ANTENNAS & WAVE PROPAGATION UNIT-6

TYPES OF PROPAGATIONS & THEIR FREQUENCY RANGES

The power radiated from the transmitting antenna is usually spread over a large area and hence
power available at most of the receiving antenna is only a small fraction of the radiated power.
In some cases transmission loss may be large. The portion of the received energy at a distant
receiving point may travel over any of the possible mode of propagation. The prominent modes
of propagation are

a) Ground wave propagation or surface wave propagation

b) Sky wave propagation or ionospheric propagation
c) Space wave propagation

GROUND WAVE PROPAGATION (Up to 2 MHz)

The ground wave or surface wave is important at broadcast and lower frequencies. The ground
wave is a wave that is guided along the surface of the earth just as EM wave guided along
transmission line. This mode of propagation exists when the transmitting and receiving
antennas are much closed to each other.

K.L.V. PRASAD ACET

ANTENNAS & WAVE PROPAGATION UNIT-6

The ground waves are usually produced by vertically antennas which are vertically polarized.
Any horizontal component of electric field in contact with the earth is short circuited by the
earth. The ground wave propagation along the surface of the earth induces charges in the earth
which travel along with the wave and hence produce some current. While carrying this current
the earth behaves like a leaky capacitor and hence the earth can be represented as a resistance
in shunt with a capacitor.

The field strength at a distance from the transmitting antenna during the ground wave
propagation is given by following equation

120π hr ht I s
E= Volt/meter
dλ
where, ht = height of the transmitting antenna
hr = height of the receiving antenna
I s = antenna current
d = distanc between transmitting and receiving points
λ = operating wavelength

If the distance‘d’ is very large the reduction in the field strength due to ground attenuation and
atmospheric absorption increases and thus the actual voltage received at receiving point
decreases. This results in the change in field strength as follows

E0 A
Eg =
d
where, E0 = ground wave field strength due to surface wave
Eg = ground wave field strength
A = attenuation factor

Similarly we can also express the following ground wave field strength equation in terms of
power radiated as below

300 P
E0 = ('d' is in Km)
d
90 P
E0 = ('d' is in meters)
d

K.L.V. PRASAD ACET

ANTENNAS & WAVE PROPAGATION UNIT-6

WAVE TILT*******
When the surface wave glides over the surface of the earth energy is abstracted form the
surface wave to supply the losses in the earth. Thus while passing over the surface of the earth
the surface wave loses some of its energy by absorption. Thus the ground wave suffers varying
amount of attenuation while propagating along the curvature of the earth depending on
frequency, surface irregularities, permittivity and conductivity.

Besides ground attenuation there is still another way in which surface wave is attenuated. It is
due to diffraction and tilt in the wave front as shown in the figure below.

As the wave progress over the curvature of the earth, the wave fronts start gradually tilting
more and more. This increase in the tilt of wave causes more short circuit of the electric field
component and hence the field strength goes on reducing. Ultimately at some appreciable
distance from the transmitting antenna the surface wave dies because of the losses mentioned
above.

K.L.V. PRASAD ACET

ANTENNAS & WAVE PROPAGATION UNIT-6

SKY WAVE PROPAGATION (Between 2 to 30 MHz)

The sky waves are very crucial at higher frequencies used for long distance communication. In
this mode of propagation EM waves reach the receiving point after reflection from the ionized
region in the upper atmosphere called ionosphere which is situated between 50 Km to 400 Km
above the surface of earth. This is shown in the following figure as below.

The ionosphere will act like a reflecting surface and is able to reflect back the electromagnetic
waves of frequencies between to 2 to 30MHz. More than this frequency sky wave propagation
is not possible since reflection is not possible above this range. Due to this reason this
propagation is also called short wave propagation.

STRUCTURE OF IONOSPHERE
The sky waves of different frequencies are found to return to earth from the different heights.
It means ionosphere is not having one but several layers. The different layers in the ionosphere
are due to the fact that different gases in the earth’s atmosphere ionized at different pressures.
The different layers of ionosphere are shown in the diagram.

K.L.V. PRASAD ACET

ANTENNAS & WAVE PROPAGATION UNIT-6

LAYERS OF IONOSPHERE

D-Region
D-region is the lower most region of the ionosphere and is located in the height range of 50 to
90 Km. This layer is present only during the day light hours and disappears at night because the
recombination rate is highest. This is due to the fact that degree of ionization depends on the
altitude of the sun and on sunset the recombination rate increases resulting vanishing of D-
region all together.

It is of importance for VLF and LF communication and not useful at HF communication. D-layer
is also called as absorbing layer for short wave signals.

Normal E-Region
E-region lies as narrow layer just above the D-region in the height range of 90 Km to 140Km.
During day light hours it has very high density which has appreciable effect on the direction of
propagation. During night hours E-region remains weakly ionized.

E-layer is the most useful layer for long distance radio propagation during day light hours. The
main function of E-layer is to reflect some HF waves in the day hours.

F-Region (F1 and F2 Layers)

The region of the ionosphere lying between 140 Km to 400 Km from earth surface is called as F
region or layer. Its average height is 270 Km. it is the uppermost ionized region and is the only
region which always remains ionized irrespective of hours of day or seasons of the years. These
layers are also called as Appleton Layers.

The F-region facilitates long distance sky wave communication of radio signals during night
hours. The existence of F-layer in the night hours is due to the fact that being uppermost layer,
it is highly ionized and hence some ionization’s remain even after sunset.

During day, sometimes after sunrise the F-region is found to split up in to two layers called as F1
and F2 in low latitude stations throughout the year and is high latitude stations in summer.

K.L.V. PRASAD ACET

ANTENNAS & WAVE PROPAGATION UNIT-6

NOTE:
During night time the layers F1 and F2 combine and form one layer called ‘F’ layer and D region
vanishes together. Thus in the night time only two principal layers exists. These variations are
shown in the following diagram.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SKY WAVE PROPAGATION

The sky wave propagation exhibits some important characteristics based on which we can
define the communication by ionosphere. They are

a) Critical frequency
b) Maximum Usable frequency
c) Skip Distance
d) Virtual height
e) Lowest Usable frequency
f) Optimum working frequency

K.L.V. PRASAD ACET

ANTENNAS & WAVE PROPAGATION UNIT-6

CRITICAL FREQUENCY
The highest frequency which can be reflected by a particular layer at vertical incidence. This
highest frequency is called critical frequency.

We know that,

sin ( i ) 81N
µ
= = 1−
sin ( r ) f c2
µ = 0 for critical incidence
81N
1− =
0
f c2
f c2 = 81N

f c = 9 N max

MAXIMUM USABLE FREQUENCY

It is the limiting frequency which can be reflected back to earth but for some specific angles of
incidence i.e... Other than vertical incidence.

(Or)

It is also defined as the frequency which can be used for sky wave propagation between two
points on the surface of the earth. It usually varies between 8MHz to 35MHz.

sin ( i ) 81N
µ
= = 1−
sin ( r ) 2
f MUF
81N sin ( i )
1− =
f MUF sin ( 90 )
2

81N
sin ( i=
) 1− 2
f MUF
81N
1 − sin 2 (i ) = cos 2 (i ) = 2
f MUF
f c2
cos 2 (i ) = 2
f MUF

K.L.V. PRASAD ACET

ANTENNAS & WAVE PROPAGATION UNIT-6

f muf = f c sec ( i )

MUF (Flat Earth)

BO h 4h
(i )
cos= = =
AB D2 4h 2 + D 2
h +
2

4
for f = f m , r = 900 and N = N m
81N m f c2
sin ( i ) =−
µ= 1 2
=−
1 2
f MUF f MUF
f c2 4h 2
cos=2
(i ) = 2
f MUF 4h 2 + D 2
2
f MUF 4h 2 + D 2
=
f c2 4h 2
f muf  D2 
= 1 + 2 
fc  4h 

 D2 
=
f muf f 1 + 2 
 4h 

K.L.V. PRASAD ACET

 ANTENNAS & WAVE PROPAGATION UNIT-6

MUF (Curve Earth)

Arc D
=
Angle θ
⇒ 2=
radius R
D = 2 Rθ
=
Now AT R= sin θ ; OT R cos θ
BT = OE + EB − OT = h + R − R cos θ
= AT 2 + BT= ( R sin θ ) + ( h + R − R cos θ=
)
2 2 2
AB
BT h + R − R cos θ
(i )
cos= =
AB ( R sin θ ) + ( h + R − R cos θ )
2 2

( + − θ )
2
h R R cos
cos 2 ( i ) =
( R sin θ ) + ( h + R − R cos θ )
2 2

( h + R − R cos θ )
2
f c2
cos =
2
(i ) =
( R sin θ ) + ( h + R − R cos θ )
2 2 2
f muf

OA R
from the diagram, cos (=
=θ)
OB R + h
since θ is very small, we can write above equation as below

K.L.V. PRASAD ACET

ANTENNAS & WAVE PROPAGATION UNIT-6

−1
 h h
cos (θ ) =
1 +  = 1−
 R R
θ2 h 2h
1− =1 − ⇒ θ 2 =
2 R R
we know that
D2
D 4 R θ ⇒=
= 2
h 2 2

R
h
we have, cos (θ ) = 1 −
R

D2
then cos (θ ) = 1 − 2
8R
D
similarly, sin (θ )= θ=
R
Now substituting h,cosθ ,sinθ in
( h + R − R cos θ )
2
f c2
(i )
cos 2= =
( R sin θ ) + ( h + R − R cos θ )
2 2 2
f muf
we get,

2
D2  D2 
+h+ 
4  8R 
f muf = f c
2
 D2 
h+ 
 8R 

K.L.V. PRASAD ACET

 ANTENNAS & WAVE PROPAGATION UNIT-6

SKIP DISTANCE
It is defined as the minimum distance from the transmitter at which a sky wave of given
frequency is returned to earth by the ionosphere.

(Or)

The minimum distance from the transmitter to a point where sky wave of given frequency is
first received.

We know that,
 Dskip 2 
=
f muf f c 1 + 
 4h 2 
2
 f muf  Dskip 2
  −1 = 2
 fc  4h
  f muf 2 
=Dskip 2 4h 2   − 1
  f c  
 

2
 f muf 
=Dskip 2h   −1
 fc 

K.L.V. PRASAD ACET

ANTENNAS & WAVE PROPAGATION UNIT-6

VIRTUAL HEIGHT
It is the height to which a short pulse of energy sent vertically upward travelling with the speed
of light would reach the earth.

CT
h=
2
where,
h = virtual height
C = velocity of EM wave
T = Round trip time

LOWEST USABLE FREQUENCY (LUHF)

The lowest usable high frequency (LUF) is the frequency in the HF band at which the received
field intensity is sufficient to provide the required signal-to-noise ratio for a specified time
period.

K.L.V. PRASAD ACET

ANTENNAS & WAVE PROPAGATION UNIT-6

OPTIMUM WORKING FREQUENCY

Optimum working frequencies are selected from the MUF based on monthly average. Hence it
is normal to use 85% of predicated MUF. Therefor there is a frequency called as optimum
working frequency or optimum traffic frequency (OTF) which is 50% to 85% of MUF is used to
accommodate number of channels.

OWF = 85% of MUF

K.L.V. PRASAD ACET

ANTENNAS & WAVE PROPAGATION UNIT-6

IONOSPHERIC ABNORMALITIES
The ionosphere is highly depends on sun and hence its conditions vary continuously. The
variations are of two types. They are Normal and Abnormal variations. The normal variations
include daily, seasonal, height and thickness variations. While the abnormal variations are
mainly due to sun which is a variable STAR. It includes

a) Sudden ionospheric disturbances or Monger-Dellinger effect (Imp)****

b) Ionospheric storms
c) Fading
d) Sun spot cycle
e) Whistlers
f) Luxemburg effect (Imp)******

Sudden ionospheric disturbances

S.I.D’s are caused due to sudden appearance of solar flares which are due to gigantic emissions
of hydrogen from the sun. The solar flares are sudden and unpredictable. The X-ray radiation
following solar flares increases tremendously the ionization density. As a result of intense
increase in ionization density it causes the absorption of signals and increase noise as well.
Consequently the LUF is increase beyond MUF resulting in complete blackout of all high
frequency communication via ionosphere.

This type of SID may last for few minutes to an hour and takes everywhere on the globe. This
complete blackout is known as S.I.D and was first discovered by Monger and Dellinger and
hence it is named after them.

Ionospheric storms
Ionospheric storms are nothing but the disturbances in the ionosphere which are combined
with the rapid and excessive fluctuations associated with magnetic storms. The magnetic
storms occur in the earth’s magnetic field. During the ionospheric storms the ionosphere
becomes turbulent and loses its normal working condition. This makes the radio wave
propagation erratic and critical frequency decreases.

This type of effects usually occurs in D and F layers and these types of effects may last from one
to more days. it is mainly caused due to emission of ∝ and β rays from the sun. ionospheric
storms occur suddenly and it may take 3 to 4 days to come to normal condition. Its effect is
more near the polar region and becomes less at the equator.

K.L.V. PRASAD ACET

ANTENNAS & WAVE PROPAGATION UNIT-6

Sun spot cycle

The sun has an 11 years cycle called sun spot cycle over which its output varies tremendously.
Although variations are slight but the solar output of ultra violet rays, coronae, flares, particle
radiation and sun spot may vary fifty folds over the period. The extent of solar radiation is
measured by method of sun spot counting.

The above shows the eleven years sun spot cycle. The critical frequency of the ionosphere is
highest during sun spot maxima and lowest during sun spot minima. During the period of
minimum sun spot activity the lower frequencies are only usable at night and higher
frequencies are rarely used for long distance communication.

Luxemburg effect or Ionospheric Cross Modulation

While listening to a distant medium frequency broadcasting station sometimes there may be
chance of some other powerful working at the background. This effect was first observed in
Luxemburg when it try to receive the respected 230 KHz frequency it overlapped with Paris 182
KHz station. Since this phenomena was first observed in Luxemburg it named after it. These
types of disturbances are occurring due to following conditions. They are

The two transmitting stations were nearly on the same great circle bearing form the receiver.

The interfering station is geographically between the receiver and the wanted transmitting
stations.

The only remedy for this unfortunate mixing of two transmissions is appeared to be a reduction
of the proportion of sky wave. This is the reason why most of the radio wave communication is
not linear over the higher layers.

K.L.V. PRASAD ACET

ANTENNAS & WAVE PROPAGATION UNIT-6

Fading
Fading is the fluctuation in the received signal strength at the receiver or a random variation in
the received signal is known as fading. It is caused by the variations in the heights and density
of ionization in the different layers of atmosphere. Fading may be slow, rapid caused due to
interference between two waves of different path lengths.

The different types of fading are given by

Selective fading

Selective fading is more prevalent at higher frequencies for which sky wave propagation is
used. It may the effect the modulation of signal at high percentage. AM signals are more prone
to selective fading rather than SSB signals.

Interference fading

Interference fading is the most serious type of fading and it is produced by the interference
between upper and lower layers of sky wave. This fading is also occurs due to fluctuations of
heights of ionosphere. Due to this the signal may take different hops or paths before it reaches
the respected receiver.

Absorption fading

This type of fading occurs due to variations of signal strength with the different amount of
absorption of waves absorbed by the transmission medium.

Polarization fading

This type of fading occurs due to the different polarization of the sky wave. This effect mainly
occurs due to superposition of ordinary and extra ordinary waves which are oppositely
polarized.

Skip fading

This type of fading occurs at distances near the skip distance. Any variation in the height or
density of an ionized layer may move the receiving point beyond the skip zone.

The most common method to minimize the fading is to use the automated gain control
(AVC/AGC) in the receiver. AVC is the complete solution to the problems of fading because the
signals are usually drop below the noise level and no amount of amplification will make the
signal usable.

K.L.V. PRASAD ACET

ANTENNAS & WAVE PROPAGATION UNIT-6

IONOSPHERIC ABSORPTION
Besides critical frequencies and virtual heights of the ionosphere layers, there is a third factor
called as absorption of radio waves which limits the radio transmission over the large distance.
The absorption suffered by a radio wave in the ionosphere can broadly be divided in to

Non-derivative Absorption
This absorption occurs in the lower region where refractive index is nearby less than unity.

Deviative Absorption
This absorption occurs in the region where the value of refractive index is appreciably equal to
unity.

Non derivative absorption is maximum in the lower most D-region in day where the collision
frequency is highest. The absorption increases with decrease with frequency. If earth’s
magnetic field is neglected, then for non-Deviative absorption

vf c2
k=
2cf 2
1
kα 2 α v
f
where,
v = collision frequency
k = Absorption coefficient

This shows that with increase in collision frequency ‘v’ and decrease in wave frequency ‘f’ the
absorption increases and this is why during day time when D-layer is present, it becomes
necessary to use a high transmission frequency.

K.L.V. PRASAD ACET

ANTENNAS & WAVE PROPAGATION UNIT-6

SPACE WAVE PROPAGATION (Up to 30 MHz)

The space wave propagation finds its importance at VHF bands, UHF and microwave
communications like televisions, radar etc... In this mode of propagation the EM waves from
the transmitting antenna travel to the receiving antenna either directly or after reflection from
ground in the earth’s tropospheric region. Troposphere is portion of the atmosphere which
extends up to 16 Km from the earth’s surface.

Space wave consists of at least two components. They are

• Direct component
• Indirect or ground reflected component

It means in the first case the wave reaches directly from the transmitting antenna to
receiving antenna. In the second case the wave reaches the receiving antenna after
reflection from the ground, where the phase change of 1800 is also introduced due to
reflection from the ground.

Although both the waves leave the transmitting antenna in the same time with the same
phase but may reach the receiving antenna either in phase or out of phase because two
waves travel different paths. At the receiving point the signal strength is the vector addition
of direct and indirect waves. Space wave propagation is also called as Tropospheric
Propagation.

K.L.V. PRASAD ACET

ANTENNAS & WAVE PROPAGATION UNIT-6

RANGE OF SPACE WAVE PROPAGATION OR LINE OF SIGHT PROPAGATION

(LOS)
Line of sight distance is that distance between the transmitter and receiver, in which if a
direct ray passes from the transmitter to the receiver without being intercepted by the
bulge of earth’s surface.

In general space wave communication is possible only up to or slightly beyond the line of
sight distance and this distance is determined mainly by the heights of transmitting and
receiving antennas as shown below.

Let ‘d’ be the distance between transmitter and the receiver and heights of the transmitting
and receiving antennas are ht and hr respectively above ground. Now from the diagram we
can write

d= d1 + d 2 ------------------- (1)
If 'r' be the radius of earth then from ∆ABO and ∆CBO,
d1= ( ht + r ) − r 2= ht 2 + r 2 + 2rht − r 2  2rht meters
2

similarly, d 2= ( hr + r ) − r 2= hr 2 + r 2 + 2rhr − r 2  2rhr meters

2

Thus putting the values of d1 and d 2 in above equation (1), we get

2rht + 2rhr meters = 2r  ht + hr  meters
d=

= 2*6370*103  ht + hr 

=d 3.57  ht + hr  Km

K.L.V. PRASAD ACET

ANTENNAS & WAVE PROPAGATION UNIT-6

The above equation can be expressed in terms of effective earth’s radius as below. For standard
atmosphere conditions the effective earth radius is always four times the actual earth radius.

4
r' = r
3
=
Now d 2r '  ht + hr  meters

4
= 2* r  ht + hr 
3
 4 3
=  2* *6370*10   ht + hr 
 3 
=d 4.12  ht + hr  Km
In terms of miles, we can write it as
=d 1.414  ht + hr  miles

EFFECTIVE EARTH’S RADIUS

Let us derive the relation between the radius of curvature of the ray path in the
troposphere and change of refractive index with height by assuming the curvature of the
earth. Consider a radio wave which is travelling nearly horizontally in the troposphere and
its path is bent in to an arc by the variation of the refractive index with height as shown in
the diagram.

K.L.V. PRASAD ACET

ANTENNAS & WAVE PROPAGATION UNIT-6

Let v = Velocity of propagation

h = Height above the earth
R = Radius of curvature of earth
r = Actual radius of earth
Then from the diagram,

Arc vdt
=Angle = or dθ
Radius R
Rdθ = vdt ----------- (1)
Similarly, ( R + dh ) dθ =( v + dv ) dt
( R + dh − R ) dθ = ( v + dv − v ) dt
dhdθ = dvdt or
dθ dv
= ------------- (2)
dt dh
c c
But v= =
µ kr
where kr = dielectric constant
c = velocity of light
µ = Refractive index above height 'h'
By differentiating the above equation w.r.t 'h' we get,
dv c dµ  c  1 dµ v dµ
= − 2. = −  . =
−
dh µ dh  µ  µ dh µ dh
dv dµ
 −v ( µ = 1)
dh dh
from equation (1)
vdt v v v
R= = = =
dθ dθ dv −v d µ
dt dh dh

dh
R= −
dµ

K.L.V. PRASAD ACET

ANTENNAS & WAVE PROPAGATION UNIT-6

This shows that radius of curvature of the wave path is a function of the rate of change of
dielectric constant or refractive index with height, changes from hour to hour, day to day and
season to season. But in practice however an average value four times the radius of earth is
used for the calculation purpose.

FIELD STRENGTH OF THE TROPOSPHERIC WAVE

If the curvature of the earth is neglected, the space wave propagation takes place as shown
in the figure above. The energy received by the receiving point is by two rays, one by direct
path rays (Path OT’R’) and other by the indirect ray after reflection from the ground (Path
T’OR’). The field strength received at the receiving point is the vector sum of fields of both
rays.

Let h t = height of transmitting antenna

h r = height of receiving antenna
d = distance between them
d1 = direct ray path
d 2 = indirect ray path
E 0 = field strength at R' due to direct rays

K.L.V. PRASAD ACET

ANTENNAS & WAVE PROPAGATION UNIT-6

From ∆T'R'M',
( ht − hr ) + d2 =
2
d12
and similarly form right angle traingle T'AB,
( ht + hr ) + d2 =
2
d 22
 RR ' = RA
1

d1 = ( ht − hr ) + d 
2 2 2
 
1
  ht − hr    1  ht − hr 2
2 2 
= d 1 +   =  + + 
  d    
d 1 ....
  
 2  d  
(h − h )
2

d1= d+ t r
2d
(h + h )
2

d 2= d+ t r
2d
But the path difference beween direct and indirect rays is,
P.d = d 2 − d1
(h + h ) (h − h )
2 2
2hr ht 2hr ht
= d+ t r −d − t r= +
2d 2d 2d 2d
2h h
P.d = r t
d
It is known from the optics that
2π 2π  2hr ht 
Phase differece (α ) = ( path difference ) =
λ λ  d 

4π hr ht
α= radians
λd

K.L.V. PRASAD ACET

ANTENNAS & WAVE PROPAGATION UNIT-6

This is the phase difference due to the path difference but besides this there
is another phase difference due to reflection from the ground (β =1800 ).
hence the total phase difference is given by
θ =α +β
where α = phase difference due to path difference
β = phase difference due to ground reflection
Now the resultant strength at point 'R' is given by
E R E0 (1 + ke − jθ )
=

ER = (1 + k cos θ ) − ( jk sin θ )
2 2
E0
By solving the above equation we get,
 4π hr ht 
E R = 2 E0 sin  
 2λ d 
When θ is very small then,

 4π hr ht 
E R = E0  
 λd 

The above equation can also be expressed in terms of power as below

88 Phr ht
ER = volt/metre
λd 2

K.L.V. PRASAD ACET

ANTENNAS & WAVE PROPAGATION UNIT-6

Duct Propagation & M-Curves

At UHF and VHF frequencies the waves neither reflected by ionosphere nor propagated along
the earth surface. But the transmission occurs due to refraction even beyond the LOS.

Inside the troposphere the atmosphere has a dielectric constant slightly greater than unity at
earth surface where density is more and it decreases below unity at greater heights where the
density is zero.

Usually a normal or standard atmosphere is one where dielectric constant is assumed to

decrease uniformly with height to a value of unity where the density is zero.

Conditions like air turbulence, temperature and water vapor at different layers of earth causes
the phenomena like reflection refraction and scattering. These things lead to a new concept
called as DUCT PROPAGATION. It is also called as SUPER REFRACTION.

The above diagram shows the formation of duct in the atmosphere. It will act as a leaky
waveguide to process the EM wave through it. As the refractive index varies with the frequency
at different layers, this in turn leads to variation of dielectric constant with the height. Due to
these variations the wave is going to trapped in the duct and travel along the earth surface.

The other important cause of duct propagation is Temperature inversion (where temperature
increases with height rather than decrease). To study about duct propagation there is a
necessity to study about Modified refractive index. It is given by

h
N= µ +
r

K.L.V. PRASAD ACET

ANTENNAS & WAVE PROPAGATION UNIT-6

As N is always unity, but for numerical dealings it is convenient to use “Modified index of
refractive modulus”.

h
N −1 = µ −1 +
r

Where µ = refractive index

h = height above the earth surface

r = 6370 Km = radius of earth

M-Curves
𝐝𝐌
The value of gradient 𝐝𝐡
is a measurement; if ‘M’ is plotted against height ‘h’ the following
curves are obtained.

K.L.V. PRASAD ACET

ANTENNAS & WAVE PROPAGATION UNIT-6

𝐝𝐌
The above curves are called as M-Curves. The duct is formed only if 𝐝𝐡
is negative. The curves
shows different inversion layers for different ducts.

CRITICAL ANGLE
The waves will trap in the ducts which are entering with small angles. But if the angle exceeds it
penetrates in to the higher layers.

Similarly the ducts will not allow signals of some specific wavelength and it is given by

3
λmax = 0.084d 2

K.L.V. PRASAD ACET

ANTENNAS & WAVE PROPAGATION UNIT-6

Troposcatter Propagation or Forward Scatter

It is a mechanism by which propagation is possible by the scattered and diffracted rays. This
mode of propagation usually occurs in the range from 160 MHz it can be extended up to 300
MHz’s.

Using Troposcatter propagation it is possible to establish a reliable communication over the

range of 160 Km to 1600 Km by using high power transmitters and high gain antennas.

This mechanism is a combination of two theories. The first mode is ionospheric which is
resulted from scattering of waves from the E-Layer of atmosphere. The second mode is
tropospheric where scattering of waves takes place from fine layers of atmosphere.

In the above figure one antenna is UHF transmitting antenna and the other is UHF receiving
antenna then sufficient radio energy is directed towards the receiving antenna thus making a
reliable communication system. The scattering angle ∝ should be as small as possible.

Applications
Due to greater attenuation of signals along the path it is used in

a) Point to point communication

b) Radio and TV relay links

K.L.V. PRASAD ACET