1st Semester
2019 - 2020
Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain
University of Duhok
College of Engineering
Civil Department
Soil Mechanics-I 3rd Year Students
Civil Department Soil Mechanics-I
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain
Definitions of the term "Soil” in different scientific fields:
to an agricultural scientist, it means ‘‘the loose material on the
earth’s crust consisting of disintegrated rock with an admixture of
organic matter, which supports plant life’’.
to a geologist, it means the disintegrated rock material which has not
been transported from the place of origin.
to a civil engineer, the term ‘soil’ means, and the loose
unconsolidated inorganic material on the earth’s crust produced by
the disintegration of rocks, overlying hard rock with or without
organic matter.
Chapter 1: Introduction to Soil Mechanics 2
Civil Department Soil Mechanics-I
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain
• Soil mechanics is a discipline that applies the principles of
engineering mechanics to soils to predict the mechanical
behavior of soil. So it deals with the study of the physical
properties of soil and the behavior of soil masses subjected to
various types of forces.
• Geotechnical Engineering is the branch of civil
engineering that deals with soil, rock, and underground water,
and their relation to the design construction and operation of
engineering projects.
Chapter 1: Introduction to Soil Mechanics 3
Civil Department Soil Mechanics-I
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain
FIELDS OF APPLICATION OF SOIL MECHANICS
Foundations Excavations, Embankments and Dams
Underground and Earth-retaining Structures Pavement Design
Chapter 1: Introduction to Soil Mechanics 4
Civil Department Soil Mechanics-I
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain
SOIL FORMATION
The process of weathering of the rock decreases the cohesive forces (binding
the mineral grains) and leads to the disintegration of bigger masses to smaller and
smaller particles. Soils are formed by the process of weathering of the parent rock.
The weathering of the rocks might be by mechanical disintegration, and/or chemical
decomposition.
Mechanical Weathering
expansive forces of freezing water in fissures
sudden changes of temperature
abrasion of rock by moving water or glaciers.
erosion by wind and rain
cracking forces by growing plants and roots in voids and crevasses of rock
Chemical Weathering
The principal types of decomposition are hydration, oxidation, carbonation, and
leaching. Oxygen and carbon dioxide which are always present in the air readily
combine with the elements of rock in the presence of water.
Chapter 1: Introduction to Soil Mechanics 5
Civil Department Soil Mechanics-I
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain
GENERAL TYPES OF SOILS
According to Size:
The individual size of the constituent parts of even the weathered rock might
range from the smallest state (colloidal) to the largest possible (boulders).
Cobbles Gravel Sand Silt Clay
76.2 mm 4.75 mm 0.075 mm 0.002 mm
Chapter 1: Introduction to Soil Mechanics 6
Civil Department Soil Mechanics-I
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain
On the basis of origin of their constituents
Parent Rock
Residual soil Transported soil
~ in situ weathering (by ~ weathered and
physical & chemical agents) transported far away
of parent rock
by wind, water and ice.
Chapter 1: Introduction to Soil Mechanics 7
Civil Department Soil Mechanics-I
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain
Transported Soils:
The transporting agencies of such soils are glaciers, wind and water. The soils
are named according to the mode of transportation.
Transported by Special name:
wind “Aeolian”
sea (salt water) “Marine”
lake (fresh water) “Lacustrine”
river “Alluvial”
ice “Glacial”
gravitational force (e.g. in land slides) “Colluvial”
Chapter 1: Introduction to Soil Mechanics 8
Civil Department Soil Mechanics-I
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain
Soils in general are further classified as organic or inorganic.
Soils
Organic Inorganic
formed either by growth
and subsequent decay of
plants such as peat, or by the
accumulation of fragments
of the inorganic skeletons or
shells of organisms.
Chapter 1: Introduction to Soil Mechanics 9
Civil Department Soil Mechanics-I
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain
SOME COMMONLY USED SOIL DESIGNATIONS
Bentonite is a clay formed by the decomposition of volcanic ash with a high
content of montmorillonite. It exhibits high degree of shrinkage and swelling.
Kaolin, China Clay are very pure forms of white clay used in the ceramic
industry.
Boulder Clay is a mixture of an unstratified sedimented deposit of glacial clay,
containing unsorted rock fragments of all sizes ranging from boulders, cobbles,
and gravel to finely pulverized clay material.
Shale is a material in the state of transition from clay to slate. Shale itself is
sometimes considered a rock but, when it is exposed to the air or has a chance to
take in water it may rapidly decompose.
Chapter 1: Introduction to Soil Mechanics 10
Civil Department Soil Mechanics-I
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain
Calcareous Soil is a soil containing calcium carbonate. Such soil effervesces
when tested with weak hydrochloric acid.
Loam is a mixture of sand, silt and clay.
Marl consists of a mixture of calcareous sands, clays, or loam.
Peat is a fibrous aggregate of finer fragments of decayed vegetable matter. Peat is
very compressible and one should be cautious when using it for supporting
foundations of structures.
Loess is a fine-grained, air-borne deposit characterized by a very uniform grain
size, and high void ratio. The size of particles ranges between about 0.01 to 0.05
mm.
Chapter 1: Introduction to Soil Mechanics 11
Civil Department Soil Mechanics-I
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain
SOIL PARTICLE SIZE , SHAPE and STRUCTURE
Coarse Fine
Sand, Gravel Silt, Clay
Soil particles coarser than 0.075 mm are visible to the naked eye or may
be examined by means of a hand lens. But the molecular structure of
particles can be investigated by means of X-ray analysis.
The individual particles of gravel, which are fragments of rock, are
composed of one or more minerals, whereas sand grains contain mostly
one mineral which is quartz.
Chapter 1: Introduction to Soil Mechanics 12
Civil Department Soil Mechanics-I
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain
The individual grains of gravel and sand may be angular, sub-angular, sub-
rounded, rounded or well-rounded as shown in Fig. 1.2.
Angular Sub-angular Sub-rounded
Rounded Well-rounded
Fig. 1.2 Shapes of coarser fractions of soils
Chapter 1: Introduction to Soil Mechanics 13
Civil Department Soil Mechanics-I
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain
Silt and clay constitute the finer fractions of the soil. Any one grain of this
fraction generally consists of only one mineral. The particles may be angular,
flake-shaped or sometimes needle-like.
The specific surface is defined as the total area of the surface of the grains
expressed in square centimeters per gram or per cubic centimeter of the
dispersed phase. In the case of silt, sand and larger size particles the ratio of
the area of surface of the particles to the volume of the sample is relatively
small.
The shape of the clay particles is an important property from a physical point of
view. The amount of surface per unit mass or volume varies with the shape of
the particles. Moreover, the amount of contact area per unit surface changes
with shape. It is a fact that a sphere has the smallest surface area per unit
volume whereas a plate exhibits the maximum.
Chapter 1: Introduction to Soil Mechanics 14
Civil Department Soil Mechanics-I
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain
The interparticle forces between the surfaces of particles have a
significant effect on the properties of the soil mass if the particles in the
media belong to the clay fraction.
The surface activity depends not only on the specific surface but also on
the chemical and mineralogical composition of the solid particles. Since
clay particles are the active portions of a soil because of their high
specific surface and their chemical constitution, a discussion on the
chemical composition and structure of minerals is essential.(see
Ch.2)
Chapter 1: Introduction to Soil Mechanics 15
Civil Department Soil Mechanics-I
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain
Soil structure is the three dimensional geometrical arrangement of
pores and particles of various sizes. The soil structure is based on the
arrangements of solids and pores in which the primary particles form
a compound and the arrangement of compounds constitutes the soil
structure.
Soil
Cohesion-less soils Structures Cohesive soils
Single gained Flocculated
Honey combed Dispersed
Chapter 1: Introduction to Soil Mechanics 16
Civil Department Soil Mechanics-I
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain
The orientation of particles in a mass depends on the size and shape of the
grains as well as upon the minerals of which the grains are formed. The
structure of soils that is formed by natural deposition can be altered by
external forces.
Fig. 1.3 (a) is a single grained structure which is formed by the settlement
of coarse grained soils in suspension in water. Gravitational forces
predominate the surface forces and hence grain to grain contact results
(a) Single-grained structure
(in Cohesionless soil)
Fig. 1.3 Schematic diagrams of various types of structures
Chapter 1: Introduction to Soil Mechanics 17
Civil Department Soil Mechanics-I
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain
Fig. 1.3 (b) is a flocculent structure formed by the deposition of the fine soil
fraction (such as clays) in water. Inter-particle forces play a predominant role in
the deposition. Mutual repulsion of the particles may be eliminated by means of
an appropriate chemical; this will result in grains coming closer together to form
a ‘floc’. Formation of flocs is ‘flocculation’. Thus, grains grouping around void
spaces larger than the grain-size are flocs and flocs grouping around void spaces
larger than even the flocs result in the formation of a ‘flocculent’ structure.
(b) Flocculent structure
(in Cohesive soil)
Fig. 1.3: Continued
Chapter 1: Introduction to Soil Mechanics 18
Civil Department Soil Mechanics-I
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain
Fig. 1.3 (c) is a honeycomb. This structure can occur only in fine-grained
soils, especially in silt and rock flour. Due to the relatively smaller size of
grains, besides gravitational forces, inter-particle surface forces also play an
important role in the process of settling down. The structure has a large void
space and may carry high loads without a significant volume change. The
structure can be broken down by external disturbances.
(c) Honey-comb structure
(in Cohesionless soil)
Fig. 1.3: Continued
Chapter 1: Introduction to Soil Mechanics 19
Civil Department Soil Mechanics-I
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain
The particles oriented in a flocculent structure will have edge-to-face
contact as shown in Fig. 1.3(d) whereas in a Dispersed structure, the
particles will have face-to-face contact as shown in Fig. 1.3(e).
(d) Flocculated type structure (e) Dispersed structure
(edge to face contact) (face to face contact)
Fig. 1.3: Continued
Chapter 1: Introduction to Soil Mechanics 20
Civil Department Soil Mechanics-I
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain
Natural clay sediments will have more or less flocculated particle
orientations. Marine clays (salty clay) generally have a more open structure
than fresh water clays. Figs. 1.3 (f) and (g) show the schematic views of salt
water and fresh water deposits. In salty clays (e.g. marine clay) the
concentration of cations is high, resulting in thin adsorbed layers around the
surface of the particles. The attraction forces dominate the particle
arrangement; thus an edge to face structure is made. A clay soil with pure water
moves towards the dispersed structure.
(f) Undisturbed saltwater deposit (g) Undisturbed freshwater deposit
Fig. 1.3: Continued
Chapter 1: Introduction to Soil Mechanics 21
Civil Department Soil Mechanics-I
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain
Generally, in clay soils the interparticle forces have a distinct effect on the
arrangement of the clay particles. If the resultant of the forces creates a net
repulsion then a face-to-face arrangement called a dispersed structure will
be created (Figure 1.4(a)). The net attraction results in an edge to face
structure referred to as a flocculated structure (Figure 1.4(b)).
When inter-particle repulsive forces are brought back into play either by
remolding or by the transportation process, a more parallel arrangement or
reorientation of the particles occurs.
Dispersed Flocculated
Fig. 1.4 Structures of Clay
Chapter 1: Introduction to Soil Mechanics 22
Civil Department Soil Mechanics-I
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain
1st semester
Chapter One: Introduction to Soil and Soil Mechanics
Chapter Two: Clay Mineralogy
Chapter Three: Soil Phase Relationships, Index Properties
Chapter Four: Soil Classification
Chapter Five: Soil Compaction
Chapter Six: Soil Permeability
Chapter Seven: Effective Stress Principles
Chapter Eight: Seepage
2nd semester
Chapter Nine: Stress in Soil Mass
Chapter Ten: Compressibility of Soil
Chapter Eleven: Shear Strength of Soil
Chapter 1: Introduction to Soil Mechanics 23
Civil Department Soil Mechanics-I
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain
1st semester
Chapter One: Introduction to Soil and Soil Mechanics
Explain the soil formation and different types of soil.
Chapter Two: Clay Mineralogy
Illustrate the soil structure and main types of clay minerals.
Chapter Three: Soil Phase Relationships, Index Properties
to explain the physical properties of soil such as, void ratio, porosity, degree
of saturation, and different types of unit weight, …..etc. and indices such as
LL, PL, SL,PI and grain size distribution.
Chapter 1: Introduction to Soil Mechanics 24
Civil Department Soil Mechanics-I
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain
Chapter Four: Soil Classification
Arrangement of soils into various groups and subgroups according to their
engineering behavior to provide a common language to express briefly the
general characteristics of soils.
Chapter Five: Soil Compaction
Illustrating different methods ( lab. and field) that used to densification of
soil and also explain the effect of compaction on the some engineering
properties of soil.
Chapter Six: Soil Permeability
Measuring permeability of different kinds of soil and its effect on soil
properties (Darcy's law, coefficient of permeability, factor affecting
permeability, laboratory and field determination of coefficient of
permeability, empirical equations for permeability)
Chapter 1: Introduction to Soil Mechanics 25
Civil Department Soil Mechanics-I
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain
Chapter Seven: Effective Stress Principles
How total overburden pressure of soil and pore water pressure will
changes in soil layers, importance of soil stresses in term of effective
stress and also capillary rise principles in soil.
Chapter Eight: Seepage
Nature of seepage and measuring its quantity through (or below)
different engg. structures. (laplace's equation of continuity, flow nets,
seepage calculation from flow nets, uplift pressure under hydraulic
structure, sheet piles, factor of safety against piping and heaving,
seepage through an earth dam)
Chapter 1: Introduction to Soil Mechanics 26
Civil Department Soil Mechanics-I
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain
2nd semester
Chapter Nine: Stress in Soil Mass
Estimate the net increase of vertical stress in soil that occurs as a result of
the construction of a foundation, using different methods.
Chapter Ten: Compressibility of Soil
Calculate the consolidation settlement that caused by the construction of
the foundations or other loads.
Chapter Eleven: Shear Strength of Soil
Estimate the shear strength parameters from laboratory and field tests;
therefore to understand the nature shearing resistance in order to analyze
soil stability problems such as bearing capacity, slope stability.
Chapter 1: Introduction to Soil Mechanics 27
Civil Department Soil Mechanics-I
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain
Useful References:
Das, B,M. (---) "Principles of geotechnical Engineering" 5th, 6th 7th or…Edd.
Wadsworth Group,USA
Bowles, I.E. (1992). "Physical and Geotechnical Properties of Soils ",
McGraw Hill, NewYork.
Craig, R.F. (1997), "Soil Mechanics" , Six Edd. Spon Press, Taylor and Francis
Group,London and NewYork
Murthy,V.N.S.,(2003) "Geotechnical Engineering" Principles and Practices
of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, USA.
McCarthy, David F. (2007),"Essentials of Soil Mechanics and Foundations",
Basic Geotechnics , 7th Edd., Ohio.
Terzaghi K. and. Peck R.B (1967) “Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice,”
John Wiley and Sons, Inc.,NY, USA,
Chapter 1: Introduction to Soil Mechanics End 28
