Physics Project – Gravitational Waves- their
creation, detection and impact
Abstract
Gravitational waves are propagating fluctuations of gravitational fields, that is, ”ripples” in spacetime,
caused by some of the most violent and energetic processes in the Universe. Albert Einstein predicted
the existence of gravitational waves in 1916 in his general theory of relativity. Einstein's
mathematics showed that massive accelerating objects would disrupt space-time in such a way
that 'waves' of distorted space would radiate from the source. Furthermore, these ripples
would travel at the speed of light through the Universe, carrying with them information about
their origins, as well as clues to the nature of gravity itself. Though Einstein predicted the
existence of gravitational waves (GW) in 1916, the first proof of their existence wouldn't arrive
until 1974 when astronomers observed a binary pulsar in which the stars were getting closer to
each other at precisely the rate if they were emitting gravitational waves. Since then, many
astronomers have studied pulsar radio-emissions and found similar effects, further confirming
the existence of gravitational waves. But these confirmations had always come indirectly or
mathematically and not through actual 'physical' contact. In, 2015 ,LIGO(Laser Interferometer
Gravitational-Wave Observatory) directly sensed the distortions in spacetime caused by passing
gravitational waves generated by two colliding black holes nearly 1.3 billion light years away.
Detecting and analyzing the information carried by gravitational waves is now allowing us to
observe the Universe in a way never before possible.
Introduction
What are Gravitational Waves
Gravitational waves are propagating disturbances in the curvature of spacetime, caused
by some of the most violent and energetic physical processes in the universe. A common
analogy in general relativity considers gravity to be caused by masses warping a rubber
sheet; smaller masses tend to fall into the indentations caused by larger masses,
representing the attractive effects of gravity. In this analogy, gravitational waves are
"ripples" in the rubber sheet propagating outwards like waves on the surface of water.
Newton’s theory of gravity has enjoyed great success in describing many aspects of our every-day life
and additionally explains most of the motions of celestial bodies in the universe. General relativity
corrected Newton’s theory and is recognized as one of the most ingenious creations of the human mind.
General relativity is conceptually different from Newton’s theory as it introduces the notion of
spacetime and its geometry
Two-dimensional illustration of how mass in the
Universe distorts space-time.
Einstein's special theory of relativity revolutionized physics by teaching us that space
and time are not separate entities, but join as 'spacetime'. His general theory of relativity
further taught us that spacetime is not just a stage on which dynamics takes place, but is
a participant: the field equation of general relativity connects matter dynamics to the
curvature of spacetime. Curvature is responsible for gravity, carrying us beyond the
Newtonian conception of gravity that had been in place for the previous two and a half
centuries. In general relativity, the notion of 'gravitational force' is
reinterpreted in terms of the behaviour of geodesics in the curved manifold of
spacetime. Much research in gravitation since then has explored and clarified the
consequences of this revolution; the notion of dynamical spacetime is now firmly
established in the toolkit of modern physics. One of the basic differences of the two theories
concerns the speed of propagation of any change in a gravitational field. As the apple falls from
the tree, we have a rearrangement of the distribution of mass of the earth, the gravitational field
changes, and a distant observer with a high-precision instrument will detect this change.
According to Newton, the changes of the field are instantaneous, i.e., they propagate with infinite
speed; if this were true, however the principle of causality would break down. No information
can travel faster than the speed of light. In Einstein’s theory there is no such ambiguity; the
information of the varying gravitational field propagates with finite speed, the speed of light, as a
ripple in the fabric of spacetime. These are the gravitational waves. The existence of
gravitational waves is an immediate consequence of any relativistic theory of gravity. However,
the strength and the form of the waves depend on the details of the gravitational theory. This
means that the detection of gravitational waves will also serve as a test of basic gravitational
theory. , Einstein's final result stands today as the leading-order 'quadrupole
formula' for gravitational wave emission. This formula plays a role in gravity
theory analogous to the dipole formula for electromagnetic radiation, showing
that gravitational waves) arise from accelerated masses exactly as
electromagnetic waves arise from accelerated charges.
The quadrupole formula tells us that GWs are difficult to produce—very large
masses moving at relativistic speeds are needed. This follows from the
weakness of the gravitational interaction. A consequence of this is that it
is extremely unlikely there will ever be an interesting laboratory source of
GWs. The only objects massive and relativistic enough to generate detectable
GWs are astrophysical.
To say that gravitational waves are propagating disturbances in the curvature of spacetime
means that gravitational waves affect the distances measured between objects as they
pass through them. Just like light waves, gravitational waves have different polarizations.
These polarizations are characterized by how gravitational waves with a certain polarization
act on a circular ring of masses. When a gravitational wave with a certain polarization
passes through the ring of masses, it distorts the locations of the masses in a characteristic
pattern. The two polarizations of gravitational waves are referred to as " +" and "×"
polarizations.
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The relative change in measured distance between two masses as a gravitational wave
passes through them is referred to as the strain.
A particularly strong source of gravitational waves is inspiraling binary systems. These are
two stars or black holes orbiting around their common center of mass. As they shed
gravitational waves (and thus energy) throughout their orbit, the radius of orbit decreases
slowly until the stars/black holes collide. If two stars/black holes each of mass MM are
mutually orbiting at angular frequency \OmegaΩ and radius RR to their center of rotation,
the magnitude of strains at a distance rr from the binary system oscillates as a function of
time tt, roughly
h = \frac{8GM}{rc^4} \Omega^2 R^2 \cos \left(2\Omega \Big(t - \frac{r}{c} \Big)
\right),h=rc48GMΩ2R2cos(2Ω(t−cr)),
where GG is Newton's gravitational constant and cc is the speed of light. The magnitude of
the strains caused by gravitational waves thus falls off inversely proportional to the distance
from the source. Since most binary systems of stars/black holes are far away from Earth,
the strongest signals for gravitational waves will come from either very massive or very
rapidly rotating binary systems. Even so, the strains caused by gravitational waves from
most systems are on a scale of roughly h = 10^{-26}h=10−26. This means that if two
masses are separated by a distance of LL, the change in separation \Delta LΔL caused
by the passing gravitational wave satisfies
\frac{\Delta L}{L} = h \approx 10^{-26}.LΔL=h≈10−26.
Note that the strain is unitless since both the numerator and denominator of the left-hand
side have units of length. Even the strongest known gravitational wave signals cause strains
of order only h \approx 10^{-20}h≈10−20. As a result, it is very difficult to directly
measure gravitational wave signals, since few experimental apparatuses can detect such
minute strains.
2 dimensional Illustration of gravitational
waves produced by binary neutron stars
Detection of gravitational waves
Since direct signals of gravitational waves are miniscule, for decades the only evidence for
the existence of gravitational waves was indirect. Rather than directly observing strains
caused by the gravitational waves, astronomers were able to observe in 1974 a decrease in
the period of rotation of a binary star system over time due to energy loss to gravitational
waves. This system, known as PSR B1913+16 or the Hulse-Taylor binary after its
discoverers, consists of a neutron star and a pulsar (radiating neutron star). Neutron stars
are very dense and small, so the period of rotation of this system was very small. A pulsar
emits radiation in a beam which can only be observed when pointing towards Earth, thus
providing a highly accurate clock with which to measure the period of rotation. According to
general relativity, the power radiated by such a binary system is [4]
P = -\frac25 \frac{G^4 M^5}{c^5 R^5},P=−52c5R5G4M5,
where MM is the mass of each star (assuming they are approximately equal), RR is the
distance of each star to the center of rotation, and GG is Newton's gravitational constant.
This power loss causes the binary system to inspiral at a faster and faster rate, since once
the system begins to inspiral faster it emits gravitational waves faster, which in turn causes
faster inspiral. Below is plotted the data from the Hulse-Taylor system for change in the
period of rotation over time, compared to the prediction from the theory of gravitational
waves. The agreement is remarkable:
Red dots represent measurements of the period of rotation of the Hulse-Taylor binary system, overlaid on the blue
curve representing the theoretical model
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the time it takes for the two stars to orbit each other was decreasing exactly in a way that
general relativity predicted if the two stars were radiating gravitational waves. Analyses of
other binary neutron star systems confirmed this effect firmly concluding that gravitational
waves were not just theoretical. Since then, many astronomers have studied pulsar radio-
emissions and found similar effects, further confirming the existence of gravitational waves. But
these confirmations had always come indirectly or mathematically and not through actual
'physical' contact.
All of this changed on September 14, 2015, when LIGO (Laser Interferometer Gravitational-
Wave Observatory )directly sensed the distortions in spacetime caused by passing gravitational
waves generated by two colliding black holes nearly 1.3 billion light years away.
The Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO) was designed to open the
field of gravitational-wave astrophysics through the direct detection of gravitational waves.
LIGO’s multi-kilometer-scale gravitational wave detectors use laser interferometry to measure
the minute ripples in space-time caused by passing gravitational waves from cataclysmic cosmic
events such as colliding neutron stars or black holes, or by supernovae. LIGO consists of two
widely-separated interferometers within the United States—one in Hanford, Washington and
the other in Livingston, Louisiana—operated in unison to detect gravitational waves. LIGO's
original insturment, a largely 'proof of concept' model dubbed "Initial LIGO", engaged in
"science observations" from 2002 to 2010. No detections were made in that time, but
enormous strides in detector engineering were achieved as a result of what was learned during
that initial run. 2010 marked the end of the Initial LIGO project, and as planned, between 2010
and 2014, both interferometers were completely overhauled to incorporate much more
sophisticated engineering. Advanced LIGO" project successfully improved the capabilities of the
detectors, and within days of turning on the new and improved instruments, LIGO made its first
detection of gravitational waves, generated by a pair of colliding black holes some 1.3 billion
light years away.
Interferometers are investigative tools used in many fields of science and engineering. They are
called interferometers because they work by merging two or more sources of light to create an
interference pattern, which can be measured and analyzed.
Inerference of light : the principle behind the working of an
interferometer
The interference patterns generated by interferometers contain information about the object
or phenomenon being studied. They are often used to make very small measurements that are
not achievable any other way. This is why they are so powerful for detecting gravitational
waves--LIGO's interferometers are designed to measure a distance 1/10,000th the width of a
proton!
All modern interferometers have evolved from this first one invented by Albert Michealson for
the Michealson-morley experiment since it demonstrated how the properties of light can be
used to make the tiniest of measurements. The invention of lasers has enabled interferometers
to make the smallest conceivable measurements, like those required by LIGO.
The basic configuration of a Michelson laser interferometer. It consists of a laser, a beam splitter, a series of
mirrors, and a photodetector (the black dot) that records the interference pattern.
Returning to LIGO's interferometers, what dictates how well-aligned the beams are when they
merge is the distance they travel before merging. If the beams travel exactly the same distance,
their light waves will be perfectly aligned so that they result in total destructive interference
(LIGO is deliberately designed to make this happen if no gravitational waves are passing).
Gravitational waves cause space itself to stretch in one direction and simultaneously compress
in a perpendicular direction. In LIGO, this makes one arm of the interferometer get longer while
the other gets shorter, then vice versa, back and forth as long as the wave is passing. The
technical term for this motion is "Differential Arm" motion, or differential displacement, since
the arms are changing lengths in opposing ways, or differentially.
As described above, as the lengths of the arms change, so too does the distance traveled by each
laser beam. A beam in a shorter arm will return to the beam splitter before the beam in a longer
arm, then the situation switches as the arms oscillate between being longer and shorter. Arriving
at different times, the waves of light no longer meet up nicely when recombined at the beam
splitter. Instead, they shift in and out of alignment or "phase" as they continuously merge while
the wave is passing. As a result of the accumulated phase shift, the wavelike nature of light
causes an interference pattern on a photodetector. From this interference pattern, the
displacement of the mirrors and thus the strain of the gravitational waves can be measured.
schematic of the Advanced LIGO apparatus, a modified
Michelson interferometer. Laser light bounces through the arms repeatedly, picking up small phase shifts from any
displacement of the mirrors due to gravitational waves. This translates into an interference pattern seen at the
photodetector
The Advanced LIGO apparatus consists of two Michelson interferometers, located in
Hanford, Washington, USA and Livington, Louisiana, USA, which are sensitive to strains of
order down to h\approx 10^{-22}h≈10−22. Two detectors are necessary because a
single detector would not be able to detect the position of a gravitational wave source and in
order to provide additional verification of an apparent signal. Each detector consists of two
arms of four kilometers in length.
While in principle the idea seems quite simple, in practice, detecting that flicker is not. The
change in arm length caused by a gravitational wave can be as small as 1/10,000th the width of
a proton (that's 10-19 m). LIGO's interferometers are the largest ever built. With arms 4 km (2.5
mi.) long, they are 360 times larger than the one used in the Michelson-Morley experiment
(which had arms 11 m (33 feet) long).
ariel veiw of the advanced ligo
This is particularly important in the search for gravitational waves because the longer the arms
of an interferometer, the farther the laser travels, and the more sensitive the instrument
becomes. Attempting to measure a change in arm length 1,000 times smaller than a proton
means that LIGO has to be more sensitive than any scientific instrument ever built, so the
longer the better. Length isn't the only design factor important to LIGO's sensitivity; laser power
is too. While increasing length increases the interferometer's sensitivity to vibrations,
increasing laser power improves the interferometer's resolution. The more photons that merge
at the beam splitter, the sharper the resulting interference pattern becomes, making it 'easier'
to recognize a gravitational wave signature. The detector arms are highly insulated from both
seismic noise and thermal noise, since any minute vibrations due to Earth's tectonic activity
or thermal fluctuations would vastly overwhelm gravitational wave signals. The mirrors
between which the laser bounces in each arm are suspended on vibration-isolating stages
and kept in extreme vacuum conditions at temperatures around a millionth of one Kelvin, at
such a low energy that the mirrors themselves are near their quantum ground state
Designing instruments like LIGO's interferometers, capable of measuring a distance on the
order of 10-19 meters required inventing and refining innovative technology. Most of LIGO’s
most impressive technology resides in its seismic isolation systems (which remove unwanted
vibrations), vacuum systems (to make sure the laser light is kept pure), optics components (to
preserve laser light and laser power), and computing infrastructure (to handle the mindboggling
amount of data that LIGO collects). These systems are like LIGO's internal organs. If any one
fails, the whole instrument suffers.
While each of these components is a feat of engineering in itself, without working seamlessly
together, LIGO, as a single multifaceted instrument could never achieve its scientific goals.
Conclusion- Significance of gravitational waves
The detecting gravitational waves is important for our understanding of the fundamental laws of
physics; the proof that gravitational waves exist verified a fundamental 100-year-old prediction of
Einstein’s general relativity.
Historically, scientists have relied almost exclusively on electromagnetic (EM) radiation (visible light, X-
rays, radio waves, microwaves, etc.) to study the Universe (some are trying to use subatomic particles,
called neutrinos, as well). Each of these sources of information provides scientists with a different but
complementary view of the Universe.
Gravitational waves, however, are completely unrelated to EM radiation. They are as distinct from EM
radiation as hearing is to vision. Thus, they are unique messengers of information about cosmic events.
Having this new 'sense' with which to observe the Universe is important because things like colliding
black holes are utterly invisible to EM astronomers. To LIGO, however, such events are beacons in the
vast cosmic sea.
More importantly, since gravitational waves interact very weakly with matter (unlike EM radiation), they
travel through the Universe virtually unimpeded, giving us a clear view of the gravitational-wave
Universe. The waves carry information about their origins that is free of the distortions or alterations
suffered by EM radiation as it traverses intergalactic space.
With this completely new way of examining astrophysical objects and phenomena, LIGO has opened a
new window on the Universe, providing astronomers and other scientists with their first glimpses of
previously unseen, and till now, unseeable wonders.
Detecting and analyzing the information carried by gravitational waves is now allowing us to observe the
Universe in a way never before possible. It has opened up a new window of study and has already given
us a deeper understanding of cataclysmic events and ushered in exciting new research in physics,
astronomy, and astrophysics.
