievement
- Quality of supervision - Career advancement
- Relations with others - Personal growth
- Personal life - Job interest
- Rate of pay - Recognition
- Job security - Responsibility
- Working conditions

Source: Grobler et al. (2006) Human Resource Management in South Africa (3rd ed.). London: Thomson Learning.

Herzberg's two-factor theory of motivation draws on the model and theory of Maslow.

In his research on motivation, Herzberg identified two factors that influenced

motivation and job satisfaction, specifically hygiene and motivational factors

28
(Herzberg, 1968). These factors are seen to be effective in motivating the individual

towards a greater work effort. This is depicted in Figure 2 above.

Herzberg defined hygiene factors (also known as dissatisfiers) as those factors

closely related to the working environment and they include (Herzberg, 1968):

 Company Policy

 Quality of Supervision

 Relations with others

 Personal Life

 Rate of Pay

 Job Security

 Working Conditions

Herzberg believed that hygiene factors do not motivate employees. Herzberg’s

theory suggests that if hygiene factors are present in the lower level needs of

physiology and safety, referred to in Maslow’s Theory of Motivation, these needs are

likely to be met. These factors are perceived to be acting as motivation for

individuals to reach superior performance and effort. If the hygiene factors are

ineffectively met, they cause dissatisfaction, however, if effectively met, the

employee is neither dissatisfied nor satisfied. The employee is thus not dissatisfied

but not motivated.

29
It is clearly important that organisations address the hygiene factors before they

introduce motivation into the employee's job. Examples of motivational factors in

Herzberg's theory are (Herzberg, 1968):

 Achievement

 Job Interest

 Personal Growth

 Recognition

 Career Advancement

 Responsibility

Motivational factors (also known as satisfiers) places emphasis on the work itself by

providing opportunities for the satisfaction of higher order needs or growth needs as

referred to in Maslow’s Theory of Motivation. Furthermore, motivational factors

predominantly refer to the environment and assist to avert job frustration, while not

having a noteworthy influence on positive attitudes.

Herzberg found that some characteristics inclined to be regularly related to job

satisfaction. Factors such as accomplishment, acknowledgment, accountability,

progression, and development appeared to be connected to job satisfaction. Steyn

(2002) maintains that this theory speculates that it is not extrinsic factors (for

example salary, organisation benefits, working conditions, and job security) which

30
motivate employees, but rather intrinsic factors (for example achievement,

recognition, responsibility).

Herzberg reasoned that the opposite of satisfaction was not dissatisfaction. He

realised that eliminating dissatisfying features from a job does not inevitably make

the job satisfying. Motivators are factors which produce real satisfaction. According

to Schulze & Steyn (2003), although hygiene factors are not motivators, they are a

prerequisite for motivation (Schulze & Steyn, 2003).

Herzberg’s motivational factors are the factors that motivate employees to achieve to

their best potential. They are a vital part of the job itself and include factors such as

the type of the work, the individuals feeling of accomplishment, level of

accountability, individual growth, appreciation for a job and positive criticism

(Schultz, 1982). Nelson and Quick (2003) suggest that hygiene factors have worth

and the existence of motivators in the work-place are vital to improve employee

motivation.

Implications

Herzberg’s Two-Factor theory suggests that organisations must focus upon

safeguarding the suitability of the hygiene factors to elude employee dissatisfaction

(Herzberg, 1968). Furthermore, organisations must make sure that the job roles are

engaging, exciting and fulfilling so that employees are motivated to work. According

to Nel et al. (2001), it is important that an organisation give priority to hygiene factors

31
before presenting motivators. According to the theory, hygiene factors are factors

which are significant for the existence of motivation in any organisation (Herzberg,

1968). These however, do not lead to positive satisfaction over the long-term.

However if these factors are lacking, they then lead to employee dissatisfaction.

Organisations must not only offer hygiene factors to avoid employee demotivation,

but also must offer factors essential to the work itself for employees to be satisfied

with their jobs. Implications of this in the workplace suggest that the job role should

have adequate challenge to utilise the full capability of the employee. Employees

who display growing levels of strong capability should be given more responsibility.

2.2.3. Alderfer’s ERG Theory of Motivation

Figure 3: Alderfer’s ERG Theory of Motivation

Source: Amos et al. (2004). Human Resource Management (2nd ed.). Lansdowne: Juta & Co. Ltd.

32
Although Alderfer accepted that Maslow’s theory contributed to understanding

human motivation, according to Nelson & Quick (2003), Alderfer was of the opinion

that the identification and categorisation of needs was inaccurate. Alderfer’s theory

categorises needs in three groups which describe existence (E), relatedness (R) and

growth (G). He has re-categorized Maslow’s hierarchy of needs into three simpler

and broader levels of needs:

Level 1 Needs: Existence Needs

Existence needs include the need for simple requirements. Organisations can fulfil

these needs through remuneration benefits, medical aid benefits, a non-toxic

working setting, and some degree of job safety. Existence needs relates to tangible

goals such as being able to purchase food and pay for accommodation (Schultz,

1982).

Level 2 Needs: Relatedness Needs

Relatedness needs include the determination individuals have for preserving

noteworthy personal associations, receiving recognition and acknowledgement. The

needs in this category are comparable to those of social needs in Maslow’s theory;

therefore these needs could also be addressed by promising a team dynamic,

providing leadership and encouraging group participation (Grobler et al., 2006).

33
Level 3 Needs: Growth Needs

Growth needs include the need for development, personal growth and progression.

Maslow’s self-actualisation needs and component of esteem needs fall under this

category.

The importance of the three levels of needs may vary for each individual. The

variance between Maslow’s theory and Alderfer’s ERG theory is that, the latter states

that at a given point of time, more than one need may be functioning. The ERG

theory further shows that, if the realisation of a higher level need does not occur,

there is an increase in the aspiration for satisfying a lower level need. This is in

contradiction to Maslow’s theory. According to Maslow, an individual remains at a

specific need level until that need is satisfied, the individual then moves up to the

next need level.

According to ERG theory, if a higher level need increases, an individual may regress

to increase the satisfaction of a lower level need. This is termed the frustration

regression aspect of the ERG theory. For example, when growth needs intensify, an

individual may be motivated to achieve the relatedness needs and if there are

problems in achieving relatedness needs, then the individual may be motivated by

the existence needs. Therefore, according to Amos et al. (2004), frustration can

result in regression to a lower-level need. Amos et al. (2004) further argue that it

should explain challenges with employee performance and lead managers to

addressing blockages to gratification of needs.

34
Whilst Maslow’s hierarchy theory is inflexible as it undertakes that the needs follow a

specific and methodical order, moving up the pyramid and except a lower level need

is fulfilled, an individual cannot continue to the higher level need. Alderfer’s ERG

theory of motivation is more flexible. Alderfer observed the needs as a range rather

than distinguishing them as a hierarchy. According to Alderfer, individuals can work

on growth needs even if their existence or relatedness needs remain unfulfilled.

Alderfer’s ERG theory suggests that satisfaction of a need may escalate its intensity.

According to Schultz (1982), this makes a challenge for the proposing of rewards in

the work environment, in terms of the organisation’s need to be persistently

innovative and resourceful with such programmes.

Implications

Organisations must appreciate that an employee has several requirements/needs

that must be satisfied at the same time. According to the ERG theory, if the

organisation focuses exclusively on one requirement at a time, this may not

successfully motivate the employee. The frustration-regression aspect of ERG theory

has an auxiliary influence on workplace motivation. For example, if an employee is

not provided with development or learning opportunities in an organisation, the

employee may revert to meeting the relatedness need such as socialising needs.

However, if the environment or circumstances do not permit, the employee may

revert to the need for monetary rewards to satisfy those socialising needs. The

earlier the organisation comprehends and determines this, the more steps it will take

35
to fulfil those needs which are unfulfilled until such time that the employee can again

pursue growth.

2.2.4. Expectancy Theory of Motivation

According to Vroom's Expectancy theory (1964), “an individual will act in a certain

way based on the expectation (belief) that the act will be followed by a given

outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.” Vroom's

Expectancy theory is written as a formula:

Valence x Expectancy x Instrumentality = Motivation

 Valence is the total aspiration by the individual to achieve a goal by

understanding what the reward entails. It is the level of importance that the

individual places on the expected result of that goal. For the valence to be

positive the individual must want to complete the goal to reach the expected

outcome.

 Expectancy is the conviction from the individual that the effort placed in the

workplace will result in the task being completed. Expectancy is related to

performance on how hard an individual will have to work to complete the goal.

This is affected by such things as:

o Having the specific resources accessible

o Having the correct capabilities and competencies to do the job

o Having the essential support to get the work done

36
  Instrumentality is the conviction that the reward will be acknowledged and

once the goal has been completed. This is affected by such things as:

o Understanding of the relationship between performance and results

o Conviction in the individuals who decide on which individual gets

rewarded and to what extend they are rewarded

o Transparency of the performance and reward process

Motivation is the product of valence, expectancy, and instrumentality. It can be

thought of as the strength of the drive towards a goal (Vroom, 1964). Therefore,

Vroom's expectancy theory of motivation is not about self-interest in performance

and rewards but about the links individuals make to the expected goals and the

influence they feel they can make towards those goals (Vroom, 1964).

For example, if an individual wants a promotion within their organisation, then a

promotion has a high valence for that individual. If the individual believes that a

strong performance will result in good reviews by his superiors, then the individual

has a high expectancy. However, if the individual believes the organisation will not

promote, then the individual has low instrumentality, and will not be motivated to

perform. This essentially means that individuals can perform at levels that result in

the greatest benefit, to their choice.

According to Schultz (1982), employees who believe that increased work effort will

lead to rewards such as a increases in remuneration and advancement

opportunities, will choose to work hard. Vroom’s theory of Expectancy argues that in

37
such an organisational culture, there should be high motivational levels. This theory

links individuals’ motivation to performance and rewards. Individuals are motivated

by the promise of rewards that are tied to goals.

Implications

Vroom’s expectancy theory contrasts from the content theories of Maslow, Herzberg

and Alderfer. The theory does not offer recommendations on what motivates

individuals at the workplace. As an alternative, it provides a method of ‘cognitive

variables’ that reveals individual differences in job motivation. Employee behaviours

are influenced by their beliefs and perceptions. They do not act because of strong

internal drives, unmet needs, or the application of rewards. From an organisational

viewpoint, the theory does have some significant implications for motivating

employees. Employees who place more effort will profit from superior job

performance. Improved job performance will result in organisational rewards, such

as salary increases, promotions and recognition. In order to improve the

‘performance outcome’ connection, organisations should use frameworks that link

rewards to performance. Organisations must guarantee that the rewards provided

are justified and sought by the employees. In order to develop the ‘effort

performance’ connection, organisations must look at training and development to

improve their employee’s skills, competencies and boost their belief that effort placed

will lead to individual growth.

38
 2.3. Monetary Rewards

Monetary rewards is a means to recruit and retain valuable employees, however, it is

not recognised if better job performance and satisfaction are the results of such

initiatives (Adeogun, 2008). Armstrong (2007) suggests that monetary rewards are

motivators because it satisfies needs. Armstrong (2007) states, that money is

essential as it is required to satisfy basic needs of survival and security. In the

organisational employee relationship, according to Mitchell & Mickel (1999),

companies pay employees in exchange for their labour. Milkovich and Newman

(1993) suggest that money is used by organisations as an attraction, motivation, and

retention tool. Organisations use money to reward and recognise, and they withhold

it as punishment.

According to Ross and Zander (1957), in order to attract and retain employees in an

organisation, their needs must first be satisfied. Those needs would include a

reasonable competitive salary and other competitive benefits. According to Kirkcaldy

& Furnham (1993) and Tang (1992), money is related to:

 Achievement and recognition

 Status and respect

 Freedom and control

 Power

Given the above, Kirkcaldy & Furnham (1993) and Tang (1992) argue that money is

therefore an aspect of motivation because of what it stands for.

39
Authors suggest that monetary rewards are more important in individual’s real

selections than in their answers to the question about the significance of monetary

rewards as a motivator. This leads to underestimation of monetary rewards as a

motivating factor in the organisational environment.

Results about the importance of monetary rewards as a motivator come from

Agarwal’s (2010) study based on a literature review on motivation and executive

compensation. Agarwal (2010) states that money is still the most crucial motivating

factor for employees and that it makes them perform well in the company. Agarwal

agrees that non-monetary rewards motivate but, after a certain point in an

individual’s career, money has the greater significance.

A case study conducted on a Taiwanese construction firm indicated that monetary

compensation remains a powerful motivator for workers (Huang et al., 2006). The

authors refer to Lazear (1998) in stating, “Wage levels have significant influence on

retention rates” (p. 9).

A contrasting view from Nel et al. (2001) suggests that whether individuals

distinguish money as a motivator or not depends on what they distinguish as

motivation. The motivation theories cited, suggest that motivation is an inner driven

aspiration to achieve a goal. Herzberg’s hygiene-motivator theory, as referred to in

Figure 2, suggests that monetary rewards, such as compensation, organisational

benefits or working conditions do not motivate, they simply confirm that performance

is at a satisfactory level. Net et al. (2001) further suggests that non-monetary

40
rewards, such as accountability, progression, criticism, acknowledgment and job

prospects motivate employees to improved performance, more so than merely

earning a salary.

2.4. Non-Monetary Rewards

Although monetary rewards can be seen as an employee motivator, it is not the only

cause of motivation. “The management of remuneration was once straightforward

with a strong link between job and pay” (Bussin, 2003). It is not that simple anymore.

Organisational designs, specifically compensation designs, which focus mainly on

compensation benefits, fail to influence a source of motivation that can lead

individuals to perform at greater levels (Nel et al., 2001).

Monetary rewards, organisational benefits, and other various rewards have been

used to entice employees to accomplish organisational objectives worldwide (Chiu,

Luk, & Tang, 2002). Zobal (1999) states, the greatest incentives over the long run

are non-monetary incentives. Furthermore, Lawler (1969), states that while monetary

rewards are significant in the short term, non-monetary rewards in the form of

meaningful work and recognition incline to sustain motivation in the long term.

In Maslow on Management, (p. 72) Maslow et al. (1998) refers to money with the

following statement:

41
 “Finally I call attention to the question of levels of pay and kinds of pay. What

is crucially important is the fact itself that there are many kinds of pay other

than money pay; that money as such steadily recedes in importance with

increasing affluence and with increasing maturity of character, while higher

forms of pay (Meta pay) steadily increase in importance. Furthermore, even

where money pay continues to seem to be important, it is often so not in its

own literal, concrete character, but rather as a symbol for status, success, and

self-esteem with which to win love, admiration, and respect.”

Manolopoulos (2008) argues that there are two types of motivators that will influence

employee motivation at work: extrinsic and intrinsic. Non-monetary rewards or

intrinsic motivation are the factors such as work recognition, opportunity for career

advancement and the opportunity for further learning and development. Mathauer

and Imhoff (2006) state that non-monetary rewards include no direct transfers of

cash or cash equivalents such as vacations, token awards or entertainment.

Consequently, intrinsic rewards are the ones that do not involve money.

According to Hijazi, Anwar & Mehbood (2007), organisations face negative

consequences, when they ignore the importance of non-monetary rewards on

employee retention. In their study on incentives in health care industries, Llewellyn,

Eden and Lay (1999) defined non-monetary incentives as status, the liking of work,

job advancement and medical aid benefits offered to employees. Woodruffe (2006)

cited examples of non-monetary rewards as:

42
  Advancement

 Autonomy

 Civilised treatment

 Employer commitment

 Environment

 Exposure to senior people

 Praise being awarded

 Available support

 The feeling of being trusted

 The feeling of working for a good and reliable organisation

Nelson (2004) argues that individuals assume work-life balance, flexibility, job

participation, significance in their role, and more personalised acknowledgment.

Rynes, Gerhart and Minette (2004) found that money is not a motivator for most

individuals and not in every situation, in their study on the importance of pay in

employee motivation.

McClelland (1968, p23) argues that “money isn’t nearly so potent a motivating force

as theory and common sense suggest it should be”. The results that support

McClelland’s statement come from a McKinsey Quarterly survey conducted in June

2009 (Dewhurst, Guthridge, & Mohr, 2009). 1047 Responses were received from

executives, managers, and employees around the world. The responses showed

that three non-monetary motivators (praise from immediate managers, leadership

attention and a chance to lead projects or task forces) were more effective

43
motivators than the three highest-rated monetary incentives (cash bonuses,

increased base pay and stock or stock options).

Mathauer & Imhoff’s (2006A) studies on health workers’ motivation showed that non-

monetary motivators play an important role in employee’s motivation. The examples

stated support the research that money alone is not as good motivator as it is said to

be. There are non-monetary rewards that are equally as effective if not more that

organisations could use depending on the employee preference. The literature does

indicate that both monetary and non-monetary rewards have a place in the

motivation of employees; however, understanding employee preferences is the key

competitive advantage for organisations.

Non-monetary motivators that play an important role in shaping employees’ conduct

are job designs. Oldham and Hackman introduced The Job Characteristic Model

(Figure 4). This model based on Vroom’s expectancy theory, highlights that through

the existence of certain attributes in jobs can increase the chance that individuals will

find the job and the role meaningful and will experience responsibility for work

outcomes (Oldham & Hackman, 2010). If this is experienced by individuals it results

in their motivation to perform better.

44
 Figure 4: The Job Characteristic Model

Similar results were observed by Lawler (1969) in his paper about job design and

employees’ motivation. According to Lawler, employee’s motivations may be

influenced by changes in job design. Lawler (1969) presented three characteristics of

job designs that could potentially lead to employee’s assumptions that their

performance would bring non-monetary rewards. These were:

 Employees must receive meaningful feedback on their performance

evaluation

 The job must necessitate using employee’s abilities that employee’ that may

result in the feeling of achievement

 Employees must have control over setting their goals

45
Another tool to motivate employees is recognition. Recognition is a reward for

employee’s performance that is defined as “acknowledgement, approval and

genuine appreciation” (Luthans & Stajkovic, 2000, p1).

In 2005 a survey conducted on 1002 employees showed that managers do not meet

employees’ needs regarding recognition. This survey was conducted by the Maritz

Pool Survey (http://www.maritz.com/Maritz-Poll/2006/Maritz-Poll-Bosses-Not-On-the-

Same-Page-as-Employees-Regarding-Recognition.aspx - Retrieved on September

12th 2012). Individuals’ desire recognition as it is powerful tool used to motivate and

to increase job performance.

2.5. Monetary and Non-Monetary Implications

There is a strong backing for money as a motivating factor. However, there are

researchers who completely disagree with money being the only key motivator

stating that money does not significantly affect employee’s motivation. Non-monetary

rewards if used correctly are equally as important. Furthermore, there are

researchers whose findings show the significance of management style and the

dialect used by senior managers, directors and executives in the organisation in

increasing their employee’s performance. These researchers suggest that job design

and recognition are important tools in motivating employees. The key question is

what do employees themselves think that motivates them the most?

46
 2.6. The Value of Reward Programmes

Factors such as knowledge work, corporate governance, executive pay and

performance, globalization and the increased importance of employing the most

talented people all contribute to the complex design of reward programmes (Gross &

Friedman, 2004).

Mulvey and Ledford (2002) define reward programmes as “powerful management

tools for attracting, motivating, and retaining employees.” Yiamiis, Loannis and

Nikolaost (2009) state that reward programmes are considered to be important tools

not only for the motivation of employees, but also for driving skills growth and

developing an organisation’s culture. They further state that reward programmes

must be suitable in the management style of any organisation and must support

preferred behaviours and culture.

Regardless of whether the reward is monetary or non-monetary, according to

Abendschein (2004), high quality employees would be attracted to such

organisations, and have an aspiration to stay longer with an organisation when

reward and recognition programmes are used.

According to Kerr-Phillips and Thomas (2009), the impact of cultural and language

diversity, affirmative action and income level gaps and education, need to be dealt

with effectively by South African organisations, managers and leaders. South African

organisations need to take initiatives and modify their existing reward programmes to

47
account for changes in employee demographics and preferences. Therefore

motivational strategies for employees, including monetary and non-monetary

rewards, must address the areas of interest and areas of uncertainty in the current

workforce population.

According to Furnham (2005), it does not matter what individuals are paid, if they

believe, that they are not justly paid, they become demotivated. Furnham (2006)

writes that business psychologists cite at least three reasons why money is more

likely to cause dissatisfaction than satisfaction:

 No clear correlation exists between pay and performance

 Comparative salary leads to pay satisfaction not necessarily absolute salary

 Lifestyle gains maybe more attractive than financial rewards

Galbraith (1977) theorises, in trying to develop the perfect reward programme, that

there are no perfect reward programmes that would be effective for all types’ of

individuals. Galbraith (1977) states that organisations must design reward

programmes to eliminate the goal limitations to job performance because they

cannot rely upon the planned and impulsive selection of the behaviour which will

produce the best effective job performance. For this reason, reward programmes are

connected to organisational design.

48
Galbraith (1977) argues that integration and correct fit is required among the reward

policy, individuals, responsibilities, structure, and the information structure. Galbraith

describes the Star Model highlighted in Figure 5 below and its five components:

strategy, structure, processes, rewards, and people. Galbraith’s Star Model

describes the integration of the five components and its importance in affecting

employee behaviour. Galbraith (1977) reiterates that organisations should attempt to

match individual personality and job requirements to gain the wanted performance.

Galbraith (1977) defines the theory of reward systems as being that there is no one

best approach but that any approach is not similarly effective under all conditions. In

designing a reward programme, the preferred behaviour is based on the

responsibilities involved. The reward programme is related to the preferred

behaviour.

Figure 5: Galbraith’s Star Model

49
In relation to reward, like Herzberg, Galbraith (1977) utilised the terms extrinsic and

intrinsic rewards. Galbraith refers to extrinsic reward as, “artificially added”, while

intrinsic is referred to as, “natural consequence”. The rewards delivered to

employees must meet or exceed the expectancy levels of the beneficiaries. Galbraith

(1977) argues individuals will always desire more of the same even though the

individual is fulfilled with a reward.

Attracting the right employees to contribute to the organisations objective is

important. As such, reward programmes are aimed to be used to motivate and

individuals to contribute to the organisation’s growth.

Patricia and Jay (2000a) state that individuals work for more than just monetary

remuneration, these individuals are also looking for an organisation which has a

vision of where it is going and how it plans to get there, they want to get growth in

acquiring skills and competencies that prepare them to add value. Therefore, tailored

combinations of monetary and non-monetary rewards are important to providing a

complete reward package to an individual.

Employers and designers of reward programmes, sometimes have varying

definitions of what constitutes value (Hiles, 2009). It is with that in mind that Hiles

(2009) recommended that organisations go beyond the economic value and consider

the full list of possible sources of value that can be offered. The following are

considered:

50
  Knowledge of the worth of the reward package

 Effectively designed defaults

 Ease of understanding

 Information about programmes

 Easy to use and compliant

 Low cost

 Streamlined choice

 Consistent with individual observations of a positive organisation brand

2.6.1. Implications

The literature highlights that there is major value in developing, designing and

utilising reward programmes. These programmes are considered to be significant

tools for motivating employees. However for the reward programme to be effective, it

must suite the management style of any organisation and must support the desired

behaviours and culture of the organisation. Furthermore, the literature states that

these programmes must be modified and tailored to suite the individual needs,

demographics and preferences. By developing a programme that has the correct

consistency of monetary and non-monetary reward elements or intrinsic and extrinsic

reward elements, organisations could be able to motivate their people as well as

keep costs down.

51
 2.7. Elements of Reward Programmes

Motivating employees within an organisational setting requires a complex model or

framework. The factors of influence to be considered within an organisation are the

management of rewards, the management of compensation and the management of

incentives. Compensation is defined by Meyer & Kirsten (2005) as the monetary and

non-monetary rewards provided to employees by organisations for use of their

capabilities to achieve objectives.

Armstrong and Murlis (1991) suggest four areas that should be addressed in a

reward management system:

 Pay structures – Defining the levels of compensation in an organisation by

joining the outcomes of job evaluations and market surveys

 Employee benefits - Fulfilling the wants of employees for personal security

and providing compensation in forms of non-monetary rewards

 Non-monetary rewards - Satisfying employees needs for challenge,

accountability, influence in decision making, acknowledgment and career

opportunities

 Performance management - Providing the foundation for formal reviews

session of performance against targets, leading to training and development

programmes that drives growth for the employee

52
Rewards that are intangible are often not included in the remuneration or total cost to

company package but do add value to the employee. Nienaber (2009) suggests that

the reward programmes combine the following elements within its major categories:

 Transactional rewards – These are rewards such as remuneration and

benefits

 Relational rewards – These are rewards such as recognition, status, learning

and development, challenging work, employment security and the work

environment

Nienaber (2009) suggests that given the broader definition of rewards, there is a

move away from the traditional perception of rewards being only remuneration

towards rewards that are more comprehensive and integrated. Sarvadi (2005)

supports this statement, suggesting that a strategic reward programme creates a

balanced offering to individuals. Sarvadi (2005) further suggests that a reward

system should incorporate elements such as compensation, benefits, recognition

and appreciation.

The most common challenge in organisations today is that recognition appears to

lacking from organisations. Although these forms of non-monetary rewards are

considered to be low cost and high benefit elements of a reward programmes, they

seem to be lacking from organisations (Sarvadi, 2005). Wiscombe (2002) argues

that adequate evidence exists of a significant correlation between non-monetary

rewards and greater job performance.

53
 2.7.1. Implications

Recognition has been argued by Romano (2003) and Sarvadi (2005) to be

imperative for organisations to increase levels of employee motivation, without the

high costs. According to Giles (2004), it would benefit any organisation to establish

which factors would increase the motivation within an employee, as these would be

valuable to those who are responsible for designing rewards programmes. The

literature clearly shows that both monetary and non-monetary rewards have a place

within a reward programme or framework and should be carefully adjusted by the

organisation based on employee preferences.

2.8. Employee Choices and the Reward Programme Models

2.8.1. Employee Choices

Worldatwork, the Total Rewards Association of U.S., describes total rewards as all of

the tools available to the employer that may be used to attract, motivate and retain

employees (Worldatwork, 2006). Total rewards include everything the employee

perceives to be of value resulting from the employment relationship (Worldatwork,

2006).

According to Fernandes (1998), the most important features of reward systems

include salaries, variable pay, pension benefits, disability benefits, medical aid, leave

entitlement, motor vehicle structures, share schemes, housing bonds etc. Patricia

and Jay (2000a) completed an analysis of reward components which refer to

54
individual growth, compelling future, total pay and positive workplaces. They argue

that individuals work for more than just remuneration; people are also looking for an

organisation which has a strong vision of where it is going and how it plans to get

there. People want to gain growth in acquiring skills and competencies that prepare

them to add value in their roles. Therefore, combinations of basic pay, variable pay,

acknowledgment and recognition are essential to providing a complete reward

package (Patricia & Jay, 2000b).

Research conducted by the Saratoga Institute (Saratoga PWC, 2006) recognised

employment practices which would aid retention and motivation. The five most

important influencers of employment retention and motivation according to this

research were:

 Culture and work environment

 Training and Development

 Supervisor roles

 Career Growth

 Earnings Potential

A survey conducted in February 2005 by WorldatWork and the National Association

for Employee Recognition aimed at identifying trends in employee recognition. The

survey stated that the key reasons for creating recognition programmes included

(Trends in Employee Recognition, 2005):

 Creating a positive work environment

55
  Motivating high performers

 Reinforcing desired behaviour and

 Creating a culture of recognition

The findings show that the successes of an employee reward programme are related

to the employee satisfaction surveys. The study revealed that 55% of the

respondents believed that their senior management viewed recognition programmes

as an investment, whilst 13% of the respondents thought that management viewed

recognition programmes as an expense (Trends in Employee Recognition, 2005).

A South African study on retention perspectives of individuals in organisations

conducted by Kerr-Phillips and Thomas (2009) emerged the following themes:

 Development according to value and not race

 Being part of a high performance work culture

 Growth associated with training and leadership development programmes

 Being exposed to all parts of the organisation

 Being valued based on capabilities and competencies

 Being recognised for work contribution

What was highlighted by the study was that although remuneration packages were

highlighted as being important by the participants as an aspect that attracts them to

an organisation, it was not a major factor that would promote their retention and

motivation. Money does allow individuals to buy the things they want, however it is

56
not the one and only factor that makes individuals motivated to work. (Kohn, 1993)

argues that increased employee performance is not linked to more pay.

In contrast to the views of Kohn, Turner (2006) in his study on factory workers found

that the relationship between monetary incentives and performance was not

significant, however when the same study was conducted on service businesses, the

finding turned out to be quite significant. Darmon (1974) in his study on salesmen

has provided evidence that financial incentives do have an effect on human

behaviour and performance.

Kontodimopoulos, Paleologou and Niakas (2009) concentrated on health care

professionals to examine their motivating factors; monetary or non-monetary

rewards. They found that monetary rewards were the strongest motivating factor, but

only to professionals in managerial positions. Manolopoulos (2008), in focusing on

the public sector in Greece, comparing monetary rewards and non-monetary

rewards found that monetary rewards were more motivating than non-monetary.

2.8.2. Reward Programme Frameworks

A number of reward programme frameworks, models and systems have been

developed over the past few years. They have been adapted and modified by

organisations with the aim of benefitting the employee and organisational objectives.

In trying to understand some of the general elements used within reward programme

models, this portion of the chapter will present some of the models and frameworks

developed.

57
 2.8.2.1. WorldatWork Total Rewards Model

Figure 6: WorldatWork Total Rewards Model (2007)

Organisational
Culture Total Rewards Strategy
- Compensation Employee Business
Business Strategy - Benefits Attract
- Work-Life Motivate
Retain
Human Resource - Performance and Recognition Satisfaction & Performance &
Strategy - Development & Career Engagement Results
Opportunities

The WorldatWork Total Rewards Model is a framework for organisations to develop

strategies to attract, motivate and retain employees. Refer to figure 6. According to

WorldatWork (2007), this framework offers the organisational and environmental

context in which rewards strategies exist. The framework establishes the relationship

between employees and organisations concentrating on the employee's contribution

of skills, competencies and capabilities to drive organisation results as shown in the

exchange relationship below in Figure 7. This area of the framework is crucial for

organisations to understand the needs of employees based on employee

preferences.

58
 Figure 7: WorldatWork Total Rewards Model (2007) – The Exchange

Relationship

There are five elements of the model. These elements represent a “toolkit” from

which an organisation selects to offer and align a value proposition that creates

value for both the employee and the organisation. The framework also considers the

external influences on an organisation, such as (WorldatWork, 2007):

 Legal/regulatory issues

 Cultural effects

 Competition

 Macro and micro-economic issues

Understanding these external factors is crucial for the organisation in motivating

employees. Given the current economic climate in South Africa for example, such as

rise of fuel prices and food inflation, organisations are required to adapt their reward

systems to cater for these external shocks.

59
The elements under the total rewards strategy, as defined by WorldatWork (2007)

are:

 Compensation

 Benefits

 Work-Life

 Performance and Recognition

 Development & Career Opportunities

These elements are not mutually exclusive and can be used by organisations and

practitioners as a value proposition tool for employees. The questionnaire developed

to conduct the research partially uses the WorldatWork Total Rewards Model.

60
 2.8.2.2. Hay Group Total Rewards Framework

Figure 8: Hay Group Total Reward Framework

The Hay Group Total Reward Framework, refers to Figure 8,

(www.haygroup.com/za/services - Retrieved on September 15th 2012), takes

strategy as a starting point and focuses on the total rewards, which consist of both

tangible and intangible rewards. The framework takes into account the needs of both

organisation and employee, which allows for a balanced approach ensuring that the

organisation’s wellbeing is provided for, while also ensuring that the employees are

involved and encouraged. This framework is significant at a time when organisations

are under cost pressures and when they are focused on doing more with less.

61
 2.8.2.3. Towers Perrin Total Rewards Effectiveness Blueprint

Figure 9: Towers Perrin Total Rewards Effectiveness Blueprint

Towers Perrin (www.towersperrin.com - Retrieved on September 15th 2012)

framework has shown that it is essential for organisations to be willing to setup an

extensive range of reward elements. These reward elements are centred on the

understandings about organisation demographics, job roles, regional nuances and

industry sectors.

The accurate insights into the characteristics that drive employee behaviours and

motivation can therefore allow the organisation to effectively focus on important

segments and modify its reward programmes and investments accordingly.

Workforce insights can also disclose gaps in an organisation’s ability to motivate

talent in emerging markets.

62
Furthermore, according to Towers Perrin, employee research specific to the

organisation can help internalise the organisation’s understanding of talent issues,

for example, what are the unique aspects of their current employee’s needs and

preferences. The Towers Perrin blueprint splits up relational and financial rewards

and makes mention of employee and organisational insights in creating value

propositions. The questionnaire developed to conduct the research partially uses the

Towers Perrin Total Rewards Effectiveness Blueprint.

2.8.3. Implications

It is evident from the three frameworks discussed in the literature that a combination

of reward elements are used and can be used when designing a reward programme.

It is also clear that there are combinations of reward elements comprising of both

monetary and non-monetary rewards that organisations can use to motivate and

engage employees. Understanding the external environment in relation to the

organisation and understanding employee preferences are key aspects that were

mentioned. It would be interesting to see how the learning and development reward

element; the performance and recognition reward element and work life reward

elements compare from a weighting perspective in motivation compared to the

tangible monetary rewards. Depending on the type of individual or demographic

nature of the individual; his or her job role and their position in the organisation,

certain reward elements are noted as being more important than others.

63
 2.9. Conclusion

This chapter argued a number of theories related to motivation and employee

motivation. This chapter looked at how motivation has an effect on employee

performance and reward systems within organisations. Shultz et al. (2003) argues

that each of the theories discussed contributes in its own unique way to enhance the

understanding of employee motivation in the workplace. By grasping these theories,

organisations should recognise that they have a critical role to play in supporting

employees in the management of motivation levels, by ensuring that the reward

programmes are designed to assist both organisations and employees in creating

sound value propositions. Lawler (2003) supports this and argues that an employee

that is motivated; rewarded and feels recognised would feel at least moderately

satisfied, and this would have the potential to lead to greater job satisfaction,

increased employee motivation and increased individual and organisational

performance.

The chapter looked at both monetary and non-monetary rewards. Chiu, Luk, & Tang,

(2002) argue that the money is “in the eye of the beholder”. Both monetary and non-

monetary rewards offer different motivation to employees. Chiu, Luk, & Tang, (2002)

agree with this statement as, according to them, employees differ in their valuation of

various benefits. It can therefore be argued that organisations must develop reward

programmes that give employees flexibility and options that provide the most value

to both the employee and the organisation. According to Chiu, Luk, & Tang, (2002),

human resource managers need to recognise the most vital reward elements that

fulfil employee needs.

64
Finally the chapter looked at reward programmes and what they entailed.

Understanding what influencers and drivers are from an organisational and

employee perspective is important when designing a reward programme that is best

suited to create value for the key stakeholders.

65
 3. Research Questions

The research objectives seek to analyse whether designing a reward programme

with the joint focus on both monetary and non-monetary rewards will result in

increased employee motivation. To address this need, this study will explore the

impact of non-monetary and monetary reward programmes on employee motivation

through an administered survey. This research study has used quantitative analysis

to answer the following research questions:

 What are the elements that form part of the reward and incentive offering to

employees in organisations?

 Do various rewards and incentive options have specific impacts on employees

from a motivation perspective?

 To what extent are organisations utilising non-monetary rewards and

monetary rewards in their offering to motivate employees?

 What are the reward preferences by employees?

66
 4. Research Methodology

4.1. Introduction

This chapter refers to the design of the quantitative study. It incorporates the

objectives of the study, the research questions, the population surrounding the study,

the data collection methods and process, the validity and reliability of the instrument,

the data analysis techniques and the research advantage and limitations.

4.2. Research Design

Zikmund (2003) argues that a research design “is a master plan specifying the

methods and procedures for collecting and analysing the needed information.” The

research design is quantitative and descriptive in nature. A descriptive research

design according to Isaac & Michael (1977) is used to describe methodically the

details and features of a given population, accurately and truthfully. This type of

research involves testing the validity of hypotheses through a collection of data. It

does not make implications nor try or seek to explain relationships.

Furthermore, the research design will be causal in nature. Zikmund (2003) in his

study states that the main purpose of causal research is to “determine the cause and

effect relationships among variables.” In this method one aims at determining the

cause of, or reason for groups of individuals being different in behaviour or status.

The researcher attempts to identify the major factor that causes the individual to

behave differently as compared to other individuals.

67
The research design of the study is a quantitative survey to assess whether non-

monetary rewards have an impact on job motivation. Quantitative research uses

mathematical measures and statistical techniques to determine relationships and

differences among large samples of target populations (Shao, 1999). Shao, further

states that highly structured, quantitative research involves designing questions with

a choice of specific responses so that the response can be measured and analysed

mathematically.

Survey research approach advantages include time saving, cost savings, absence of

evaluator bias, accurate outcomes, privacy for participants, and that the samples

need not be very big in relation to the population (Salkind, 1997). The disadvantage

of this design is that findings can only be generalised to the sampled population at

the time of the survey (Dooley. 1995).

The research study conducted a replication study to prove and or disprove previous

research done within this area. A replication study is “deliberate repetition of

research procedures in a second investigation for the purpose of determining if

earlier results can be confirmed” (Polit & Beck, 2008). A replication study involves

restating a study using similar methods but with altered respondents (Hani, 2009).

Hani (2009) further states that a replication study is possible and should be carried

out when the original research question is important and can contribute to the body

of information supporting the discipline and if the replication study carries the

68
potential to empirically support the results of the original study, either by clarifying

issues raised by the original study or extending its capacity to be generalised.

The sample for this study consists of past and present MBA students from a

Johannesburg based business school. The unit of analysis will be organisations

across various industries within South Africa.

4.3. Population

The population will consist of any middle to senior level manager or professional who

is employed by an organisation in South Africa and who has experienced a reward

programme consisting of elements from either a monetary, non-monetary category

or both categories of rewards.

4.4. Sampling

The most basic sampling decision that has to be made is who or what the population

of interest is (Czaja & Blair, 2005). According to Zikmund (2003), sampling is a

“procedure that uses a small number of items or a portion of a population to make a

conclusion regarding the entire population.”

A common goal of quantitative survey research was to collect data that is

representative of a population. The researcher used information gathered from the

69
survey to specify findings from a drawn sample back to a population. This is done

within the limits of random error. Wunsch (1986) stated that two of the most

consistent flaws included “(1) disregard for sampling error when determining sample

size, and (2) disregard for response and nonresponse bias.” Therefore according to

Bartlett, Kotrlik, & Higgins (2001), within a quantitative survey design, determining

sample size and dealing with non-response bias is vital.

One of the real advantages of quantitative methods is its ability to use smaller

groups of people to make inferences about larger groups that would be expensive to

study (Holton & Burnett, 1997).

As indicated, the sample will be extracted from past and present MBA students from

a Johannesburg based business school. The sample was segmented by six

demographic categories, specifically age, gender, racial grouping, job tenure,

education level and seniority. There were restrictions on participants. Participants

who were not currently employed by an organisation were not permitted to

participate in the survey. Participation was voluntary and there was a confidentiality

clause stated within the cover letter of the questionnaire. All of this assisted in

securing the sizeable sample.

Zikmund (2003) identifies two basic sampling techniques: probability and non-

probability sampling. According to Zikmund, a probability sample is defined “as a

sample in which every member of the population has a known, non-zero probability

70
of selection.” Zikmund states that if sample units are selected on the basis of

personal judgement, the sample method is a non-probability sample. Non-probability

sampling will be used in this study to select respondents who will be targeted with

the questionnaire.

A convenience sample is used where the researcher is interested in getting an

inexpensive approximation of the truth. Although the sampling technique is a

convenience sample, the database was representative of a wide range of

respondents from different gender and age groups, different job levels and across

various industries. The technique was therefore, considered appropriate for the study

undertaken.

4.5. Data Collection

The tool that has been chosen to collect data was a self-administrated questionnaire

(Refer to Appendix 1). This type of data collection does not require an interviewer.

Respondents were asked to fill in the questionnaire and they were able to read the

instructions on their own. The questionnaires were distributed via an e-mail with a

link to an online survey on the internet, through Survey Monkey. Arguably Survey

Monkey is the world's leading provider of web-based survey solutions, trusted by

millions of companies, organisations and individuals alike to gather the insights they

need to make more informed decisions (http://www.surveymonkey.com/mp/aboutus/

- Retrieved on May 23rd 2012).

71
 4.5.1. Data Collection Process

A questionnaire was developed and designed to survey the following areas:

a) Demographic factors of the participants (PART 1)

Emphasis is placed on the respondent’s gender, age, racial group, educational

qualification, job role and position within the organisation.

b) Reward Preferences (PART 2)

Part 2 focuses on the organisations preference for the specific monetary and non-

monetary rewards within the key categories highlighted. The questions in this section

are based on the WorldatWork (2007) organisation’s classification of total rewards.

The WorldatWork Total Rewards Model (www.worldatwork.org/totalrewards -

Retrieved on the 23rd May 2012) utilises the following reward categories in its model

as shown in Figure 10:

72
 Figure 10: WorldatWork Total Rewards Model – Total Rewards Strategy

The model depicts elements that comprise of reward elements. It provides the

organisational and environmental setting in which rewards strategies exist. The

framework highlights the desired outcome of motivating employees.

The elements represent the tool kit from which an organisation can choose to offer

and align a value proposition that creates value for both the organisation and the

employee. The questions in this section are based on the WorldatWork

organisation’s classification of total rewards. WorldatWork was chosen as it reflected

a holistic view on total rewards through its mix of monetary and non-monetary

reward elements.

Part 2 is broken into 7 categories of the total reward framework which is:

 Financial Benefits

 Organisation Benefits

73
  Work Performance, Recognition and Involvement

 Career Development Management and Coaching/Mentoring

 Work life balance

 Work environment

 Learning opportunities

The importance of reward preferences is measured using a 5 point Likert Scale

ranging from ‘Very Important’ to ‘Unimportant’. Likert developed the principle of

measuring attitudes by asking people to respond to a series of statements about a

topic, in terms of the extent to which they agree with them, and so tapping into the

cognitive and affective components of attitudes (McLeod, 2008). Zikmund (2003)

states that this scale allows respondents to indicate their attitudes by checking how

strongly they agree or disagree with carefully constructed statements that range from

very positive to very negative toward the attitudinal object.

The 5 point Likert Scale was used according to Mogey (2007), so that each specific

question can have its response analysed separately, or have it summed with other

related questions to create a score for a group of statements.

c) Organisational preference to reward categories (PART 3)

This part enables respondents to determine which reward category has the greatest

impact on an organisation’s ability to motivate its employees.

74
d) Individual preferences to reward categories (PART 4)

This part enables to respondents to rank their own reward structure based on the

reward categories using an ordinal scale. The respondents are required to rank their

preference from 1 to 7: 1 = most preferred; 7 = the least preferred. Zikmund (2003),

states that the ordinal scale arranges alternatives to their magnitude in an ordered

relationship.

The data was analysed using the following statistical techniques. Descriptive and

inferential statistics were used to analyse the data and to understand the

characteristics of the sample group. The following was used:

 Mean – Describes the central tendency of the data

 Variance – Shows a relation that a set of scores has to the mean of the

sample. This describes the dispersion of the data

 Standard Deviation - This describes the dispersion of the data. It is a direct

form of variance

 Mode – Is the valid data value that occurs most frequently (Norusis, 2005)

 Median – It is the middle value when observations are ordered from smallest

to largest (Osterloh, Frost, & Rota, 2001)

 Skewness – Is a measure of symmetry of a distribution; in most instances the

comparison is made to a normal distribution (Norusis, 2005)

 ANOVA – One way and two way analysis of variance tests (ANOVA) will be

conducted to understand whether there are meaningful differences between

the reward categories and the different demographic variables

75
  Tukey-Kramer’s - is appropriate when all, or many pairwise comparisons are

of interest

4.6. Survey Pre-Test

The survey was pre tested with a group of 5 people for inputs and comments. Inputs

were further received by a statistician and the research supervisor. Following the

feedback received, the questionnaire was revised and some of the questions were

rephrased. The Likert Scale was reviewed and certain question descriptions were

restated and amended.

4.7. Research Advantages and Limitations

The advantage of an internet based survey is it is low cost and it has the ability to

cover a large group of respondents.

The limitations of this research are that the response rates may regularly be low

when conducting a survey by email. The period for data collection is long and

respondents might be not motivated to fill out the survey when they receive an email

or may simply forget about it. As a result a response bias may occur if some of

subgroups of respondents are more likely to co-operate than others. A further

limitation to this survey was the fact that the same respondents participated in

answering both the employee/individual preference to reward categories and the

76
organisation preference to reward categories, which may have resulted in some bias

to the responses given.

4.8. Chapter Summary

The chapter attempted to discuss and describe the design of the research, including

the research description, the research instrument and the procedure used to obtain

the data. Furthermore, this chapter identified and provided insight into the statistical

analysis techniques employed (descriptive and inferential analyses) and the

relevance in testing the hypotheses of this study. This chapter looked at the research

plan for the study, starting off with the research methodology, then the target

population and sample, and finally the research instrument and its design. The

following chapter presents the research results from the information gathered from

the questionnaire.

77
 5. Presentation of Results

5.1. Introduction

The purpose of this chapter is to present the results that were obtained after applying

the statistical techniques outlined in Chapter 4. Conclusions are then drawn on the

basis of the obtained results

This chapter presents a detailed analysis of results through descriptives, frequencies

and inferential statistics. The response sample consisted of 180 respondents out of

415 respondents of which 18 respondents were not able to receive the

questionnaire. The measuring instrument was a questionnaire consisting of four key

elements. Part 1 dealt with seven demographic items. Part 2 focused on the different

reward elements and components utilised by organisations and their preferences.

Part 3 focused on the impact of an organisations ability to motivate its employees.

Part 4 focused on individual preferences for specific reward categories.

5.2. Response Rate

The response was as follows:

Questionnaire Responses:

Questionnaires Failed Responses Response Rate

Sent Responses Received
MBA Group 405 18 180 47%

78
A total of 405 emails were sent to the selected sample of past and present MBA

students from a Johannesburg based business school. Of the 405 emails sent with

the survey questionnaire link attached, 18 emails bounced back from the sample

size. A total of a 180 responses were received from the targeted respondents. The

response rate from the respondents was 47%. This response rate was reasonable.

The questionnaire was developed and distributed on the Survey Monkey website

and e-mail facilities were used to send out the online link of the questionnaire to the

selected respondents. Reminders were sent out in a similar way. The reminders

assisted in improving the response rate.

5.3. Analysis of the Demographic Profile

PART 1 of the questionnaire requested respondents to provide their demographic

profile, which is analysed in the following section.

5.3.1. Gender Profile

There was a higher response rate from males at 73% compared to the women with a

response rate of 27%. The table and chart below depicts the gender profile of the

sample.

Table 1: Gender Profile

Gender Frequency Percent

male 131 72.78
female 49 27.22

79
 Chart 1: Gender Profile

80

70

60
% of sample

50

40

30

20

10

0
male female
Gender category

5.3.2. Ethnicity Profile

The ethnic make-up of the sample showed that there was a higher response rate

from White and African respondents at 40% and 36% respectively. The table and

chart below depicts the ethnic profile of the sample.

Table 2: Ethnicity Profile

Race Frequency Percent

White 72 40.00
African 64 35.56
Asian 34 18.89
Coloured 10 5.56

80
 Chart 2: Ethnicity Profile

45
40
35
30
% of sample

25
20
15
10
5
0
White African Asian Coloured

5.3.3. Age Profile

The majority portion of the sample fell within the age group of 30 and 39 years,

which contributes 71% of the sample. The second largest portion of the sample fell

within the age groups of 18 and 29 years and 40 and 49 years, which each

contributed to 14% of the sample. The table and chart below depicts the age profile

of the sample.

Table 3: Age Profile

Age Frequency Percent

18-29y 26 14.44
30-39y 127 70.56
40-49y 26 14.44
50-59y 1 0.56
60y+ 0 0.00

81
 Chart 3: Age Profile

80

70

60
% of sample

50

40

30

20

10

0
18-29y 30-39y 40-49y 50-59y 60y+
Age category

5.3.4. Education Profile

72% of the respondents have reported to have a post graduate degree, whilst 26%

of the respondents have reported to have a degree/diploma. Of the total 180

respondents, 98% have reported to have a tertiary education. The table and chart

below depicts the age profile of the sample.

Table 4: Education Profile

Qualification Frequency Percent

Matric 0 0.00
Degree / 47 26.11
Diploma
Postgraduate 129 71.67
degree
Other 4 2.22

82
 Chart 4: Education Profile

80
70
60
% of sample

50
40
30
20
10
0
Matric Degree / Postgraduate Other
Diploma degree

5.3.5. Job Level Profile

45% of the respondents have reported their job level profile to be that of a Senior

Manager, whilst 19% of respondents have reported their job level profile to be that of

a Junior Manager. The table and chart below depicts the job level profile of the

sample.

83
 Table 5: Job Level Profile

Position Frequency Percent

Clerical / 0 0.00
Admin
Specialist 32 17.78
Junior 35 19.44
Manager
Senior 81 45.00
Manager
Executive 29 16.11
Other 3 1.67

Chart 5: Job Profile Level

50
45
40
35
% of sample

30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Clerical / Specialist Junior Senior Executive Other
Admin Manager Manager

5.3.6. Job Role Profile

The most frequent category respondents reported was ‘Other’ which tells us that the

given categories in the questionnaire were not adequate as the respondents opted to

utilise the ‘Other’ category. ‘Other’ contributed to 33% of the sample whilst Finance,

Sales and Marketing contributed to 18%, 15% and 15% respectively. Table 6 and

Chart 6 below depict the job role profile of the sample.

84
 Table 6: Job Role Profile

Role Frequency Percent

Human Capital 7 3.89
IT 15 8.33
Finance 33 18.33
Sales 27 15.00
Marketing 27 15.00
Supply Chain 12 6.67
Other 59 32.78

Chart 6: Job Role Profile

35

30

25
% of sample

20

15

10

0
Human IT Finance Sales Marketing Supply Other
Capital Chain

Due to the high percentage of the job role profile descriptions given under ‘Other’.

These were tabulated and re-coded in the analysis, Refer to Table 7.1. These were

grouped into a number of new role descriptions and some were combined with

existing role categories. There is an even mix of respondents within the Finance,

Marketing and Sales job role profile contributing to 18%, 15% and 15% respectively.

12% of respondents reported Supply Chain and Operations and 9% reported

Technical as a job role profile under ‘Other’. Table 7.2 and Chart 7 below depict the

re-coded job role profile descriptions of the sample.

85
 Table 7.1: Re-coded Job Role From Other

Role_other Frequency Percent Re-coded Role

analyst 1 1.69 Other
analytics 1 1.69 Other
audit 3 5.08 Lega l & Ri s k Ma na gement
business development 3 5.08 Genera l Ma na gement
business owner 1 1.69 Genera l Ma na gement
construction 2 3.39 Techni ca l
consultant 1 1.69 Cons ul tancy
consulting 3 5.08 Cons ul tancy
consulting engineering 1 1.69 Techni ca l
engineer 1 1.69 Techni ca l
engineering 7 11.86 Techni ca l
engineering - functional head 1 1.69 Techni ca l
environmental 1 1.69 Other
general management 4 6.78 Genera l Ma na gement
gm 1 1.69 Genera l Ma na gement
gneral management 1 1.69 Genera l Ma na gement
legal 2 3.39 Lega l & Ri s k Ma na gement
legal and regulatiory 1 1.69 Lega l & Ri s k Ma na gement
management consulting 1 1.69 Genera l Ma na gement
management information 1 1.69 Genera l Ma na gement
medical 1 1.69 Other
mining / technical services 1 1.69 Suppl y Cha i n & Opera tions
operational compliance and risk 1 1.69 Suppl y Cha i n & Opera tions
operations 4 6.78 Suppl y Cha i n & Opera tions
production or operations 1 1.69 Suppl y Cha i n & Opera tions
project consulting 1 1.69 Cons ul tancy
quality assurance 1 1.69 Techni ca l
regulatory compliance 1 1.69 Lega l & Ri s k Ma na gement
research 2 3.39 Techni ca l
risk 2 3.39 Lega l & Ri s k Ma na gement
science 1 1.69 Techni ca l
strategy 2 3.39 Other
strategy and implementation 1 1.69 Other
sustainability 1 1.69 Other
technical 1 1.69 Suppl y Cha i n & Opera tions
technical manager 1 1.69 Suppl y Cha i n & Opera tions

86
 Table 7.2: Re-coded Job Role Profile Descriptions

Role_coded Role Frequency Percent

Finance 33 18.33
Marketing 27 15.00
Sales 27 15.00
Supply Chain & Operations 21 11.67
Technical 16 8.89
IT 15 8.33
General Management 12 6.67
Legal & Risk Management 9 5.00
Human Capital 7 3.89
Consultancy 5 2.78
Other 8 4.44

Chart 7: Re-coded Job Role Profile

% of sample
0 5 10 15 20

Finance
Marketing
Sales
Supply Chain & Operations
Technical
IT
General Management
Legal & Risk Management
Human Capital
Consultancy
Other

5.3.7. Job Tenure at Current Organisation

42% of the respondents reported to have had been employed in their current

organisation between 3 and 5 years. 23% of the respondents fall within 0 and 2

87
years and 20% fall within 6 and 8 years. The table and chart below depicts the job

tenure profile of the sample.

Table 8: Job Tenure

Tenure Frequency Percent

0-2y 42 23.33
3-5y 76 42.22
6-8y 36 20.00
9-10y 7 3.89
11y+ 19 10.56

Chart 8: Job Tenure

45
40
35
30
% of sample

25
20
15
10
5
0
0-2y 3-5y 6-8y 9-10y 11y+
Duration of employment at present organisation

In summary, the majority of the respondents were males and of non-white ethnicity.

The majority of the respondents fell within the age group of 30 – 39 years with a post

graduate degree. The majority of these respondents were senior managers who

worked within the Finance, Sales and Marketing professions. Finally, the majority of

the respondents have been working for 3 and 5 years in their respective companies.

The implications of this will be discussed later.

88
 5.4. Analysis of the Reward Preferences

PART 2 of the questionnaire was aimed at determining how important various

rewards were to the respondent’s organisation from a motivation perspective.

Respondents were required to indicate their organisation’s preference on the scale

provided by ticking the appropriate box. In this case, the respondents were required

to ‘put themselves in their organisation’s shoes’ and consider what the reward

preference on motivation would be from an organisational perspective. The

questions in this section are based on the WorldatWork organisation’s classification

of total rewards.

The tabulation of the raw scores for each reward preferences is highlighted in the

table below. The reward preference with the highest percentage is marked in bold

and that with the second highest percentage is marked in blue. This is highlighted in

Table 9.

The top two and bottom two categories were collapsed; those deemed unimportant

and of little importance were collapsed into unimportant; and important and very

important were collapsed into important; to give an overall indication of the

importance and unimportance, respectively, of each reward preference. A combined

percentage of 60% or more was selected as being highly indicative of importance or

unimportant for specific reward preferences and the highlighted in yellow. The results

are shown in Table 9.

89
Table 10 highlights the benefits which more than 60% of the respondents scored in

the top two categories (Important / Very Important). Financial benefits scored the

highest, followed by Organisation and Work Performance Recognition benefits.

90
 Table 9: Results of Section 2 Reward Preferences

% of sample

Neither Unimportant
Of Little Very Important
N Unimportant Unimportant Important (Bottom 2
Importance Important (Top 2 Box)
nor Important Box)

FINANCIAL BENEFITS

Basic Salary 180 1.1 2.8 8.3 51.7 36.1 3.9 87.8

Performance Bonuses 180 0.6 5.0 3.9 37.2 53.3 5.6 90.6

ORGANISATION BENEFITS

Medical Aid Benefits 180 6.7 5.0 7.8 49.4 31.1 11.7 80.6

Retirement Funds 180 6.1 2.8 11.1 43.3 36.7 8.9 80.0

Cell Phone Benefits 180 11.1 17.2 26.1 38.3 7.2 28.3 45.6

Fuel Benefits 180 14.4 19.4 24.4 32.8 8.9 33.9 41.7

WORK PERFORMANCE RECOGNITION & INVOLVEMENT

Full appreciation of work done 180 0.0 5.6 11.1 47.2 36.1 5.6 83.3

Feeling of being well informed 180 0.0 9.4 8.3 43.9 38.3 9.4 82.2

Freedom to plan and work independently 180 1.1 8.9 9.4 31.7 48.9 10.0 80.6

Participation in goal setting 180 1.1 8.3 8.9 41.1 40.6 9.4 81.7

CAREER DEVELOPMENT MANAGEMENT & COACHING/MENTORING

Promotion and growth in the organisation opportunity 180 2.2 8.9 11.1 32.8 45.0 11.1 77.8

Leadership training 180 3.3 11.1 16.7 36.7 32.2 14.4 68.9

Mentorship programs 180 6.7 15.0 18.9 33.3 26.1 21.7 59.4

Internships 180 7.8 23.3 33.3 28.9 6.7 31.1 35.6

Secondments 180 10.6 15.6 36.1 30.6 7.2 26.1 37.8

Clear career path 180 6.7 13.3 17.8 33.9 28.3 20.0 62.2

Overseas assignments 180 16.7 19.4 27.8 26.7 9.4 36.1 36.1

Job rotation 180 13.9 18.3 28.9 27.2 11.7 32.2 38.9

Succession Planning 180 6.7 12.2 17.2 37.2 26.7 18.9 63.9

WORK LIFE BALANCE

Flexible working hours 180 5.0 10.6 11.7 41.1 31.7 15.6 72.8

Alternative work sites/work at home 180 8.9 13.9 18.9 37.2 21.1 22.8 58.3

Employee Wellness and Health Programs 180 6.1 11.1 26.7 37.2 18.9 17.2 56.1

Onsite childcare services 180 33.9 19.4 28.3 12.2 6.1 53.3 18.3

24 Hours Wellness Line 180 19.4 18.9 23.9 29.4 8.3 38.3 37.8

Paid Maternity Leave 180 9.4 7.2 19.4 41.7 22.2 16.7 63.9

WORK ENVIRONMENT
Good working conditions (such as light, temperature, cleanliness, low
180 0.6 5.6 10.6 53.3 30.0 6.1 83.3
noise level)
Organisation close to amenities 180 1.7 13.3 26.7 43.9 14.4 15.0 58.3

Eating and Smoking facilities 180 12.2 13.9 23.3 39.4 11.1 26.1 50.6

Parking Availability 180 1.1 8.3 17.8 44.4 28.3 9.4 72.8

LEARNING OPPORTUNITIES

Scholarships 180 8.3 10.6 17.2 42.2 21.7 18.9 63.9

Full Time/Part time study re-imbursement 180 6.7 3.3 18.3 42.8 28.9 10.0 71.7

Company in house training and development 180 3.3 10.0 17.2 43.3 26.1 13.3 69.4

Overseas seminars/conferences 180 12.8 15.0 26.1 31.7 14.4 27.8 46.1

bold = category with highest percentage

blue = category with second highest percentage

91
Table 10: Results of the Reward Preferences which more than 60% of the

respondents scored in the top two categories (Important / Very Important)

% of sample

FINANCIAL BENEFITS

Basic Salary 87.8

Performance Bonuses 90.6

ORGANISATION BENEFITS

Medical Aid Benefits 80.6

Retirement Funds 80.0

WORK PERFORMANCE RECOGNITION & INVOLVEMENT

Full appreciation of work done 83.3

Feeling of being well informed 82.2

Freedom to plan and work independently 80.6

Participation in goal setting 81.7

CAREER DEVELOPMENT MANAGEMENT & COACHING/MENTORING

Promotion and growth in the organisation opportunity 77.8

Leadership training 68.9

Clear career path 62.2

Succession Planning 63.9

WORK LIFE BALANCE

Flexible working hours 72.8

Paid Maternity Leave 63.9

WORK ENVIRONMENT
Good working conditions (such as light, temperature, cleanliness, low
83.3
noise level)
Parking Availability 72.8

LEARNING OPPORTUNITIES

Scholarships 63.9

Full Time/Part time study re-imbursement 71.7

Company in house training and development 69.4

92
Chart 9 illustrates, in decreasing order of reward preference importance to

respondents. There were no reward preferences which more than 60% of the

respondents scored in the bottom two categories (Unimportant / Of little importance).

The highest response in this unimportant grouping was for onsite childcare services

(53%) as indicated in Table 9. The possible reasons as to why the percentage of the

sample was so low in the unimportant box may be as a result of:

 Overall good benefits by the organisations from which the sample was drawn

and/or

 Having a neutral category, ‘Neither Unimportant nor Important’ and not forcing

a choice

93
 Chart 9: Decreasing Order of Reward Preference Importance

% of sample rating Important / Very Important

60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100

Performance Bonuses

Basic Salary

Full appreciation of work done

Good working conditions

Feeling of being well informed

Participation in goal setting

Freedom to plan and work independently

Medical Aid Benefits

Retirement Funds

Promotion & growth in organisation

Flexible working hours

Parking Availability

Full Time/Part time study re-imbursement

Company in house training and development

Leadership training

Succession Planning

Paid Maternity Leave

Scholarships

Clear career path

94
 5.4.1. Statistical Analysis of Reward Preferences

The results of the statistical analysis, generated on the basis of the use of descriptive

and inferential statistics, are presented in the forms of a table. The study analyses

the motivation and job satisfaction of the sampled group to whom the questionnaires

were administered, and analyses differences with respect to demographic variables.

Table 11 highlights the statistical analysis calculated on the reward preferences.

The mean, median, standard deviation, skewness and normalised skewness

(z(skewness)) for each of the reward preferences are tabulated in the table below.

An absolute value of z(skewness) greater than 2.58 indicates significant skewness at

the 99% significance level. The following can be concluded:

 Financial Benefits:

Both financial rewards obtained a mean rating of very important. The negative

skewness of the distributions also indicates a positive rating of these reward

benefits.

 Organisation Benefits:

Medical aid and retirement fund benefits obtained a mean rating of very important.

The negative skewness of the distributions also indicates a positive rating of these

rewards. Cell phone and fuel benefits were rated neutral.

95
  Work Performance Recognition and Involvement:

All four reward benefits obtained a mean rating of very important. The negative

skewness of the distributions also indicates a positive rating of these reward

benefits.

 Career Development Management and Coaching / Mentoring:

The reward benefits opportunity for promotion & growth, leadership training,

mentorship programmes, Clear career path and succession planning obtained a

mean rating of very important. The negative skewness of the distributions also

indicates a positive rating of these reward benefits. The remaining reward benefits in

this section were rated neutral.

 Work / Life Balance:

All reward benefits, except onsite childcare and 24hours wellness lines (which were

rated of little importance and neutral respectively), obtained a mean rating of very

important. The negative skewness of the distributions also indicates a positive rating

of these reward benefits.

 Work Environment:

All reward benefits except eating & smoking facilities (which was rated neutral)

obtained a mean rating of very important. The negative skewness of the

distributions also indicates a positive rating of these reward benefits.

96
  Learning Opportunities:

All reward benefits except overseas seminars/conferences (which were rated

neutral) obtained a mean rating of very important. The negative skewness of the

distributions also indicates a positive rating of these benefits.

97
 Table 11: Statistical Analysis of Reward Preferences

Standard
N Mean Median Skewness z(skewness)
Deviation

FINANCIAL BENEFITS

Basic Salary 180 4.2 4 0.79 -1.24 -6.82

Performance Bonuses 180 4.4 5 0.83 -1.58 -8.67
ORGANISATION BENEFITS

Medical Aid Benefits 180 3.9 4 1.09 -1.35 -7.41

Retirement Funds 180 4.0 4 1.07 -1.39 -7.61
Cell Phone Benefits 180 3.1 3 1.13 -0.43 -2.35
Fuel Benefits 180 3.0 3 1.21 -0.23 -1.28
WORK PERFORMANCE RECOGNITION & INVOLVEMENT

Full appreciation of work done 180 4.1 4 0.82 -0.87 -4.76

Feeling of being well informed 180 4.1 4 0.91 -0.98 -5.34
Freedom to plan and work independently 180 4.2 4 1.01 -1.18 -6.44
Participation in goal setting 180 4.1 4 0.96 -1.12 -6.14
CAREER DEVELOPMENT MANAGEMENT & COACHING/MENTORING

Promotion and growth in the organisation opportunity 180 4.1 4 1.06 -1.11 -6.10
Leadership training 180 3.8 4 1.10 -0.78 -4.28
Mentorship programs 180 3.6 4 1.21 -0.55 -3.01
Internships 180 3.0 3 1.05 -0.13 -0.69
Secondments 180 3.1 3 1.08 -0.33 -1.79
Clear career path 180 3.6 4 1.21 -0.64 -3.52

Overseas assignments 180 2.9 3 1.23 -0.10 -0.54

Job rotation 180 3.0 3 1.22 -0.16 -0.88

Succession Planning 180 3.7 4 1.19 -0.71 -3.86
WORK LIFE BALANCE

Flexible working hours 180 3.8 4 1.13 -0.96 -5.23

Alternative work sites/work at home 180 3.5 4 1.22 -0.57 -3.13
Employee Wellness and Health Programs 180 3.5 4 1.11 -0.56 -3.05
Onsite childcare services 180 2.4 2 1.24 0.44 2.41
24 Hours Wellness Line 180 2.9 3 1.26 -0.12 -0.63
Paid Maternity Leave 180 3.6 4 1.18 -0.83 -4.56
WORK ENVIRONMENT
Good working conditions (such as light, temperature, cleanliness, low
180 4.1 4 0.82 -0.98 -5.35
noise level)
Organisation close to amenities 180 3.6 4 0.95 -0.43 -2.37
Eating and Smoking facilities 180 3.2 4 1.19 -0.50 -2.75
Parking Availability 180 3.9 4 0.94 -0.74 -4.04
LEARNING OPPORTUNITIES

Scholarships 180 3.6 4 1.18 -0.77 -4.20

Full Time/Part time study re-imbursement 180 3.8 4 1.09 -1.09 -5.98
Company in house training and development 180 3.8 4 1.05 -0.81 -4.43
Overseas seminars/conferences 180 3.2 3 1.23 -0.33 -1.83

98
 5.5. Analysis of the Organisation Preference to Reward Categories

PART 3 of the questionnaire was aimed at indicating the organisational preference to

reward the specified categories and which reward category had the greatest impact

of an ORGANISATION’S ability to motivate. The respondents were required to

indicate their organisation’s preference on the scale provided by ticking the

appropriate box.

42% of respondents felt that financial benefits had the greatest impact on an

organisation’s ability to motivate its employees. This was followed by career

development and performance recognition (21% each). The table and chart below

depicts the organisation’s ability to motivate by using different benefit categories of

the sample.

Table 12: Organisations’ ability to motivate using different benefit categories

Motivate Frequency Percent

Financial Benefits 76 42.22
Career Development 37 20.56
Performance Recognition 37 20.56
Work Life Balance 16 8.89
Learning Opportunities 6 3.33
Organisation Benefits 6 3.33
Work Environment 2 1.11

99
 Chart 10: Organisations’ ability to motivate using different benefit categories

% of sample
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

Financial Benefits

Career Development

Performance Recognition

Work Life Balance

Learning Opportunities

Organisation Benefits

Work Environment

5.6. Analysis of the Individual Preferences for Reward Categories

PART 4 of the questionnaire was aimed at assessing the individual preferences for

different reward categories. The respondents were required to rank their individual

preferences from 1 to 7, with 1 being the most preferred and 7 the least preferred.

The mean (average) ranking of the different reward benefit categories is shown in

the table and chart below. The ranking scale was 1=most important; 7=least

important.

It is clear that financial benefits rated most highly with the respondents and these

were also the reward structures rated most highly by organisations (see results from

Section B). Likewise, the ranking of performance recognition in second place

100
followed that of the organisations themselves. While some organisational benefits

(retirement, medical aid) were rated highly by the organisations, organisational

benefits as a whole were not rated highly by employees when ranking their own

reward structure. The same was true for learning opportunities and work

environment. Conversely, career development and work-life balance appeared to

have been rated more highly by employees than the importance attached to these

benefits by organisations.

Table 13: Individual Preferences for Reward Categories

Variable N Mean Median Std Dev Skewness z(skewness)

Financial Benefits 180 1.93 2 1.17 1.65 9.06
Performance Recognition 180 2.81 3 1.48 0.72 3.96
Career development 180 3.44 4 1.66 0.08 0.44
Work Life Balance 180 4.37 5 1.70 -0.47 -2.58
Organisation Benefits 180 4.71 5 1.76 -0.28 -1.51
Learning Opportunities 180 4.96 5 1.77 -0.47 -2.59
Work Environment 180 5.80 6 1.35 -1.13 -6.17

Chart 11: Individual Preferences for Reward Categories – Mean Ranking

Mean ranking
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Financial Benefits

Performance Recognition

Career development

Work Life Balance

Organisation Benefits

Learning Opportunities

Work Environment

101
For the testing of demographic group differences with regards to these rankings, the

following adjustments were made to the demographic variables:

 Age: The 50-59y age category (1 respondent) and 60y+ age category (0

respondents) were combined with the 40-49y age category to form the 40y+

age category

 Qualification: The 4 responses in the category ‘Other’ were excluded from the

analysis

 Position: The 3 responses in the category ‘Other’ were excluded from the

analysis

 Role: The 8 responses in the category ‘Other’ were excluded from the

analysis

 Tenure: The 9-10y and 11y+ categories were combined to form the 9y+

category

The descriptive statistics for the benefit category scores with regards to the

demographic variable groupings are highlighted in the following tables:

102
 Table 14: Benefit Category Scores - Gender

Benefit category Gender N Mean Std Dev

female 49 2.1 1.27
Financial Benefits
male 131 1.9 1.13
female 49 4.9 1.67
Organisation Benefits
male 131 4.7 1.79
female 49 3.0 1.58
Performance Recognition
male 131 2.7 1.44
female 49 3.4 1.67
Career development
male 131 3.5 1.66
female 49 4.0 1.81
Work Life Balance
male 131 4.5 1.65
female 49 5.6 1.53
Work Environment
male 131 5.9 1.27
female 49 5.1 1.91
Learning Opportunities
male 131 4.9 1.73

Table 15: Benefit Category Scores - Age

Benefit category Age N Mean Std Dev

18-29y 26 2.1 1.42
Financial Benefits 30-39y 127 1.8 1.09
40y+ 27 2.2 1.23
18-29y 26 4.7 1.62
Organisation Benefits 30-39y 127 4.7 1.75
40y+ 27 4.7 1.95
18-29y 26 2.8 1.67
Performance Recognition 30-39y 127 2.9 1.50
40y+ 27 2.6 1.22
18-29y 26 2.9 1.41
Career development 30-39y 127 3.5 1.68
40y+ 27 3.7 1.66
18-29y 26 4.8 1.67
Work Life Balance 30-39y 127 4.4 1.70
40y+ 27 4.0 1.70
18-29y 26 5.7 1.52
Work Environment 30-39y 127 5.8 1.32
40y+ 27 5.8 1.33
18-29y 26 5.1 1.66
Learning Opportunities 30-39y 127 4.9 1.77
40y+ 27 5.1 1.96

103
 Table 16: Benefit Category Scores – Race

Benefit category Race N Mean Std Dev

African 64 2.0 1.27
Asian 34 2.0 1.47
Financial Benefits
Coloured 10 1.5 0.71
White 72 1.9 0.95
African 64 4.3 1.77
Asian 34 4.7 1.73
Organisation Benefits
Coloured 10 4.6 1.78
White 72 5.1 1.70
African 64 3.1 1.54
Asian 34 2.6 1.44
Performance Recognition
Coloured 10 3.7 1.57
White 72 2.5 1.36
African 64 3.5 1.80
Asian 34 3.2 1.43
Career development
Coloured 10 4.4 1.43
White 72 3.4 1.63
African 64 4.3 1.77
Asian 34 4.6 1.60
Work Life Balance
Coloured 10 3.5 2.12
White 72 4.4 1.63
African 64 5.7 1.47
Asian 34 5.9 1.47
Work Environment
Coloured 10 5.8 1.40
White 72 5.9 1.18
African 64 5.1 1.83
Asian 34 5.0 1.62
Learning Opportunities
Coloured 10 4.5 2.17
White 72 4.9 1.76

104
 Table 17: Benefit Category Scores – Qualification

Benefit category Qualification N Mean Std Dev

degree / diploma 46 2.0 0.93
Financial Benefits
postgraduate 129 2.0 1.26
degree / diploma 46 4.4 1.79
Organisation Benefits
postgraduate 129 4.8 1.74
degree / diploma 46 3.0 1.56
Performance Recognition
postgraduate 129 2.7 1.44
degree / diploma 46 3.4 1.75
Career development
postgraduate 129 3.4 1.65
degree / diploma 46 4.8 1.69
Work Life Balance
postgraduate 129 4.2 1.68
degree / diploma 46 5.9 1.37
Work Environment
postgraduate 129 5.8 1.33
degree / diploma 46 4.7 1.84
Learning Opportunities
postgraduate 129 5.1 1.77

105
 Table 18: Benefit Category Scores – Position

Benefit category Position N Mean Std Dev

Specialist 32 2.1 1.33
Junior Manager 35 1.7 0.92
Financial Benefits
Senior Manager 81 1.8 0.96
Executive 29 2.3 1.65
Specialist 32 4.5 1.93
Junior Manager 35 4.5 1.65
Organisation Benefits
Senior Manager 81 4.9 1.75
Executive 29 4.7 1.78
Specialist 32 2.8 1.80
Junior Manager 35 2.9 1.44
Performance Recognition
Senior Manager 81 2.8 1.42
Executive 29 2.7 1.28
Specialist 32 3.7 1.69
Junior Manager 35 3.1 1.47
Career development
Senior Manager 81 3.6 1.71
Executive 29 3.0 1.68
Specialist 32 4.6 1.70
Junior Manager 35 4.5 1.67
Work Life Balance
Senior Manager 81 4.1 1.67
Executive 29 4.7 1.77
Specialist 32 5.5 1.54
Junior Manager 35 5.7 1.47
Work Environment
Senior Manager 81 5.9 1.20
Executive 29 5.9 1.37
Specialist 32 4.8 1.79
Junior Manager 35 5.5 1.74
Learning Opportunities
Senior Manager 81 4.9 1.78
Executive 29 4.7 1.70

106
 Table 19: Benefit Category Scores – Role

Benefit category Role N Mean Std Dev

Consultancy 5 2.0 0.71
Finance 33 1.8 1.23
General Management 12 2.3 1.96
Human Capital 7 2.6 1.81
IT 15 1.8 1.01
Financial Benefits
Legal & Risk Management 9 2.0 1.12
Marketing 27 1.7 0.91
Sales 27 2.0 1.09
Supply Chain & Operations 21 2.0 1.18
Technical 16 2.1 0.93
Consultancy 5 4.4 1.67
Finance 33 4.7 1.86
General Management 12 5.2 2.04
Human Capital 7 5.4 1.62
IT 15 5.4 1.59
Organisation Benefits
Legal & Risk Management 9 3.3 1.87
Marketing 27 4.3 1.41
Sales 27 4.9 1.79
Supply Chain & Operations 21 5.0 1.79
Technical 16 4.1 1.59
Consultancy 5 2.0 1.22
Finance 33 2.5 1.25
General Management 12 2.3 0.89
Human Capital 7 3.7 2.06
IT 15 2.5 1.41
Performance Recognition
Legal & Risk Management 9 3.0 2.12
Marketing 27 3.2 1.75
Sales 27 3.3 1.51
Supply Chain & Operations 21 2.6 1.12
Technical 16 2.7 1.40
Consultancy 5 3.2 2.28
Finance 33 3.7 1.38
General Management 12 3.1 1.56
Human Capital 7 2.7 2.14
IT 15 3.3 1.44
Career development
Legal & Risk Management 9 3.7 1.22
Marketing 27 3.1 1.54
Sales 27 3.3 1.68
Supply Chain & Operations 21 3.9 1.84
Technical 16 3.7 2.21
Consultancy 5 5.6 1.14
Finance 33 4.3 1.64
General Management 12 4.9 1.38
Human Capital 7 4.4 1.51
IT 15 4.3 1.68
Work Life Balance
Legal & Risk Management 9 5.3 1.00
Marketing 27 4.4 1.67
Sales 27 4.4 1.93
Supply Chain & Operations 21 4.0 1.91
Technical 16 3.6 1.82
Consultancy 5 6.6 0.55
Finance 33 5.5 1.56
General Management 12 5.8 1.19
Human Capital 7 5.1 1.95
IT 15 5.2 1.57
Work Environment
Legal & Risk Management 9 5.8 1.30
Marketing 27 6.2 1.15
Sales 27 6.0 1.30
Supply Chain & Operations 21 6.0 1.22
Technical 16 5.8 1.17
Consultancy 5 4.2 0.84
Finance 33 5.6 1.48
General Management 12 4.4 1.56
Human Capital 7 4.0 1.83
IT 15 5.6 1.40
Learning Opportunities
Legal & Risk Management 9 4.9 2.32
Marketing 27 5.0 1.74
Sales 27 4.3 1.89
Supply Chain & Operations 21 4.5 1.81
Technical 16 6.0 1.03

107
 Table 20: Benefit Category Scores – Tenure

Benefit category Tenure N Mean Std Dev

0-2y 42 2.0 1.38
3-5y 76 1.9 1.15
Financial Benefits
6-8y 36 1.8 0.80
9y+ 26 2.0 1.31
0-2y 42 4.5 1.82
3-5y 76 4.6 1.86
Organisation Benefits
6-8y 36 4.9 1.57
9y+ 26 5.1 1.57
0-2y 42 3.1 1.50
3-5y 76 2.9 1.48
Performance Recognition
6-8y 36 2.6 1.53
9y+ 26 2.4 1.36
0-2y 42 3.6 1.68
3-5y 76 3.6 1.66
Career development
6-8y 36 3.1 1.48
9y+ 26 3.2 1.83
0-2y 42 4.2 1.75
3-5y 76 4.4 1.79
Work Life Balance
6-8y 36 4.3 1.56
9y+ 26 4.6 1.63
0-2y 42 5.8 1.34
3-5y 76 5.5 1.49
Work Environment
6-8y 36 6.3 1.04
9y+ 26 6.1 1.06
0-2y 42 4.8 2.04
3-5y 76 5.1 1.82
Learning Opportunities
6-8y 36 4.9 1.61
9y+ 26 4.7 1.41

108
To avoid the effects of possible bias in the demographics (e.g. more older women

and more younger men), the differences in the demographic variables were not

tested for one by one but, rather, a General Linear Model was used to test for the

effect of each demographic variable while controlling for the effects of the other

demographic variables. This was done for each of the seven benefit category

scores. The following tables and charts highlight this:

Table 21: Benefit Category Scores – Financial Benefits

Dependent Variable: Financial_Benefits

Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Value Pr > F

Model 22 24.5881956 1.1176453 0.76 0.7677
Error 143 209.9238526 1.467999

Corrected Total 165 234.5120482

R-Square Coeff Var Root MSE Financial_Benefits Mean

0.104848 62.26851 1.21161 1.945783

Source DF Type III SS Mean Square F Value Pr > F

Gender 1 0.665 0.665 0.45 0.502
Age 2 4.072 2.036 1.39 0.253
Race 3 3.702 1.234 0.84 0.474
Qualification 1 0.299 0.299 0.20 0.652
Position 3 6.779 2.260 1.54 0.207
Role 9 7.113 0.790 0.54 0.845
Tenure 3 0.662 0.221 0.15 0.929

The overall model for the financial benefits scores was not significant (F=0.76,

p=0.76). None of the demographic variables was significant, indicating that these did

not have a significant effect on the ranking of financial benefits by the different

groups of respondents.

109
 Table 22: Benefit Category Scores – Organisation Benefits

Dependent Variable: Organisation_Benefits

Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Value Pr > F

Model 22 78.4225557 3.5646616 1.18 0.2711
Error 143 430.5172033 3.0106098
Corrected Total 165 508.939759

R-Square Coeff Var Root MSE Organisation_Benefits

Mean
0.15409 36.92672 1.735111 4.698795

Source DF Type III SS Mean Square F Value Pr > F

Gender 1 5.477 5.477 1.82 0.180
Age 2 3.422 1.711 0.57 0.568
Race 3 19.974 6.658 2.21 0.089
Qualification 1 4.382 4.382 1.46 0.230
Position 3 2.614 0.871 0.29 0.833
Role 9 37.412 4.157 1.38 0.202
Tenure 3 2.594 0.865 0.29 0.835

The overall model for the organisation benefits scores was not significant (F=1.18,

p=0.27). None of the demographic variables was significant, indicating that these did

not have a significant effect on the ranking of organisation benefits by the different

groups of respondents.

110
 Table 23: Benefit Category Scores – Performance Recognition

Dependent Variable: Performance_Recognition

Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Value Pr > F

Model 22 51.8286359 2.3558471 1.11 0.3426
Error 143 303.3822074 2.1215539
Corrected Total 165 355.2108434

R-Square Coeff Var Root MSE Performance_Recognition

Mean
0.145909 51.77478 1.456555 2.813253

Source DF Type III SS Mean Square F Value Pr > F

Gender 1 0.596 0.596 0.28 0.597
Age 2 1.654 0.827 0.39 0.678
Race 3 10.230 3.410 1.61 0.190
Qualification 1 1.029 1.029 0.48 0.487
Position 3 2.317 0.772 0.36 0.779
Role 9 23.961 2.662 1.25 0.267
Tenure 3 4.778 1.593 0.75 0.524

The overall model for the performance benefits scores was not significant (F=1.11,

p=0.34). None of the demographic variables was significant, indicating that these did

not have a significant effect on the ranking of performance recognition by the

different groups of respondents.

111
 Table 24: Benefit Category Scores – Career Development

Dependent Variable: Career_development

Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Value Pr > F

Model 22 55.7890421 2.5358655 0.88 0.621
Error 143 412.1687892 2.8822992
Corrected Total 165 467.9578313

R-Square Coeff Var Root MSE Career_development Mean

0.119218 49.88031 1.697734 3.403614

Source DF Type III SS Mean Square F Value Pr > F

Gender 1 1.527 1.527 0.53 0.468
Age 2 10.156 5.078 1.76 0.176
Race 3 3.033 1.011 0.35 0.789
Qualification 1 0.150 0.150 0.05 0.820
Position 3 9.765 3.255 1.13 0.339
Role 9 19.671 2.186 0.76 0.655
Tenure 3 10.044 3.348 1.16 0.327

The overall model for the career benefits scores was not significant (F=0.88,

p=0.621). None of the demographic variables was significant, indicating that these

did not have a significant effect on the ranking of career development by the different

groups of respondents.

112
 Table 25: Benefit Category Scores – Work Life Balance

Dependent Variable: Work_Life_Balance

Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Value Pr > F

Model 22 77.8351542 3.5379616 1.27 0.2013
Error 143 398.1949663 2.7845802
Corrected Total 165 476.0301205

R-Square Coeff Var Root MSE Work_Life_Balance Mean

0.163509 38.31331 1.668706 4.355422

Source DF Type III SS Mean Square F Value Pr > F

Gender 1 5.777 5.777 2.07 0.152
Age 2 5.602 2.801 1.01 0.368
Race 3 4.957 1.652 0.59 0.620
Qualification 1 5.830 5.830 2.09 0.150
Position 3 13.104 4.368 1.57 0.200
Role 9 30.839 3.427 1.23 0.281
Tenure 3 7.075 2.358 0.85 0.470

The overall model for the work life balance scores was not significant (F=1.27,

p=0.2013). None of the demographic variables was significant, indicating that these

did not have a significant effect on the ranking of work life balance by the different

groups of respondents.

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 Table 25: Benefit Category Scores – Work Environment

Dependent Variable: Work_Environment

Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Value Pr > F

Model 22 39.5995982 1.7999817 0.98 0.4939
Error 143 262.8401609 1.8380431
Corrected Total 165 302.439759

R-Square Coeff Var Root MSE Work_Environment Mean

0.130934 23.37005 1.355744 5.801205

Source DF Type III SS Mean Square F Value Pr > F

Gender 1 3.021 3.021 1.64 0.202
Age 2 0.090 0.045 0.02 0.976
Race 3 0.278 0.093 0.05 0.985
Qualification 1 0.568 0.568 0.31 0.579
Position 3 1.146 0.382 0.21 0.891
Role 9 15.159 1.684 0.92 0.513
Tenure 3 14.158 4.719 2.57 0.057

In the case of work environment, the overall model was also not significant (F=0.98,

p=0.49). However, the effect of tenure was marginally significant (p=0.057). The

effect of tenure on work environment is highlighted in Chart 12 below.

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 Chart 12: Work Environment – The Effect of Tenure

Analysis Variable : Work_Environment

Lower Upper
95% 95%
tenure_c2 N Obs N Mean Std Dev
CL for CL for
Mean Mean
0-2y 42 42 5.76 1.34 5.34 6.18
3-5y 76 76 5.49 1.49 5.15 5.83
6-8y 36 36 6.31 1.04 5.95 6.66
9y + 26 26 6.08 1.06 5.65 6.50

6
Work Environment Rating

1
0-2y 3-5y 6-8y 9y +
Tenure

Pairwise multiple comparisons (of all possible pairs) of tenure categories, using

Tukey-Kramer’s multiple comparison adjustment for the p-values and confidence

limits, showed that respondents with a tenure of 3-5y rated the importance of work

environment higher than those with a tenure of 6-8y (controlling for the effects of the

other demographic variables). Although not significant, the overall trend appears to

be that those with a shorter tenure rated work environment as more important than

those with a longer tenure, although it must be noted that in all cases, work

environment received a fairly low rating (means across the tenure categories ranged

from 5.5-6.3 on a 1-7 scale).

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 Table 26: Benefit Category Scores – Learning Opportunities

Dependent Variable: Learning_Opportunities

Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Value Pr > F

Model 22 99.1015819 4.5046174 1.6 0.0542
Error 143 402.8743217 2.8173029
Corrected Total 165 501.9759036

R-Square Coeff Var Root MSE Learning_Opportunities

Mean
0.197423 33.65073 1.678482 4.987952

Source DF Type III SS Mean Square F Value Pr > F

Gender 1 2.072 2.072 0.74 0.393
Age 2 5.990 2.995 1.06 0.348
Race 3 1.054 0.351 0.12 0.945
Qualification 1 3.244 3.244 1.15 0.285
Position 3 19.961 6.654 2.36 0.074
Role 9 64.349 7.150 2.54 0.010
Tenure 3 5.095 1.698 0.60 0.614

In the case of learning opportunities, the overall model was marginally significant

(F=1.6, p=0.054). However, the effect of role was significant (p=0.010). The effect of

role on learning opportunities is highlighted in Chart 13 below.

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 Chart 13: Learning Opportunities – The Effect of Role

Analysis Variable : Learning_Opportunities

Lower Upper
95% 95%
Role_coded N Obs N Mean Std Dev
CL for CL for
Mean Mean
Consultancy 5 5 4.20 0.84 3.16 5.24
Finance 33 33 5.58 1.48 5.05 6.10
General Management 12 12 4.42 1.56 3.42 5.41
Human Capital 7 7 4.00 1.83 2.31 5.69
IT 15 15 5.60 1.40 4.82 6.38
Legal & Risk
9 9 4.89 2.32 3.11 6.67
Management
Marketing 27 27 5.04 1.74 4.35 5.73
Sales 27 27 4.26 1.89 3.51 5.01
Supply Chain &
21 21 4.52 1.81 3.70 5.35
Operations
Technical 16 16 6.00 1.03 5.45 6.55

6
Learning Opportunities Rating

1
Sales
Consultancy

IT
Finance

Human Capital

Supply Chain

Technical
Management

Management

Marketing

Operations
Legal & Risk
General

&

Pairwise comparisons showed a marginally significant difference between sales and

technical roles: technical role respondents rated learning opportunities lower than

sales role respondents (controlling for the effects of the other demographic

variables). It must be noted that in all cases, Learning Opportunities received a

below-average rating (means across the role categories ranged from 4.0-6.0 on a 1-

7 scale).

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 5.7. Conclusion

These results were presented through the use of the research questionnaire and

were reported by means of graphs and charts. This chapter objectively presented the

results of the study using descriptive statistics to describe the results and inferential

statistics to make inferences about characteristics of the population based on the

sample solicited to participate in the study. This enabled the researcher to identify

significant relationships and differences between the variables in the study.

The following chapter presents an in depth analysis and interpretation of the results

from the findings of the study.

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 6. Discussion and Recommendations

6.1. Introduction

The primary purpose of this research was to analyse whether designing a reward

programme with the joint focus on both monetary and non-monetary rewards will

result in increased employee motivation and organisational benefits. To address this

need, this study explored the impact of non-monetary and monetary reward

programmes on employee motivation through an administered survey.

This chapter presents an in depth analysis and interpretation of the results from the

findings of the study. This chapter will utilise the research findings from both the

research literature and the survey results and will integrate these findings to

recommend a modified reward framework that takes into account the preferences of

both employees and organisations.

6.2. Research Questions

The study includes four research questions:

 What are the elements that form part of the reward and incentive offering to

employees in organisations?

 Do various rewards and incentive options have specific impacts on employees

from a motivation perspective?

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  To what extent are organisations utilising non-monetary rewards and

monetary rewards in their offering to motivate employees?

 What are the reward preferences by employees?

6.3. Research Method Review

The tool that has been chosen to collect data is a self-administrated questionnaire.

This type of data collection did not require an interviewer. Respondents were asked

to fill in the questionnaire and were able to read the instructions on their own. The

questionnaires were distributed via an e-mail with a link to an online survey on the

internet, through Survey Monkey.

The sample of this quantitative study consisted of past and present MBA students

from a Johannesburg based business school who have experienced a reward

programme within their organisations. The above sample was selected because of

the experience they have across different industries. A key criterion for participation

was that the respondents had to be working for an organisation during the period the

survey was conducted.

A total of 405 emails were sent to the selected MBA sample was sent with the survey

questionnaire link attached, 18 emails bounced back from the sample size. A total of

a 180 responses were received from the targeted respondents. The response rate

from the respondents was 47%.

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 6.4. Research Question 1 Discussion

What are the elements that form part of the reward and incentive offering to

employees in organisations?

6.4.1. Demographics

Based on the survey results, the sample was 73% male. The majority of respondents

(71%) were aged between 30 and 39 years. The majority of the respondents were

White (40%) and African (36%). 72% of the respondents had a postgraduate degree,

while 26% had a degree or diploma. There were no respondents with only a matric

qualification (presumably a result of the MBA entry criteria).

45% of the respondents were in senior management positions, with the rest roughly

equally distributed between specialist, junior management and executive positions.

There were no respondents in clerical or administrative positions (presumably in line

with the type of person doing MBA studies). Under Role, majority of the sample fell

within the Finance, Marketing and Sales categories. 42% of the respondents had

been employed in their current organisation between 3 and 5 years.

According to the literature review, organisations should customise their total reward

offerings and adapt these reward offerings to the individual needs of the employee.

Furthermore, the reward offerings need to be structured and refined to ensure they

motivate employees. Bussin (2008) supports this view as organisations are required

to become more flexible and, if they want to maximise the performance of their

121
employees, they need to understand that there are different generations with

different preferences regarding work, rewards and recognition.

According to Kerr-Phillips and Thomas (2009), the impact of cultural diversity,

affirmative action, income level gaps and inequality in education, need to be handled

with effectively by South African organisations. South African organisations need to

be proactive and adjust their existing reward programmes to account for changes in

demographics and preferences.

6.4.2. Monetary and Non-Monetary Rewards

In the analysis of the literature and of the research survey, it is clear that

organisations do use a combination of monetary and non-monetary reward

incentives to motive their people. The following reward elements are utilised:

Monetary Rewards:

The respondents who participated in the survey indicated that performance bonuses

and basic salaries were the most important reward elements. This is in line with the

literature review. Ross and Zander (1957) argue that, in order to attract and retain

employees in an organisation, his or her needs must first be satisfied. This is in line

with Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs theory in which the basic needs must be covered

first before one moves further up the pyramid of need levels. These needs would

include a reasonable competitive salary and other competitive monetary benefits.

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Furthermore, according to Kirkcaldy & Furnham (1993) and Tang (1992) money is

related to:

 Achievement and recognition

 Status and respect

 Freedom and control

 Power

This indicates that monetary rewards can possibly lead to non-monetary symbolic

benefits for the individual as expressed in Maslow’s theory.

Non-Monetary Rewards:

The respondents who participated in the survey indicated that the following non-

monetary rewards were the most important reward elements:

 Full appreciation of work done

 Good working conditions

 Feeling of being well informed

 Participation in goal setting

 Freedom to plan and work independently

 Promotion & growth in organisation

This was in line with the literature review. Nelson (2004) argues that employees

expect work-life balance, job flexibility, involvement in strategic discussion,

meaningful roles, and more recognition. Zobal (1999) further states that the best

123
rewards over the long term are non-monetary, whilst monetary rewards are important

in the short term. According to Lawler (1996), non-monetary rewards incline to

endure motivation in the long term.

This is in line with Herzberg’s theory of motivation. Herzberg’s motivational factors

are the factors that motivate employees to the highest level of performance. These

motivators are an essential part of the work itself and include factors such as the

nature of the work, the individual’s sense of accomplishment, level of accountability,

personal growth, recognition and criticism (Schultz, 1982). Nelson and Quick (2003)

suggest that monetary rewards have value and the presence of motivators in the

work environment are essential to enhance employee motivation.

The literature looks at three reward frameworks that have been designed for

organisations and human resource practitioners. It is clear that both monetary and

non-monetary rewards are part of each of the frameworks. It is also clear that the

participants in the survey believe that combinations of both types of rewards are

used in reward programmes. The following core categories are highlighted by the

three reward frameworks mentioned in the literature in Figure 11:

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 Figure 11: Reward Frameworks Reward Categories

WorldatWork Model Hay Group Framework Towers Perrin Rewards Blueprint

Compensation Guaranteed Cash Compensation
Benefits Annual Variable Benefits
Work-Life Long Term Incentives Work Environment
Performance & Recognition Benefits Learning & Development
Development & Career Opportunities Intangible Reward

It is clear that the respondents have highlighted that their organisations utilise a

combination of monetary and non-monetary rewards in their reward programmes. It

is also clear from the literature and from the research survey that monetary benefits,

such as basic pay and performance bonuses, are the most important reward

elements as claimed by the respondents. These elements are the basic elements

required that attract employees to organisations. Motivating employees requires a

combination of both monetary and non-monetary rewards as discussed in the

literature. The respondents viewed reward elements in the work performance

recognition & involvement category as the second most important after the financial

benefits rewards. Promotion and growth in the organisation was also rated highly by

the respondents.

The literature review is in line with this. According to Oldham & Hackman (2010) and

Lawler (2969), with regards to job design, if employees experience the work to be

meaningful, feel personally responsible for results achieved and have knowledge of

the results of their work, it results in their motivation to perform. This argument is in

line with Vroom’s expectancy theory of motivation.

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Both monetary and non-monetary reward elements are utilised by organisations and

it is clear from both the survey and the literature that a combination of financial

benefits and work performance recognitions and involvement elements are the most

important.

6.5. Research Question 2 Discussion

Do various rewards and incentive options have specific impacts on employees

from a motivation perspective?

Respondents were asked to indicate which one of the various reward categories

highlighted in the questionnaire had the greatest impact of an organisation’s ability to

motivate. The following charts highlight the response from the respondents:

Responses: Organisation Preference to Reward Categories

% of sample
0 10 20 30 40 50

Financial Benefits

Career Development

Performance Recognition

Work Life Balance

Learning Opportunities

Organisation Benefits

Work Environment

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Responses: Organisations Preferences to Rewards (Important/Very Important)

% of sample rating Important / Very Important

60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100

Performance Bonuses
Basic Salary
Full appreciation of work done
Good working conditions
Feeling of being well informed
Participation in goal setting
Freedom to plan and work…
Medical Aid Benefits
Retirement Funds
Promotion & growth in organisation
Flexible working hours
Parking Availability
Full Time/Part time study re-…
Company in house training and…
Leadership training
Succession Planning
Paid Maternity Leave
Scholarships
Clear career path

6.5.1. Reward Categories

 Financial Benefits:

42% of respondents felt that financial benefits had the greatest impact on an

organisation’s ability to motivate its employees. Both the reward components of this

element, performance bonuses (91%) and basic salary (88%), were highly rated as

important/very important by the respondents. This is in line with a portion of the

literature review, where Armstrong (2007) suggests that monetary rewards is a

127
motivator because it fulfils needs. It is a factor which is needed to satisfy the basic

needs of survival and security. This is further supplemented from the views of

Agarwal. Agarwal (2010) states that money is still the most vital motivating factor for

employees. Agarwal agrees that non-monetary rewards motivate individuals but,

after a certain point in a career, money seems to have greater importance.

 Career Development Management & Coaching/Mentoring:

21% of the respondents felt that career development management and

coaching/mentoring had the greatest impact on an organisation’s ability to motivate

its employees. Of those 21% of respondents, promotion and growth in the

organisation was highly rated as being Important/Very Important by the respondents

(78%).

 Work Performance Recognition & Involvement:

21% of the respondents felt that work performance recognition and involvement had

the greatest impact on an organisation’s ability to motivate its employees. Of those

21% of respondents, all the reward components within the category were highly

rated as being Important/Very Important by the respondents:

Full appreciation of work done 83.3%

Feeling of being well informed 82.2%

Freedom to plan and work independently 80.6%

Participation in goal setting 81.7%

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This is in line with the literature review. As stated in the review, similar results were

observed by Lawyer (1969) in his paper about job design and employee’s motivation.

Employee’s motivation may be influenced by changes in job design. Lawler (1969)

presented three characteristics of job designs that could lead to employee’s

assumptions that their good performance will bring intrinsic rewards:

 Employees must receive meaningful feedback on the evaluation of their job

performance

 The job must require using capabilities that employee’s value that results in

the feeling of achievement and progression

 Employees must have control over setting their goals

This sentiment is echoed by Nelson (2004), who argues that employees expect

work-life balance, flexibility, job participation significance in their role, and

recognition.

 Work Life Balance:

9% of the respondents felt that work life balance had the greatest impact on an

organisation’s ability to motivate its employees. Of that 9% of respondents, flexible

working hours was highly rated as being Important/Very Important by the

respondents (73%).

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  Learning Opportunities

3% of the respondents felt that learning opportunities had the greatest impact on an

organisation’s ability to motivate its employees. Of that 3% of respondents, full

time/part time study re-imbursement was highly rated as being Important/Very

Important by the respondents (72%). This is a significant finding given the amount of

investment that many organisations place in learning opportunities.

 Organisation Benefits:

3% of the respondents felt that organisational benefits had the greatest impact on an

organisations ability to motivate its employees. Of those 3% of respondents, both the

medical aid and retirement fund benefits rewards were rated as being Important/Very

Important by the respondents.

 Work Environment:

1% of the respondents felt that the work environment had the greatest impact on an

organisations ability to motivate its employees. Of that 1% of respondents, good

working conditions were rated as being Important/Very Important by the

respondents.

According to the results from the questionnaire, it is evident that organisations

employ a total reward approach when it comes to monetary and non-monetary

approaches. Upon utilizing the WorldatWork total reward model, there are similarities

between the model and the empirical research in terms of the total reward model

130
being used. All categories highlighted in the empirical research, highlighted that

organisations are adopting a total reward approach with a focus on both monetary

and non-monetary rewards.

The respondents were MBA students of whom the majority were between the ages

of 30-39 years, White and African and well educated. It is assumed that, given these

demographics, the respondents’ overall aim within their organisation is for wealth

creation, hence the highest weighting on financial benefits. This is further highlighted

through the data in that 66% of the respondent’s duration of employment at their

present organisations is between 0-5 years. This could possibly highlight that

employees are not loyal to their present companies and are willing to shift

organisations for wealth creation. There is a case for further research on this to

identify what the key motivators are within specific demographic groups.

When comparing responses on individual versus organisation reward category

preferences, from a motivational perspective as indicated in the graph below, the

financial benefits rewards category was rated most highly with employees and they

were also the reward categories rated highly by organisations. Likewise, the ranking

of work performance recognition and involvement in second place followed that of

the organisations themselves. Organisation’s perceptions of employees preferences

with regards to these rewards are matched and in line with the literature.

131
 Responses: Individual Preferences for Reward Categories

The mean (average) ranking of the different benefit categories is shown below. The

ranking scale was 1=most important; 7=least important.

Mean ranking
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Financial Benefits

Performance Recognition

Career development

Work Life Balance

Organisation Benefits

Learning Opportunities

Work Environment

While some organisational benefits (retirement funds, medical aid benefits) were

rated highly by the organisations, organisational benefits as a whole were not rated

highly by employees when ranking their own reward structure. This could be due to

the fact that these reward benefits are expected by the respondents as being in

given in their cost to company packages. These benefits are not perceived as being

motivation differentiators to the respondents and more likely than not are part of the

reward packages offered to employees. Similar results were seen with learning

opportunities and work environment benefits which were also rated more highly by

organisations than by employees according to the respondents.

Career development management & coaching/mentoring appeared to have been

rated more highly by employees than the importance attached to these benefits by

132
organisations. Work-life balance has also appeared to have been rated more highly

by employees than the importance attached to these benefits by organisations. This

is supported by the research conducted by the Saratoga Institute (Saratoga PWC,

2006) who recognised employment practices which would aid retention and

motivation. The five most important influencers of employment retention and

motivation according to this research were:

 Culture and work environment

 Training and Development

 Supervisor roles

 Career Growth

 Earnings Potential

Money can buy things that people want; however it is not the key factor that

motivates employees to work. The literature has found that money and motivation

has insignificant correlation. The literature has revealed that evidence does exist of a

correlation between non-monetary rewards, incentives and improved performance.

Therefore combinations of both types of rewards are required for organisations to

motivate its employees. Recognition has been argued by Romano (2003) and

Sarvadi (2005) to be an important tool to increase levels of employee motivation.

This can be done at minimal costs. When designing a reward programme,

organisations would need to tailor make packages for employees with careful

considerations to a number of factors, depending on the individual, through

combinations of monetary and non-monetary reward elements.

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 6.6. Research Question 3 Discussion

To what extent are organisations utilising non-monetary rewards and

monetary rewards in their offering to motivate employees?

The research highlighted the following key monetary and non-monetary reward

categories and components as being utilised:

REWARD CATEGORY REWARD ELEMENTS MONETARY / NON-MONETARY

Financial Benefits Performance Bonuses Monetary

Financial Benefits Basic Salary Monetary
Work Performance Recognition & Involvement Full appreciation of work done Non-Monetary
Work Environment Good working conditions Non-Monetary
Work Performance Recognition & Involvement Feeling of being well informed Non-Monetary
Work Performance Recognition & Involvement Participation in goal setting Non-Monetary
Work Performance Recognition & Involvement Freedom to plan and work independently Non-Monetary
Organisation Benefits Medical Aid Benefits Monetary
Organisation Benefits Retirement Funds Monetary
Career Development Management & Coaching/Mentoring Promotion & growth in organisation Non-Monetary
Work Life Balance Flexible working hours Non-Monetary

It is evident through the research that organisations are utilising both monetary and

non-monetary rewards. The literature review suggests that there has been a move

away from the traditional perception of rewards being only remuneration and

benefits, towards total rewards and that this is more comprehensive and integrated.

A total reward programme or system must be able to create a balanced offering to

employees.

There is no ‘one type fits all’ reward programme or system that can be effectively

used by organisations. Understanding the employees’ needs and motivating factors

is crucial in determining the ideal combination of reward components that an

organisation can offer an employee.

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Organisations need to effectively and efficiently enhance the use of their limited

resources. To this end, finding the correct balance between monetary and non-

monetary rewards is important to organisation in motivating employees.

6.7. Research Question 4 Discussion

What are the reward preferences by employees?

The mean (average) ranking of the different benefit categories is shown below. The

ranking scale was 1=most important; 7=least important.

Responses: Employee Reward Preferences

Mean ranking
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Financial Benefits

Performance Recognition

Career development

Work Life Balance

Organisation Benefits

Learning Opportunities

Work Environment

It is clear that financial benefits rated most highly with employees and these were

also the reward structures rated highly by organisations, as indicated in Chapter 5.

The research is supported by findings in the study conducted by Thumbran (2010)

and Nienaber (2009), which indicated the most important reward category was

monthly salary/guaranteed remuneration.

135
The ranking of performance recognition fell in second place. As discussed in

Question 2 this chapter, while some organisational benefits (retirement benefits,

medical aid) were rated highly by the organisations, organisational benefits as a

whole were not rated highly by employees when ranking their own reward structure.

The same was true for learning opportunities and work environment. The research

is supported by findings in the study conducted by Thumbran (2010) and Nienaber

(2009), which indicated the least important reward category was quality work

environment.

Career development and work life balance appeared to have been rated more highly

by employees than the importance attached to these benefits by organisations.

These results suggest that organisations could pay more attention to these rewards

particularly in South Africa. It can be assumed that given the educational disparity

between the South African workforce, and increased focus on the Broad Based

Black Economic Empowerment, there is an expectation that these elements are up

weighed. There are further opportunities for organisations to test and survey this

finding for future application.

It can further be assumed that due to the current economic climate and the

demographic nature of the population sample, male dominant; majority of the

respondents fell within the range of 30-39 years of age; non-white dominant; it is

these factors which have partially resulted in financial benefits being ranked the

highest. It can be assumed that the majority of the respondents are in their ‘wealth

136
creation’ phase in their lives. Economic and knowledge creation is what these

respondents strive for.

Organisations are cost cutting and restructuring with the aim of getting leaner. Fit for

purpose structures are being put in place to ensure no job duplication and

accountability over responsibilities makes it harder for employees to benefit

financially to the extent they would have done so in the past. Furthermore, given the

fact that many of the respondents worked in finance, marketing and or sales

positions as shown in the graph below, it can be assumed that yearly increases and

performance bonuses are not as high in recent years as was in the past. Due to this,

there has been a significant strain on disposable income of households; increased

inflation and increases in fuel costs. It is with this in mind that respondents may have

indicated financial benefits as being the most important reward category benefit in

this study.

Demographics: Job Role

0 5 % of 10
sample 15 20

Finance
Marketing
Sales
Supply Chain & Operations
Technical
IT
General Management
Legal & Risk Management
Human Capital
Consultancy
Other

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 6.7.1. The influence of Demographic Variables on the Individual

Preferences for Reward Categories

A General Linear Model was used to test for the effect of each demographic variable

while controlling for the effects of the other demographic variables. This was done

for each of the seven benefit category scores as indicated in Chapter 5.

Financial Benefits / Organisation Benefits/ Work Performance Recognition &

Involvement / Career Development Management & Coaching/Mentoring and

Work-Life Balance:

As indicated in Chapter 5, the correlations in the overall model were not significant.

None of the demographic variables was significant, indicating that these did not have

a significant effect on the ranking of the above benefit categories by the different

groups of respondents.

Work Environment:

In the case of work environment, the overall model was also not significant.

However; the effect of tenure was marginally significant. Pairwise multiple

comparisons (of all possible pairs) of Tenure categories, using Tukey-Kramer’s

multiple comparison adjustment for the p-values and confidence limits, showed that

respondents with a tenure of 3-5 years rated the importance of work environment

higher than those with a tenure of 6-8 years (controlling for the effects of the other

demographic variables). Although not significant, the overall trend appears to be

138
that those with a shorter tenure rated work environment as more important than

those with a longer tenure.

The research is supported by findings from the Saratoga Institute (Saratoga PWC,

2006) who recognised employment practices which aided retention and motivation.

One of the most important drivers in employment retention and motivation was

‘culture and work environment’. This finding is further supported by the Employee

Recognition study done by the WorldatWork and the National Association for

Employee Recognition in 2005. Existing generational research indicates that a

differential sensitivity to work environment fit between the generations is likely to

exist. Research by Smola and Sutton (2002, p. 378) has indicated that younger

employees are “less loyal to the company”, which may have resulted in younger

employees taking the view that nothing is permanent from a job perspective, and

may excessively emphasise the importance of work environments that match their

preferences. Younger employees may become more dissatisfied and more willing to

leave if these work environment preferences are not realised. This may be the

reason as to why respondents with tenure of 3-5 years rated the importance of work

environment higher than those with tenure of 6-8 years.

Learning Opportunities:

In the case of Learning Opportunities, the overall model was marginally significant.

The effect of Role was significant. As discussed in Chapter 5, pairwise comparisons

showed a marginally significant difference between Sales and Technical roles:

139
Technical role respondents rated learning opportunities lower than Sales role

respondents.

Given that all the respondents were MBA students, past and present, it can be

assumed that, given their background, many are in the process of changing job roles

or have already changed their job roles and are growing their professional

competencies. 15% of the respondents are in Sales and it can be assumed that by

studying the MBA further, they aim is to study further, build their skills and enhance

their job skillset.

Given the general nature of the MBA, and the interaction the respondents may have

had with classmates, lecturers and certain organisations, many of the respondents

would have been able to see a great deal of what other industries and roles offer

from an employment perspective. Respondents from the Sales and Technical roles

may be confined to one type of skillset and are in requirement of further

competencies that may be marketable in the workplace. It is for this reason that they

may have highlighted Learning Opportunities as significant.

6.8. Recommendations

The reward categories identified in the research survey are partially adopted,

adapted and developed further from the WorldatWork Total Rewards Model and the

Towers Perrin Rewards Blueprint. It is apparent that organisations have approached

140
this type of model utilising both monetary and non-monetary rewards in relation to

the varying needs of the labour force. This total reward approach can only be

maximised by organisations if they understand the needs of employees based on

employee preferences; the dynamic nature of the work force and the potential impact

on external factors such as recessions. Furthermore, incorporating job design and

work performance recognition into the design of the reward programme is important

for organisations to ensure that the fit is beneficial for both the employee and the

employer.

Given the context and results of this study, there is a definite case for organisations

to place more value on monetary and non-monetary rewards. Given the impact on

the economic recession and the type of respondents involved in the survey, financial

benefits are recorded as being the most important reward category nominated by the

employee and the organisation. There is however a case for providing more value on

non-monetary rewards to motivate employees, assuming organisations are

considering cost cutting and restructuring. These non-monetary rewards, if used

correctly, will present employees with alternative options to consider, with particular

focus on work performance recognition and involvement and career development

management and coaching and mentoring. In order to motivate employees and

retain talented people, organisations are required to continue to value these reward

elements, utilising both monetary and non-monetary rewards with the objective of

motivating a work force; enhancing productivity and loyalty and managing costs.

141
It is recommended that a new modified reward framework be designed. This is

highlighted in Figure 2.13:

Figure 12: Proposed Reward Framework

Organisational
Culture

Organisation Insights
Business Strategy

Employment Value
Proposition
Human Resource
Strategy

Employee Insights

External Environment

Attract
Motivate
Retain

Employee Organisation

Satisfaction & Performance &

Engagement Results

The proposed reward framework is modified version of the WorldatWork Total

Rewards Model and the Towers Perrin Rewards Blueprint. The key modification of

this reward framework is the inclusion of the organisation and employee weightings

when it comes to the reward categories. The weightings assist both the stakeholders

as one party or the other can emphasise higher needs on specific reward categories.

This will also ensure that organisations properly survey their staff to match a job to

the right candidate. Building value propositions and alignment between the employee

and the organisation is important. Understanding the organisation and employee

142
insights into the employment value proposition is important. This involves conducting

employee demographic analysis and research as well as designing a job role that is

aligned to the correct type of employee. This proposed framework highlights the

needs of the employer and the employee, taking into account the organisational

culture; business strategy; human resource strategy and the external environment.

143
 7. Conclusion

The study assessed the impact of the reward elements, monetary and non-

monetary, as a means of motivating employees. The organisational dilemma was to

ascertain what the ideal reward programme was which could be utilised to increase

employee motivation and, at the same time, achieve the organisational objectives.

The purpose of the research is to discover whether a re-designed reward

programme or framework results in the motivation of employees and strategic fit

between employee and the organisation. It attempted to do this by answering the

following questions:

Question 1: What are the elements that form part of the reward and incentive

offering to employees in organisations?

The key elements, in order of preference which form part of the reward and incentive

offering to employees in organisations as discussed in Chapter 6 were the following:

 Financial Benefits

 Career Development

 Work Performance Recognition & Involvement

 Work Life Balance

 Learning Opportunities

 Organisation Benefits

 Work Environment

144
The questionnaire was developed by partially utilising the reward components from

the WorldatWork Total Rewards Model and the Towers Perrin blueprint. It is clear

from the responses that organisations were using a complete approach towards

reward management, with focus on both monetary and non-monetary rewards.

Although monetary rewards are the preference, this may be as a result of the

demographic nature of the respondents as well as a result of the current economic

climate in South Africa.

Question 2: Do various rewards and incentive options have specific impacts

on employees from a motivation perspective?

From a motivational perspective, the financial benefits reward category was rated

most highly with employees. Work performance recognition and involvement was

ranked in second place. These reward categories were rated similarly by

organisations. While some organisational benefits were rated highly by the

organisations, organisational benefits as a whole were not rated highly by employees

when ranking their own reward structure. The same was true for learning

opportunities and work environment.

Conversely, career development management and coaching/mentoring and work-life

balance appeared to have been rated more highly by employees than the

importance attached to these benefits by organisations. This finding shows that

organisations could pay more attention to these rewards and, furthermore, should

conduct surveys and tests to understand if these elements are as important as

145
employees perceive them to be. Opportunities lie in managing these rewards and

offering employees a way to ensure that their expectations are met within the

confines of the organisational objective.

The results are in line with the literature in that, orientating from a motivation

perspective, a combination of both monetary and non-monetary rewards impacts

employees positively from an organisation perspective.

Question 3: To what extent are organisations utilising non-monetary rewards

and monetary incentives in their offering to motivate employees?

It is evident through the research that organisations are utilising both monetary and

non-monetary rewards. The literature review suggests that given that there has been

a move away from the traditional perception of rewards being only remuneration and

benefits, towards total rewards which are more comprehensive and integrated. A

reward programme, framework or system must be able to create a balanced offering

to employees and a balanced fit for the organisation. Understanding the employees’

needs in relation to the organisation’s needs, and the motivating factors, is crucial in

determining the ideal combination of reward components that an organisation can

offer an employee. It was assumed that given the current economic climate,

organisations are cutting costs and, to effectively manage and motivate a talented

workforce, the effective use of non-monetary rewards and monetary rewards will be

highly valued. The opportunity lies in customising these rewards to cater for the

preference needs of the individual.

146
Question 4: What are the reward preferences of employees?

It is clear that financial benefits rated most highly with employees and these were

also the reward structures rated highly by organisations, as indicated in Chapter 5

and 6.

None of the demographic variables was significant on the financial benefits,

organisation benefits, work performance recognition and involvement, career

development management and coaching/mentoring and work-life balance reward

categories.

In the case of Work Environment, the effect of Tenure was marginally significant. In

the case of Learning Opportunities, the effect of Role was significant.

Recommendation

It is recommended that a new reward framework be designed to incorporate the

reward preferences and expectations of both the employee and the organisation

whilst taking into account the effect of the external environment, the job design and

the link between the expectations from the organisation and the individual.

147
 7.1. Future Research Opportunity

A future research suggestion would be to split the respondents into individual

employees with organisations and the organisations who hire these individuals, and

gauge a response from them on preferences to reward categories. This would be

useful as the research would be able match the organisation and employee

preferences from a reward perspective.

148
8. Appendices

8.1. Reward Preferences Questionnaire

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