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Hydrogen fuel and transport system: A sustainable

and environmental future

Adeel Ahmed a, Abul Quasem Al-Amin b, Angelina F. Ambrose a,*,

R. Saidur c
a
Faculty of Economics and Administration, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
b
International Business School, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Jalan Semarak, 54100 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
c
Centre of Research Excellence in Renewable Energy (CoRE-RE), King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals
(KFUPM), Dhahran, 31261, Saudi Arabia

article info abstract

Article history: This article critically evaluates the introduction of hydrogen fuel into the Malaysian
Received 26 August 2015 transportation system for a sustainable and environmental future. The Malaysian
Received in revised form government climate road map and the emission reduction agenda are considered using a
16 November 2015 framework of environmental sustainability. The framework takes account of national
Accepted 16 November 2015 macroeconomic issues considering several feasible options for a sustainable environ-
Available online xxx mental future. Towards that end, there are certain critical developments, particularly as
the hydrogen fuel option is considered one of the best possible alternatives compared with
Keywords: several other renewable energy choices for sustainable growth. While the benefits of
Hydrogen fuel prioritizing a modern emission-free future transport system are great, often issues raised
Transport system regarding how a national economy can deliberate and implement such policy options
Sustainable environment become contentious. Therefore, this study will help national policymakers take into
Policy account sustainability and environmental considerations within the framework of intro-
Malaysia ducing an effective hydrogen fuel economy into the modern transport system.
Copyright © 2015, Hydrogen Energy Publications, LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights
reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
2. Malaysian sustainable and environmental future: issues and concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3. Way forward: sustainable and secure environmental future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
4. Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
5. Limitation and further direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
6. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
Acknowledgement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00

* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ60 12 9722569; fax: þ60 3 2180 5608.

E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (A.F. Ambrose).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2015.11.084
0360-3199/Copyright © 2015, Hydrogen Energy Publications, LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article in press as: Ahmed A, et al., Hydrogen fuel and transport system: A sustainable and environmental future, In-
ternational Journal of Hydrogen Energy (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2015.11.084
2 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 5 ) 1 e1 2

Introduction Nomenclature

The world's global energy market is about 1.5 trillion dollars APERC Asia Pacific energy research center
and predominately relies on fossil fuels. However, fossil fuels CO carbon monoxide
as a non-renewable natural resource are cause for major CO2 carbon dioxide
concern [1]. Moreover, high fossil fuel usage and consumption EIA energy information administration
in the power and transport sector increases emission of FFDS five-fuel diversification strategy
pollutants, causing serious negative externalities and envi- GHG green house gas
ronmental degradation [2]. Policymakers are faced with a LPG liquefied petroleum gas
serious dilemma. On the one hand there is a challenge to ac- NMP ninth Malaysia plan
quire new sustainable energy sources, on the other hand, NOx nitrogen oxides
continuous extraction and combustion of fossil fuels is NPP national petroleum policy
needed to meet growing energy demands but with serious VOC volatile organic compounds
environmental consequences [3]. Emission has direct linkages PDA petroleum development act
with the quantity of fuel usage in the power and transport R&D research and development
sector and it is important to note that these pollutants cause SNG synthetic natural gas
serious damage to the environment and living conditions [4].
In fact, such pollution is not only bad for the environment, it
could also pose dangers for human health and well-being [5].
Thus, in recent years the fossil fuel economy1 and its with transport sector emissions, acidification, ozone forma-
increased consumption as an energy source is worrying tion, and air pollution [12].
because of the corresponding increase in carbon emissions The current level of carbon emission is 32% more than a
that affects climate change. Given the many complex issues century ago, as witnessed in the accumulation of GHG. Ac-
related to emissions due to fossil fuel dependence, recent cording to recent studies, the growth rate of residential,
scientific studies point to the need for sustainable alternative commercial and industrial carbon emissions is 1.4%, 1.6% and
energy options [6]. 0.9% per year, respectively. However, the highest growth rate
Continuous research for future alternative energy to of emissions is from the transport sector at 1.8% annually,
replace fossil fuels have produced many options such as bio- which is an alarming trend around the world, according to
diesel, methanol, ethanol, butanol, dimethyl ether, diethyl Department of Energy3 EIA (Energy Information Administra-
ether, bioethanol, synthetic natural gas (SNG), and hydrogen tion) [14]. The global final energy consumption statistics
[7]. However, fossil fuels remain the main source of energy indicate that it grew from 4676 million tons of oil equivalent
fulfilling the current energy demands of the world; it is at that (Mtoe) to 8429 Mtoe from 1973 to 2008; whereas the transport
the same time a fast depleting resource. Therefore alternative sector occupied 1081 Mtoe (23.1%) in 1973, it dramatically rose
energy sources have been sought to effectively solve both to 2300 Mtoe, which is 27.3% of the total global energy con-
energy security and climate concerns. The fact that the socio- sumption in 2008 [14], continuous growth in household in-
economic development of a country largely depends on the come and the number of vehicles being the main contributing
transport system cannot be ignored. However, the transport factors for increased energy consumption [15]. As for carbon
sector not only consumes a major share of fossil fuels [8], the emissions, the transportation sector contributed 6.6 billion
growing consumption in this sector is responsible for esca- tons (22.5%) of total CO2 emissions in 2008, as shown in Table
lating global climate damage [9]. The greenhouse gas (GHG) 1. Thus, the transportation sector is the second largest emit-
emissions from the transport sector are considered severe, ting sector over the period. According to global World Energy
and road vehicles are the single largest source for the major Outlook estimates, the transport demand will likely increase
atmospheric pollutants [10]. It is also an unsettling fact that and is expected to grow up to 45% by 2030 [16,17]. The amount
carbon fuel vehicles are responsible for the emission of ni- of CO2 emitted based on distance travelled is directly pro-
trogen oxides (NOx), volatile organic compounds (VOC), car- portional to fuel economy, and every litre of gasoline burned
bon monoxide (CO), and carbon dioxide (CO2) [9]. It has been releases about 2.4 kg of CO2 [13]. Against this backdrop, it is
found that 13.5% of global warming is caused by direct emis- important to encourage measures that promote vehicle effi-
sions from the transportation sector [11].2 A number of envi- ciency in terms of energy consumption and emission reduc-
ronmental and health problems are also linked in particular tion. This has to be done with a special focus on sustainable

3
In the global arena, the USA is more concerned about the
1
‘Fossil fuel economy’ is a term used for an economy that is standards of fuel economy; however, its passenger vehicles
heavily invested in fossil fuels for growth. This term is often used contribute to a significant part of global warming. According to
in alternative energy source literature that also uses terms such the population statistics, 4% of the world's population lives in the
as ‘solar economy’, ‘hydrogen economy’, etc. Though the cost/ USA while their contribution to the global GHG emissions is 25%.
price of fossil fuel is problematic, the emphasis here is on over- In this case the CO2 emissions from China, Russia, and Japan are
dependence of economies on fossil fuel, a finite natural resource, equivalent to the USA alone 13. Mahlia, T., et al., A review on fuel
with ever increasing consumption of energy sources. economy standard for motor vehicles with the implementation possi-
2
While in many of the OECD countries, it accounts for more bilities in Malaysia. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews,
than 25% of all GHG emissions. 2010. 14(9): p. 3092e3099.

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 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 5 ) 1 e1 2 3

Table 1 e Global CO2 emissions by different sectors.

No Regions CO2 emission by sector Total CO2
Electricity Industry Transport Other Residential
1 China 3136.9 (47.9) 2174.5 (33.2) 456.9 (7.0) 496.2 (7.6) 285.9 (4.4). 6550.4
2 USA 2403.4 (42.9) 633.1 (11.3) 1691.6 (30.2) 535.1 (9.6) 332.7 (5.9) 5595.9
3 Latin America 215.9 (20.2) 279.6 (26.2) 361.8 (33.9) 147.9 (13.8) 63.0 (5.9) 1068.2
4 Europe 1063.9 (33.0) 514.3 (16.0) 850.5 (26.4) 391.4 (12.1) 402.8 (12.5) 3222.9
5 OECD 4992.0 (39.5) 1819.1 (14.4) 3386.5 (26.8) 1447.7 (11.5) 984.4 (7.8) 12,629.7
6 World total 11,987.9 (40.8) 5943.6 (20.2) 6604.7 (22.5) 2940.2 (10.0) 1905.1 (6.5) 29,381.5

Other includes commercial, agriculture and other emissions not specified elsewhere. Value inside the parenthesis is in %.
Source: Ref. [24].

alternative sources of energy such as solar and hydrogen to intensiveness, which are currently not sustainable viable op-
lead to a green economic and environmental system. tions [21].
Many studies have addressed alternative sources of energy Some studies indicate that hydrogen would not provide an
and green economic systems such as solar and hydrogen en- immediate solution to reducing global warming and climate
ergy by looking at future environmental sustainability and risks and ensuring energy security, but it has potential as a
raising concerns over the prospects and possibilities of these long-term solution [22]. However, these concerns should be
energy sources [9]. Though the concept of a green economic put forward as sustainability and environmental issues need
system is not new, the concept of green and smart trans- to be addressed in the present, precisely because of future
portation systems through hydrogen fuel is a new area to be long-term benefits. Thus, these raise several questions: (i) why
explored and expected to become critical in especially devel- is there a need to emphasize environmental considerations
oping countries. Moreover, a certain amount of technological for sustainable development in the transport sector? (ii)
shuffling is required to develop the new transportation despite recent studies indicating that hydrogen fuel is an
infrastructure and structure, particularly for a country such as important alternative energy source in the modern transport
Malaysia. There are a number of factors4 involved with system, is the diffusion of this new technology slow? and
adoption issues on the hydrogen energy road map and finally, (iii) what are the factors involved with the hydrogen
fundamental challenges need to be addressed. The national energy road map that will leverage its feasibility? The need for
economy related to domestic macroeconomic variables and environmental consideration and sustainable development in
developmental issues should be taken into account, and this the transport sector is new for Malaysia. Carbon emission and
is an underlying concern for policymakers in adopting alter- climate change are emphasized for the purpose of justifying
native feasible options such as hydrogen fuel against the hydrogen technology as the most viable option in addressing
conventional fossil fuel economy. It is evident that there are these issues sustainably. Thus, the above questions and
significant hurdles to be overcome in producing and queries are critically addressed, with likely solutions centred
commercializing hydrogen fuel sustainably, as developing on the Malaysian national sustainability vision in this study.
this technology also requires extensive infrastructure [18].
Globally, hydrocarbons are used to produce 95% of hydrogen
while 4% is produced by water electrolysis. Likewise, it is also Malaysian sustainable and environmental
produced by different industries as a by-product [19]. future: issues and concerns
Hydrogen can be produced directly5 and indirectly6 at the
same time. Recently, diverse methods of hydrogen production Malaysia is a country of about 30 million people, growing at an
are under different stages of research and demonstration. average of 6% in the last 20 years [23]. The transport sector
However, in terms of the environmental sustainability plays a vital role in daily activities and motor vehicle owner-
perspective, biological hydrogen production processes are ship increased greatly in recent decades, boosting this
considered comparatively more environment friendly and industrialized economy. The ownership of vehicles signifi-
less energy-intensive, since most of the time photosynthetic cantly multiplied with the growing demand and has doubled
or fermentative organisms control the process [20]. Similarly, in the last 10 years. According to a recent study by Asia Pacific
high pure hydrogen can be produced by electrolysis of water, Energy Research Center (APERC), the energy demand of the
by the use of electric power, and supplied through renewable transport sector will be the highest due to the increase in
energy sources such as solar, wind, wave and others. How- living standards and vehicle ownership by 2030. The transport
ever, the problem with this procedure is speed and energy sector is a vital contributor in the economy, and it is consid-
ered one of the major components of the economy [24].
Though the transport sector undeniably plays an important
4
The factors importantly are: (a) coast-to-coast delivery, (b) role in daily activities around the globe, unfortunately its en-
consumer-affordable levels of mass production, (c) expensive to
ergy consumption and utilization of non-renewable energy
manufacture, and (d) fuel storage and delivery methods.
5 cause severe negative impacts on the environment and global
Renewable energy sources and fossil fuels can produce
hydrogen directly. climate [25]. The emission of greenhouse gases such as CO2
6
An indirect way of producing hydrogen is from electricity via and air pollutants such as NOx and particulates is a serious
water electrolysis. concern among the scientific community worldwide. Indeed,

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4 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 5 ) 1 e1 2

carbon emissions from the transport sector are growing very

fast across the globe, and one of the key reasons for this in-
crease is the growing number of passenger cars worldwide.
Public transport can be sought as one of the solutions because
it can maintain congestion at a reasonable level on the roads
and consumes less fuel than passenger cars with the same
passenger-km [24]. However, in the case of Malaysia the
average share of public transport is 16%, which is lowest
among Asian countries [24]. There is a huge gap between
private car ownership and public transport; the private pas-
senger car ownership is 98.1% whereby public transport ac-
counts for only 1.9% of the total transport sector.
Thus, how to find a solution to the growth of vehicle
ownership is a growing concern and the situation needs to be
overhauled to achieve an effective public transport system.
Fig. 1 e Final energy consumption by sector in 2012.
The transport sector remains a major source of CO2 emission
Source: author compilation
in many Asian countries, including Malaysia. Therefore,
most of the research conducted is related to the decomposi-
tion of national CO2 emission and its intensities [26e29]. passengers at 0.5%. Currently, almost 98% of the fuel demands
Furthermore, some of the studies highlight decomposition7 of of the transport sector are fulfilled by fossil fuels. Fig. 1 shows
the manufacturing and power sector related CO2 emissions the distribution of the different modes of transportation and
[30,31]. It is also important to realize that the manufacturing, their share. The appeal of road transport use is its door-to-
power and transport sectors are equally responsible for fossil door access and convenience for daily activities. However,
fuels related to CO2 emissions. However, the manufacturing the major disadvantage of road transportation is the high
and power sectors have been analyzed in many countries, fossil fuel consumption per km travelled in comparison to
while issues and concerns about the transport sector have not other modes of transportation [24]. In addition, the limited
been examined to the same extent, especially in developing fuel supplies such as petrol and diesel for road transport
countries such as Malaysia [32]. In Malaysia, the transport produce emissions that are serious threats to environmental
sector consumes 37% of the total energy and has dominated conditions and global warming [24].
energy consumption after industry,8 as shown in Fig. 1. Under Table 2 shows the number of road transport vehicles along
these circumstances, the sustainability of non-renewable with growth rates averaging above 5%, which is an alarming
energy sources and environment is at stake [33]. Since the trend and has direct consequences for fuel consumption and
transport sector is the largest consumer of non-renewable environmental sustainability. The key point to note is that the
fuels, its share of carbon emission is correspondingly the number of passenger cars is growing much faster than other
highest with respect to other sectors [34]. Although, the road vehicles. In a short time span, the number of passenger
transport sector facilitates daily activities it has significant cars increased from 8,506,080 units in 2009 to 10,354,678 units
negative impacts on the sustainability of the environment in in 2012 [38]. This increase is alarming, because almost all
particular [35]. On one hand, in spite of the environmental and passenger cars are consuming fossil fuels [39]. The combus-
social costs of the transport sector, the point of view of some tion of fossil fuels is a major source of greenhouse gas emis-
economists is that it cannot be ignored that it also provides sion which causes vital environmental hazards [40]. Similarly,
economic benefits by enhancing mobility [36]. On the other Fig. 2 shows the passenger ratio in different transport types. It
hand, more recent research indicates that increased motor shows clearly that the major bulk of passengers use the road
vehicle travel can have negative economic impacts due to transport system, and most of them own personal cars [41,42].
decreasing marginal productivity, and vehicle use imposes It is important to realize that all the emissions of local
negative external costs which outweigh positive economic pollutants from the road transportation system depend
gains [37]. heavily on the quality and quantity of fuel used for engine
There are various modes of transportation, consisting of combustion technology and vehicle operating conditions.
road, rail, air and maritime in Malaysia. Each mode of trans- Thus, strong motorization concerns and their impact on the
port carries its unique advantages; however, road transport is environment have been receiving much attention with
a dominant mode across the board and covers 94.80% of total regards to climate change issues globally. Research and
passengers e with rail passengers at about 4.7% and air planning in transportation has, therefore, looked into to
addressing greenhouse gas mitigation strategies more effec-
7
A good number of publications have reported on the subject tively [24]. Malaysia is the second largest contributor of carbon
and based on these studies five main application areas are emissions after Taiwan for 2015 in the Asian region, and is
identified under decomposition, namely: (a) energy demand and projected to be the leading contributor within the Asian region
supply, (b) energy-related gas emissions, (c) material flows and
in 2030 [43]. Malaysia's continuous rapid economic growth and
dematerialization, (d) national energy efficiency trend moni-
increased energy demands will have spillover effects on the
toring, and (e) cross-country comparisons.
8
The sectoral share of energy consumption is shown in Fig. 1, environment and ecology. Combustion of coal, lignite, petro-
clearly indicating that the transport sector is the largest energy leum and natural gas is responsible for air pollution. In view of
consumer, surpassing industry. rapid growth in primary energy consumption, carbon

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 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 5 ) 1 e1 2 5

Table 2 e Road transport vehicles in Malaysia.

Year Motorcycles Passenger cars Buses Taxi/hire cars Goods vehicles Others Total Growth rate (%)
2004 6,572, 366 5,911,752 54,997 75,669 772,218 377,835 13,764,837 e
2005 7,008,051 6,473,261 57,370 79,130 805,157 393,438 14,816,407 7.64
2006 7,458,128 6,941,996 59,991 82,047 836,579 411,991 15,790,732 6.58
2007 7,943,364 7,419,643 62,308 84,742 871,234 432,652 16,813,943 6.48
2008 8,487,451 7,966,525 64,050 90,474 909,243 454,158 17,971,901 6.89
2009 8,940,230 8,506,080 66,581 79,149 936,222 471,941 19,000,203 5.41
2010 9,441,907 9,114,920 69,149 84,661 966,177 493,451 20,170,265 5.80
2011 9,985,308 9,721,447 71,784 90,020 997,649 515,867 21,382,075 5.67
2012 10,589,818 10,354,678 73,536 93,040 1,032,004 539,849 22,682,925 5.73

Source: Ref. [38].

vehicles include the USA, Germany, Japan, Brazil and India

[51]. However, the shortcomings of such fuel sources are their
low volatility and insufficiency in terms of quantity to replace
fossil fuels. Such problems strongly stimulate other research
into alternative energy sources which are technically feasible,
economically competitive, environmentally friendly, and
acceptable and readily available [52].
With that in mind, various alternative options have
emerged, including hydrogen, natural gas, and liquefied pe-
troleum gas (LPG), FischereTropsch fuel, and solar fuels.
However, compared with other energy sources, hydrogen is
recognized as the most viable, with long-term renewable al-
Fig. 2 e Proportion of passenger by transportation type ternatives to fossil fuels after solar energy [53]. Although solar
2008. Source: author compilation energy is preferred, the concerns over power and efficiency to
replace conventional energy in the transportation systems
have deterred further progress and consequently hydrogen
emissions have increased considerably and evidence suggests fuel, apart from its source being abundant and available, is
that economic growth succeeded at the expense of environ- still potentially the most viable alternative energy source [54].
mental degradation [44]. Fossil fuel consumption is the chief In the transport sector, hydrogen fuel cells compared with
source of GHG emissions and environmental degradation, and main energy converters in the market show high efficiency
utilization of conventional energy is creating major concerns and fuel flexibility. Given the clear advantages of application
[45]. of hydrogen fuel cells particularly in the transport sector, the
The burning of fossil fuels and natural gas is not sustain- diffusion of this technology has been slow. A key impediment
able and will continue to cause the emission of greenhouse here is the investment decision to bring down the cost of this
gases unless there is an intervention [46]. Being heavily reliant new technology to ensure economic feasibility. However, the
on fossil fuels alone is intensifying the problem in trans- task of developing a hydrogen fuel economy with planned
portation systems. The Malaysian transportation system is infrastructure needs to be envisioned with long-term national
facing a major challenge to ensure the diversity and sustain- planning. The following section discusses how to develop a
ability of energy supply from various sources. The security framework plan with a ‘hydrogen energy road map’ in
and reliability question is critical for sustainable growth in Malaysia.
Malaysia, while diversification of energy sources will reduce
the dependence of the country's energy demand on a single
energy source [46]. It is therefore important to plan for energy
efficiency in this sector to reduce the rapid use of fossil fuels Way forward: sustainable and secure
and growing air pollution, especially carbon emissions [47]. environmental future
Consequently, the development of a sustainable energy
transport sector needs to be prioritized in Malaysia as in many In Malaysia, interest in production and consumption of new
other countries [24]. Therefore, policy decisions must be made energy technologies has been sparked by the need to meet the
so that the impacts of transport on the environment can be standards of energy security and GHG reduction. Promotion of
minimized and fossil fuel resources conserved [48]. Other al- renewable energy and energy efficiency has been heavily
ternatives to fossil fuels are focused on by the researchers for advocated by the government in recent years. These initia-
the transportation system including solar, biofuels and bio- tives will facilitate the tackling of challenges regarding envi-
diesel energy [49]. There has been some progress made with ronmental objectives particularly in the energy sector [55].
biofuels compared with solar as an alternative source for The demand for energy in developing countries will continue
Malaysia, notably biodiesel products from palm oil [50]. to increase; however, the solution for such a sharp rise is not
Countries that have explored utilization of biodiesel for their to suppress energy demand but to formulate the strategy that

Please cite this article in press as: Ahmed A, et al., Hydrogen fuel and transport system: A sustainable and environmental future, In-
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6 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 5 ) 1 e1 2

ensures energy demand is met in a sustainable manner [56]. been singled out as the most promising energy conversion
High energy demand and consumption also lead to the device for hydrogen especially in transportation, without
development of environmental problems and threaten the production of GHG [65]. One of the most distinguished
mankind and nature collectively [57]. To ensure a sustainable features of hydrogen fuel is its ability to renew and it can
and secure environmental future, the Malaysian government be produced in virtually unlimited quantities using renew-
has formulated a number of energy-related policies since the able energy sources [15].10 Another unique feature of
1970s. Eventually, over the past three decades, some prag- hydrogen is that as a carrier, it is not just a clean source of
matic energy policies were facilitated for an environmentally energy but the method of its production is also clean [66].
friendly energy development path. Initially, the Petroleum The most salient features of hydrogen fuel to be utilized
Development Act (PDA) of 1974 was the first policy to have are: (a) its major oxidation product is water vapour instead
some solid impact on the industry, followed by National Pe- of carbon dioxide, (b) it can be used as a transportation fuel
troleum Policy (NPP) in 1975, which helped in the regulation of directly where no other alternative fuels such as nuclear
a sustainable energy-related industry [58]. However, the most and solar energy can be used directly, (c) it has good
comprehensive energy policy was introduced in 1979, with the properties as a fuel for internal combustion for engines in
main objectives of supply, utilization and environment. Later, automobiles, (d) its gasoline efficiency in automobile en-
a national depletion policy and four fuel diversification stra- gines is similar with no distinguished difference, (e) it can
tegies were implemented in 1980 and 1981, respectively [59]. be used in the form of a blend with ethanol or compressed
Since then energy policy has been reviewed over time and natural gas (CNG) as an alternative renewable fuel in a
the Five-Fuel Diversification Strategy (FFDS) in 1999 included carburetted spark ignition engine, (f) it has a unique prop-
renewable energy in the energy supply mix with a future erty of ‘rapid burning’ for transportation fuel, (g) a
environment vision [46]. This is due to the priority given to hydrogen mix fuel engine can be used at low flame tem-
meeting challenges faced due to rapid energy growth. It was perature [67].
further emphasized in the Ninth Malaysia Plan (NMP) [60] Hydrogen holds all the unique characteristics of a future
where renewable energy utilization was further promoted dream fuel in all aspects including social, economic and
with alternative energy options. Thus, the sustainability environmental. It has the potential to reduce the dependence
vision focus was based on four principles: (1) seek to attain on fossil fuels in future, which can reduce the emissions
energy independence and promote efficient utilization; (2) associated with the transport sector. The energy yield of
conserve and minimize the impact on the environment; (3) hydrogen is 122 kJ/g (kilojoules per gram), which is 2.75 times
enhance national economic development through the use of greater than fossil fuels. The current consumption of
technology; and (4) improve the quality of life for all [58]. hydrogen is 3% of the total energy consumption and its ex-
Hence, both the Ninth Malaysia Plan and Five-Fuel Diversifi- pected growth rate will be 5e10% per year in the coming years
cation Strategy intensified the alternative energy source for [64]. The hydrogen fuel cell has been heralded as the most
the national economy [59]. Although the integration of a promising energy conversion device especially in trans-
renewable energy option and conventional energy utilization portation. With all these aforementioned benefits associated
was clearly indicated, adoption of other modes of renewable with hydrogen fuel, it potentially places it as a major energy
energy utilization such as hydrogen fuel and infrastructure for carrier in future energy supply [68]. Therefore, hydrogen as an
the transport system remain obscure. alternative to carbon-based fuels has salient features and can
Therefore, following on from the criticism and environ- be produced from diverse sources. Fuel cells, operating with
mental concern, hybrid-fuel cells, landfill gas, municipal hydrogen or hydrogen-rich fuels, have the potential to
solid waste, solar, nuclear fuel and other modes of renew- become major factors in catalyzing the transition to a future
able energy option are intensified in the recent and forth- sustainable energy system with low carbon emissions [69].
coming planning [61]. As a result, a number of long-term However, the future hydrogen market depends upon four
renewable alternatives are being worked on by researchers factors: 1) cost effectiveness, 2) levels of innovation in
to reduce environmental impacts. However, there are some hydrogen-using technologies, 3) potential of environment
disadvantages associated with these renewable energy op- protection, and 4) comparative cost of competing energy
tions [62]. For instance, biomass is seen as not sufficient to systems. Thus, the research community and policymakers
replace fossil fuels and to have low energy conversion and and investors must work together to find solutions to ensure
efficiency [63]. Solar energy also has some disadvantages in successful adoption of a future hydrogen energy economy
energy conversion. Hydrogen (H2), which is an element [69]. The benefits of hydrogen as an alternative are clear as it
found on earth, has been identified as one of the most can replace the disadvantages of solar energy in terms of
viable energy sources and long-term renewable alternatives conversion efficiency and has power of energy influence 2.75
to fossil fuel after solar power.9 The hydrogen fuel cell has times greater than fossil fuels [70]. The only question that
remains is how to catalyze the transition to a hydrogen-based
9
Even though the popularity of solar energy is high, the con- future sustainable energy system.
version energy efficiency is less than 30% and its overall energy
power is very low compared to hydrogen energy 64. Venkata
Mohan, S., Y. Vijaya Bhaskar, and P. Sarma, Biohydrogen production
10
from chemical wastewater treatment in biofilm configured reactor Hydrogen can be produced from other sources or ‘feedstocks’
operated in periodic discontinuous batch mode by selectively enriched such as water, biomass, or fossil fuels. The technologies for
anaerobic mixed consortia. Water research, 2007. 41(12): p. producing pure hydrogen from these feedstocks also require en-
2652e2664. ergy to power the production process.

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ternational Journal of Hydrogen Energy (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2015.11.084
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 5 ) 1 e1 2 7

Fig. 3 e Sustainable development & hydrogen economy and environmental future. Source: author

Thus, fundamental guidelines and infrastructure should be mainly depends on the technology of hydrogen storage [73].11
developed in Malaysia to catalyze the transition to a future At the same time, demand for infrastructure emerges to
sustainable energy system and this can be done by linking an develop such kinds of technologies. To build such an infra-
applicable national long-term framework looking at environ- structure heavily depends upon investment, which is the
mental consideration for sustainable development. Fig. 4 other barrier to achieving a sustainable hydrogen fuel system.
shows the proposed guidelines and infrastructure for a sus- The development of a sustainable hydrogen fuel system re-
tainable development and hydrogen economy with consider- quires the infrastructure to build efficient storage technology,
ation for an environmental future. It shows how hydrogen which demands specific data such as material density, heat
fuel can be an important alternative energy source by over- conductivity, volumetric change and dehydrogenation energy,
coming challenges in the modern transport system. There is as well as gravimetric density and hydrogen uptake [73].
no doubt that the national long-term infrastructure needs to Once the infrastructure is developed, hydrogen fuel would
be developed with consideration to factors particularly be one of the best possible alternatives for the Malaysian
involved with a hydrogen energy road map, cost effectiveness economy, allowing sustainable growth with environmental
with mass production, innovation using latest technologies, benefits; however, this must be weighed against the cost of
and consumer affordability. setup and the production, processing and marketing sources
The hurdles to developing such a sustainable and envi-
ronmentally friendly hydrogen transport system begin with 11
It should be noted that hydrogen fuel has some drawbacks
the challenge of fuel quality standards and storage problems such as: (a) hydrogen fuel requires huge storage tanks because of
due to its gaseous property of low density [71]. Therefore, low density, (b) in compressed form it cannot provide comparable
hydrogen storability and fuel efficiency is necessary to be range of gasoline, and (c) it requires an estimated four times more
comparable to the range of gasoline vehicles. In other words, it volume than gasoline to store its energy [72]. Demirbas‚, A.,
Hydrogen and boron as recent alternative motor fuels. Energy sources,
can be said that the introduction of a hydrogen fuel society
2005. 27(8): p. 741e748.

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8 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 5 ) 1 e1 2

Fig. 4 e Hydrogen energy roadmap for Malaysia. Source: Compiled from Literature

of hydrogen fuel cells should be analyzed accordingly. In this developed countries.12 Following some developed countries,
regard hydrogen fuel vehicle price, fuel cost and driving range Fig. 4 shows the guidelines for a hydrogen energy road map for
should be considered in terms of economic compatibility [74]. Malaysia in the short, medium and long term. This road map
All these considerations are barriers currently and hinder must also be supported with feasibility studies on hydrogen
Malaysian progress to attain a sustainable hydrogen energy energy implementation. Hence, the process from initializing a
future. It is also important to realize that the infrastructure to hydrogen production system to reduction of final cost in the
develop the overall renewable energy supply chain must road map must be studied further through effective R&D
promote the benefits of hydrogen. Thus, all the sub- (research and development), leading to successful adoption.
components of the hydrogen transport system, the eco- The hydrogen energy road map for Malaysia particularly in-
nomics and challenges, need to be brought under one um- dicates how Malaysian policymakers could overcome the
brella to solve the problems and related challenges needed to challenges of adopting a future hydrogen market, and de-
bring about a sustainable and secure environmental future as pends upon the four factors raised earlier. The benefit of a
a way forward, as indicated in Fig. 3. hydrogen transport system predominantly relies on success-
Thus, the Malaysian transportation sector can be devel- ful technological development [75]. In addition, how a gov-
oped with the introduction of hydrogen fuel as seen in some ernment envisions a carbon-free fuel economy without a
power crisis by transforming the transport sector is key, as it
12
Developed countries are introducing hydrogen for trans- utilizes 18% of primary energy [70], bearing in mind also that
portation given its huge potential to replace fossil fuels. economic interests of fossil fuels are subject to continuous

Please cite this article in press as: Ahmed A, et al., Hydrogen fuel and transport system: A sustainable and environmental future, In-
ternational Journal of Hydrogen Energy (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2015.11.084
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 5 ) 1 e1 2 9

price fluctuations and volatility. Though hydrogen is consid- millions of dollars for mass manufacturing to reduce the high
ered as one of the best alternatives compared to other alter- production cost of hydrogen fuel.
native fuels for Malaysia, as discussed, its participation in the Hydrogen fuel has the potential to reduce greenhouse gas
future energy system in the economy will be competitive and emissions and ultimately is capable of mitigating global warm-
similarly plagued with volatility [76,77]. The extraction of ing, with added advantages of diversity of energy supply and
hydrogen can be done by breaking water molecules with help security [80]. The damaging impacts of pollutants that result
of other catalysts which are also considerably expensive. from fossil fuel systems are a major concern; therefore, world-
Thus, the economic competition cannot be ignored in any wide restructuring of energy systems becomes a prerequisite for
way, and the research and development should focus also on reducing the risk of climate change. It is expected that in the long
the concerns of technology and efficiency conversion [78]. run utilization of hydrogen as an energy carrier will become an
The taxation system should be flexible and geared towards ultimately viable option [81]. It would be an attractive alternative
low-carbon related development pathways. Thus, the cost- option because it can be produced from renewable and non-
effectiveness target can be overcome and the hydrogen renewable sources simultaneously. Likewise, it provides the
economy can be sustained, making it comparatively cost- opportunity to transform carbon-based global energy use to a
effective with other competing high carbon energy [79]. clean, renewable and sustainable environment [82]. Besides the
From an economic perspective, the flexible and low taxation ecological advantages of hydrogen, as a fuel it has many other
system would help in affordable mass production of hydrogen important characteristics, namely affordability, reliability, safety
fuel. Thereby, a sustainable and secure environment is and economic viability. Thus, hydrogen fuel economy can be
possible in the near future. understood as an appropriate solution for environmental prob-
Despite the several disadvantages facing hydrogen fuel cells, lems as hydrogen is a most abundant natural element, and
they are currently top priority in the policy agenda in Malaysia. cannot be fractured, unlike other conventional hydrocarbons.
Research is being conducted to this end along with the estab- The modified forms of hydrogen can be water to hydrogen and
lishment of standard codes to overcome the negative effects back to water during the consumption process. Therefore, the
[66]. RM7 million (US$2 million) funding had been disbursed for hydrogen economy such as development of hydrogen produc-
hydrogen production and storage technologies between 2002 tion, storage and fuel cell technologies would certainly play a
and 2007 and RM34 million (US$9.7 million) for national fuel cell central role in addressing growing concerns of carbon emission,
research and development. A task force under the Ministry of climate change and energy security, as well as offering the
Energy and Natural Resources has recently been set up and the prospect of a sustainable energy future. However, it requires
hydrogen energy road map for the next 20 years was drawn as scientific innovation with significant technological development
shown in Fig. 4. Given the tremendous advancement in along with a continuous commitment on both social and polit-
hydrogen fuel cells, the time has come to implement a hydrogen ical horizons [83].
energy road map for Malaysia with more urgency. Hydrogen fuels and their application have already been
introduced in many countries, such as Canada, Japan, United
States and Germany, by showing thoughtful commitment as a
future fuel. They have paved a way to avail modern hydrogen
Discussion technologies, and consequently are inducting hydrogen as a fuel
in their energy systems including the transportation system.
There are several likely developments that have been initiated Japan, which is not endowed with natural resources of fossil
in Malaysia for hydrogen fuel and its integration into the fuels, is leading the development of a universal hydrogen system
transport system [46]. There are two reasons for this consid- with new technologies for power plants, and overall trans-
eration: firstly, to secure future energy supply, and secondly, portation systems with renewable hydrogen [13]. It is evident
because of concerns for a sustainable and environmental that interest of developed countries to implement hydrogen as a
future. It is acknowledged by Malaysian policymakers that the future energy carrier is growing and are they overcoming barriers
hydrogen fuels option for the current generation would be one to illuminate the paths leading to a hydrogen society. Malaysia is
of the best possible alternatives for sustainable growth with also aiming towards this end. However, the rapid increase in the
environmental protection. However, as the development of number of fuel cell vehicles with hydrogen fuel is not expected
green and smart transportation systems by hydrogen fuel is soon. The main reason for this current limitation is the costs and
relatively new, more research and development initiatives are the moderate travelling range including (a) comprehensive de-
needed to supply coast-to-coast delivery of hydrogen fuel. In livery, (b) mass production, (c) expensive to manufacture, and (d)
addition, technological shuffling from conventional fossil fuels fuel storage methods from a pure economic perspective [80].
to hydrogen fuel with mass production and new infrastructure It is quite obvious that hydrogen will form the basic future
is necessary to bring down the cost of fuel cells quickly and energy infrastructure to empower societies. With more
meet consumer-affordable levels. There are a number of eco- research and technological innovation, it is possible it will
nomic and technological factors involved with this adoption of replace today's non-renewable fuel infrastructure of natural
a hydrogen energy road map which pose fundamental chal- gas, oil and coal in all modes of power and transportation
lenges towards sustainable growth and environmental sus- systems to hydrogen. It is certain that current energy econo-
tainability [66]. To this end, research communities and funding mies in the developed nations would replace a substantial
agencies from the developed nations are currently preparing to portion of conventional energy power with hydrogen econ-
transition to a hydrogen economy. Involvement of more fuel omy in the near future, and hydrogen energy technologies will
cell companies is needed to invest literally hundreds of be fully utilized commercially. The question of how far

Please cite this article in press as: Ahmed A, et al., Hydrogen fuel and transport system: A sustainable and environmental future, In-
ternational Journal of Hydrogen Energy (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2015.11.084
10 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 5 ) 1 e1 2

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Please cite this article in press as: Ahmed A, et al., Hydrogen fuel and transport system: A sustainable and environmental future, In-
ternational Journal of Hydrogen Energy (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2015.11.084