GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2 PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS

CHAPTER 1: INTERMOLECULAR FORCES SURFACE TENSION

OF LIQUID AND SOLIDS - Force that cause the surface of a liquid to
Intramolecular Forces contract
- holds the atoms of a molecule together - Force needed to break through the surface
- The stronger the intermolecular force of a
Intermolecular Forces liquid, the greater the surface tension is as
- forces that exist between molecules the temperature of a liquid increases, the
surface tension decreases.
Ionic Bond Ex. Insects walking on the surface of water, drops of
- formed when there is a transfer of electrons liquid being spherical in shape, needle remaining
from a metal to a non-metal suspended on the surface of water

Covalent Bond VISCOSITY

- electrons are shared between two or more - Liquid resistance to flow that exists between
non-metals the molecules of a liquid when they move
past each other.
Metallic Bond - An increase in temperature decreases
- existing between metals, mobile electrons of viscosity
one metal can form a bond with the fixed - The greater the number of bonds, the
positive ion stronger the intermolecular force of
attraction is, and the higher the viscosity of
TYPES OF INTERMOLECULAR FORCES a liquid
Ion-Dipole Force
- strongest among the four types CAPILLARY ACTION
- results from the interaction between an ion
- It shows the effect of force of adhesion
and a polar molecule existing between a solid and liquid in a tube.
- becomes stronger when the change on the ion It results from the competition between
increases ad when the magnitude of the cohesive and adhesive forces.
dipole becomes stronger
- Meniscus: Curved surface of a liquid inside
- commonly found in solutions, especially for
a container
solutions
- of ionic compound in water
VAPOR PRESSURE
- Pressure of the vapor resulting from
Polar: one pairs (Non-bonding)
evaporation of a liquid above a sample of the
Non-Polar: Absence of
liquid in a closed container
Hydrogen Bonds - Vaporization: Change of state from liquid
- Special type of dipole to gas
- Dipole interaction that exists only in - Vapor
molecules that contain a hydrogen atom : Gaseous state of substance which is
bonded to a small highly electronegative normally a liquid or solid at room
atom such as FON temperature
- If a liquid has weak intermolecular force,
Dipole-Dipole Force the escaping tendency is high, its vapor
- Exists between polar covalent two molecules pressure is high
- Partial positive charge on one end of the - An increase in temperature increases vapor
molecule pressure

Partial positive charge – less electronegative BOILING POINT

Partial negative charge – more electronegative - temperature at which the vapour pressure of
a liquid is equal to the atmospheric pressure
London Dispersion forces - If a liquid has strong intermolecular force,
- An interaction between molecules with the escaping tendency is low, its vapour
temporary dipoles pressure is low and it has a high boiling
- Temporary dipoles results form a shift in the point.
position of the electrons where one end
becomes more negative causing the other end MOLAR HEAT OF VAPORIZATION
to be more • amount of heat needed to vaporize a given
amount of liquid at its boiling point
 *The stronger the intermolecular forces of • Appear to have been cooled at very low
attraction, the higher the heat of temperature and viscosity is very high
vaporization. Ex. Glass, rubber, plastic

STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF WATER Seven Principal Crystal Patterns

Structure of Water In Crystalline Solids
• At room temperature, pure water is
colorless, odorless and tasteless liquid
• It turns to ice, its solid form, at 0°C and 1
atm
• At 100°C, it becomes a gas, called steam
• Water molecules has bent shape, with two
partially positive hydrogen atoms and a
partially negative oxygen atom
• It is a polar molecule

Properties of Water
High Boiling Point
• strong intermolecular forces caused by
formation of H-bond
• water is liquid at room temperature

High Specific Heat Criteria Crystalline Amorphous

• 1 cal/g°C Solid Solid
• water can absorb or release large amount of
heat without change in temperature Shape Definite and No definite
geometrical geometrical
High Density in its Liquid Form form form
• only substance that contracts when cooled
• H-bond is more extensive in solid state of Melting Point Well-defined Melt over a
water (ice) than its liquid state melting point wide range of
temperatures
High Surface Tension
• it is caused by hydrogen bond formation Compressibility Rigid and Some are soft
among water molecules cannot be like graphite
• causes water to move upward compressed

High Heat of Vaporization Cleavage Perfect Irregular

• large amount of heat is needed to vaporize a cleavage cleavage when
given amount of water when broken broken into
• significant drop in temperature during into pieces on pieces on
evaporation plane surfaces plane surfaces

PROPERTIES AND TYPES OF SOLIDS

SOLID TYPES OF CRYSTALS
- Have very strong forces of attraction Ionic Solids
- Particles vibrate in place • Contains positive and negative ions
- Have high densities • Electrostatic force between ions
- Particles are packed closely together • Crystal arrangement maximizes attractions
- Definite shape and volume and minimizes repulsion for high degree of
1) Crystalline Solid stability
• Particles are arranged in regular geometric • Hard, brittle, high melting point, poor
pattern electrical and thermal conductivity
• Highly ordered and repetitive pattern Example: NaCl, KBr, CuCl2
*Unit Cells – definite patterns that repeat
themselves in solid crystals Covalent Solids
Ex. NaCl and sugar • Made up of atoms and are joined by covalent
2) Amorphous Solid bonds
• Have fixed shape and volume but particles • Some covalent solids form molecules while
are not arranged in regular geometric pattern some form covalent network extending
• “super cooled liquids” throughout the solid crystal
 • Very hard, very high melting points, poor
electrical and thermal conductivity
Example: Phase Diagram of Carbon Dioxide
Graphite and diamond

Molecular Solids
• Atoms or molecules held together by
intermolecular forces like dispersion forces,
dipole-dipole forces and hydrogen bonds
• Soft, low to moderately high melting points,
poor electrical and thermal conductivity
Example: CO2, NH3, CH4, H2O

Metallic Solids
• Joined by metallic bonds
• The force of attraction between the mobile
valence electrons and the fixed positive metal
ion binds the atoms together IMPORTANT TERMS
• Strength of force depends on the nature of • Triple Point – substance exists as liquid, gas
metal and solid all at the same time at equilibrium
• Good electrical and thermal conductors, • Critical Temperature – maximum
malleable and ductile temperature at which liquid can be liquefied
Example: Metals • Critical Pressure – maximum pressure at
which liquid can be liquefied

PHASE CHANGES
• Transformation of matter from one state to
another that involves the absorption or
evolution of heat.
• When a substance changes states.
• Requires the input or the removal of energy
or change in pressure.
• During a phase change the temperature does
not change, but the amount of energy does.
• Heat has a great effect on the overall process.

HEATING CURVE
• Shows the transformation of matter from
solid to liquid to gas when heat is added

COOLING CURVE
• Shows the transformation of gas to liquid and
then to solid with a continuous release of heat

PHASE DIAGRAM
• Shows the relationship of the states of a
substance to temperature and pressure

Phase Diagram of Water

 CHAPTER 2: PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF Classification of Solution (Based on Amount of
SOLUTIONS Solute Present)
What is Mixture? 1) Dilute solution
It is a combination of two or more pure substances - contains greater amount of solvent
in which each pure substance retains its compared to the solute.
individual chemical properties. 2) Concentrated solution
Pure Substance: any substance that has a uniform - contains greater amount of solute
and unchanging composition. compared to the solvent

Two Types of Mixture LESSON 2.2: IONIC AND NON-IONIC

1) Homogeneous mixture COMPOUNDS IN WATER
- is a mixture which has a uniform Ionic Compounds in Water
composition.  ionic compounds break up into their
- The particles of the mixture are not component cations and anions when
visible by the naked eye. dissolved in water
- The particles cannot be separated by  all ionic compounds are dissolved in water
filtration.
- The mixture is stable (the particles do
not settle down).
- The path of a beam of light is not visible
Non-Ionic Compounds in Water
in the mixture.
example: mixture of sugar in water  polar compounds ionize in water because
2) Heterogeneous mixture they break up into their component ions
- is a mixture which has a non-uniform  polar compounds readily dissolve in water
composition.
- The particles of the mixture are visible • some solutes are insoluble in water because
by the naked eye. of their lack of ability to form a hydrogen
- The particles can be separated by bond or because they do not form ions in
filtration. water.
- The mixture is unstable (the particles Ex. petroleum
settle down). • “like dissolves like”
- The path of a beam of light is visible in • polar solutes dissolve in polar solvent, ionic
the mixture. solute dissolve in ionic solvent and nonpolar
example: mixture of salt and sand solute dissolve in nonpolar solvents

What is a SOLUTION?
It is a homogeneous mixture made up of atoms, ions
or molecules.
LESSON 2.3: SOLUBILITY
What are the two PHASES of SOLUTION? What is SOLUBILITY?
1) Solute: dissolved medium • amount of solute that can dissolve in a given
2) Solvent: dissolving medium amount of solvent at room temperature
under given conditions.
TYPES OF SOLUTIONS • expressed in grams of solute per 100 g of
Type of Solvent Solute Final Examples solvent at specified temperature and
Solution State of pressure.
Solution
Solid Solid Solid Solid Alloys (12k gold, Unsaturated Saturated Supersaturated
bell metal, sterling Definition The The The maximum
silver, some jewelry minimum maximum amount of
Solid Liquid Solid Dental Filling amount of amount of solute present in
(mercury in silver) solute solute that a given amount
Liquid Liquid Liquid Liquid Rubbing Alcohol, present in a can dissolve of solvent at an
vinegar given in a given elevated
Liquid Gas Liquid Oxygenated water, amount of amount of temperature
carbon dioxide in solvent at solvent at
water room room
Liquid Liquid Liquid Ocean Water, syrup temperature. temperature.
Gas Gas Gas Gas Gas Description When solute When The solute
Gas Solid Gas Gas Particles is added, the solute is crystallizes
solute added, the when the
dissolves solute no solution is
longer heated
dissolves.
Exothermic reaction – heat given is off or released 5) Stirring/Agitation
when a solute dissolve in a given amount of solvent - Stirring will disperse the solute into the
Endothermic reaction – heat is absorbed when a sections of the solvent, increasing the
solute dissolve in a solvent
dissolution process
Classification of Solute CHEMICAL ARITHMETIC OF SOLUTIONS
1) Insoluble – less than or equal to 0.1 g of
CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTIONS
solute dissolves in 100 g of solvent
2) Slightly soluble – greater than 0.1 g but less - To describe the solutions qualitatively,
than or equal to 10.0 g of solute dissolves in two important terms are used.
100 g of solvent 1. Dilute – means there is only a little amount
3) Soluble – greater than or equal to 10.0 g of of solute dissolved in a solution.
solute dissolves in 100 g of solvent 2. Concentrated - means there is a large
amount of solute dissolved in a solution.
What are the different FACTORS affecting
solubility?
1) Nature of solute and solvent – “like MOLE TO MASS AND MASS TO MOLE
dissolves like” COMPUTATION
Solute Solvent Solubility/Miscibility
Polar Polar Soluble/Miscible  In chemistry, the mole is the standard
Nonpolar Nonpolar Soluble/Miscible measurement of amount. When substances
Nonpolar Polar Insoluble/Immiscible react, they do so in simple ratios of moles.
Ionic Polar Soluble/Miscible However, balances give readings in grams.
Balances DO NOT give readings in moles.
2) Effect of Temperature
- As temperature increases, solubility of  When we compare amounts of one
gas in liquid decreases and as substance to another using moles, we must
temperature decreases, the solubility of convert from grams, since this is the
gas in liquid increases. information we get from balances.
- The solubility of solid increases with an  General formula
increase in temperature for endothermic
reactions while the solubility of solid
decreases with an increase in
temperature for exothermic reactions.

MOLARITY
 It is the ratio of the number of moles of
solute to the volume of solutions in liters.
 It is calculated using
3) Effect of Pressure the formula
- The solubility of solids in liquids are not n = number of moles, mol
M = molarity, mol/L
affected by pressure
v = volume, L
- Solubility of gas in liquids increases
with an increase in pressure. This is
known as Henry’s Law MOLALITY
Example: Opening a bottled soda  It is the ratio of the number of moles of
4) Surface Area solute per kilogram of solvent.
- Interaction between the solute and the  It is calculated using
solvent occurs at the surface area the formula
- The greater the surface area, the greater n = moles of solute, mol
the solubility m = molality
- Surface area can be increased by m’ = mass of solvent, kg
grinding the solid into finer particles
PERCENTAGE CONCENTRATION COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES OF
 Is the percent by volume of each solute SOLUTIONS
in a solution.  Is a physical property of a solution that
 It is calculated using the formula: depends on the concentration of solute
particles present in the solution.
%Concentration = Volume
 Depend on the number of solute particles in
Solute/Volume of Solution x 100 the solutions.
MOLE FRACTION  The colligative properties of the solution
include:
 It is the ratio of the number of moles of one
- Vapor Pressure Lowering
component of a solution to the total number
 Is the pressure exerted by the gas
of moles of all the components.
 It is computed using the formula: that is in dynamic equilibrium with
mole fractionsolute = molesolute/ molesolute + its liquid in a closed system at a
molesolvent specified temperature.
- Freezing Point Depression
DILUTION OF SOLUTION  Is an increase in the boiling point of
 Dilution is the process of making a solution a pure substance when another
less concentrated as in the addition of more substance is dissolved in it.
solvent.
- Boiling Point Elevation
 In diluting solutions, the amount of solute  Is a decrease in the freezing point of
remains the same, but the amount of solvent
a pure substance when another
changes. Since the amount of solute remains
the same, therefore, substance is dissolved in it.
M1V1 = M2V2 - Osmotic Pressure
 Osmosis is the movement of solvent
MASS PER UNIT VOLUME particles through a semipermeable
 Solutions of solids in water are normally membrane from a region of lower
prepared quantitatively by weighing a given solute concentration to a region of
quantity of the solid and dissolving it in higher solute concentration.
water, then making up the solution to a
specified volume.
SOLUTIONS
 The solution is then quoted as containing
Electrolytes
gram of solute per liter of solution, i.e., as
- Particles that ionize in a solution and thus
gL-1 or g/L.
can conduct electricity.
- Examples: NaCl, HCl, NaOH

Non-Electrolytes
- Particles that do not ionize at all in solution
thus cannot conduct electricity.
- Example: Table Sugar mixed with water
- Dependent on the nature of components

VAPOR PRESSURE LOWERING

- The Vapor Pressure of a solution with a
nonvolatile (can easily evaporate) solute is
always lower than that of the pure solvent.
Raoult’s Law
pH SCALE - “the vapor pressure of a solvent over a
Higher H+ lower number (Acid) solution is equal to the product of the vapor
Lower H+ higher number (Base) pressure of the pure solvent and the mole
Range is 0-14, 7 is neutral fraction of the solvent in the solution”
Common Acids and Bases - Psolvent = xsolventP°solvent
Base: Soap pH 10 - For a solution containing only one solute:
Acid: lemon juice pH 2 - Xsolvent = 1-xsolute
Acids and Bases neutralize each other - “The decrease in vapor pressure (ΔP) is
directly proportional to the solute
concentration.
FREEZING POINT DEPRESSION
- Depending on what the solvent is, one mole
of any nonelectrolyte will lower the freezing
point of a given amount of solvent by a
constant amount referred to as the freezing
point depression constant ( Kf ), also termed
cryoscopic constant
- FREEZING POINT DEPRESSION ( Δtf ) is
related to the molal concentration of a
nonelectrolyte solute by the ff. equation:
- Δtf = tsolution – tpure solvent = -(molality)( Kf )

BOILING POINT ELEVATION

- One mole of any nonvolatile, nonelectrolyte
solute will elevate the boiling point of given
amount of solvent by a constant factor
depending on what the solvent is. This factor
is known as molal boiling point elevation
constant (Kb), also termed as ebullioscopic
constant.
- BOILING POINT ELEVATION ( Δtb ) is
related to the molal concentration of a
nonelectrolyte solute by the ff. equation:
- Δtb = tsolution – tpure solvent = (molality)( Kb )
ELECTROLYTIC SOLUTIONS
- The factor i is called the van’t Hoff factor and
is equal to the number of ions in one formula
unit of an electrolytic solute.
- Δtf = -i(molality)(Kf)
- Δtb = -i(molality)(Kb)
- Example: NaCl and MgCl2

OSMOTIC AND OSMOTIC PRESSURE

- Osmosis is a process through which a solvent
flows through a semipermeable membrane
from a less concentrated solution to a more
concentrated one.
- Osmotic Pressure is the amount of pressure
required to stop osmosis.