Answers

1. Effects of weather and terrain on biological warfare

Weather and Terrain Influences:

Solar (ultraviolet) radiation, relative humidity, wind speed, and temperature gradient are
the most important weather factors in determining duration of effectiveness. Ultraviolet
light affects most biological pathogens and some toxins (especially high-molecular weight
proteins). However, encapsulation (natural, such as bacterial spores, or man-made
protective coverings), addition of dyes to the spray fluid, or possibly genetic engineering (of
pathogens) may protect some agents from sunlight and other destructive natural forces.
Impurities in crude toxin cultures can stabilize the toxins and/or enhance toxicity
Weather Conditions
Many weather factors influence the duration of effectiveness. The most important are
temperature, temperature gradient, wind speed, relative humidity, and precipitation.

Temperature
The higher the ground or surface temperature, the quicker a liquid biological agent will
evaporate from it. Low temperatures may freeze some agents, thus reducing the immediate
contact hazard, but will increase persistency.

Temperature Gradient
Often the temperature of the layer of air next to the ground is different to that of the air
layers above. This gives rise to a temperature gradient. Agents in a vapor state will remain
near the ground during stable (inversion) conditions. When an unstable (lapse) condition
exists, air layers mix and agents disperse more quickly.

Wind Speed
High winds increase the rate of evaporation of liquid biological and chemical agents. High
winds also disperse chemical and biological clouds more rapidly than low winds. A low
wind speed allows agent to persist longer. Also, the rate of spread will be slow. Vapors and
aerosols disperse rapidly in Open County; dangerous concentrations may remain longer in
woods, foxholes, and built-up areas.
Precipitation
Heavy or lasting rains will wash liquid agent contamination to low areas and stream beds
and present a lingering hazard. Light rainfall can cause recurrence of a contact hazard.
Snow tends to wash agents from the air. Snow cover reduces the vapor concentration above
the contaminated area but, in combination with the lower temperatures, increases the
duration.

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2. Types of Biological Agents

 Pathogens
 Toxins
 Pathogens
 Pathogens are disease-producing microorganisms, such as bacteria, rickettsia, fungi,
or viruses. Pathogens are either naturally occurring or altered by random mutation
or recombinant deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) techniques.

Toxins
 Toxins are poisonous chemicals produced by many different types of living
organisms. Toxins have been implicated as the means by which certain pathogenic
microorganisms produce their effects. Toxins that are highly toxic to humans and
that are stable, available, and manageable are important in the threat they present
in biological warfare.
3. Exotoxins
Exotoxins: Are toxins secreted by bacteria can cause damage to the host by destroying cells
or disrupting normal cellular metabolism.
Exotoxins are poisonous compounds that can diffuse and that the cells that produce them
can eliminate into the surrounding medium. Bacterial exotoxins are proteins of varied
molecular weights. They are a normal part of the metabolic activities of the pathogen;
some are enzymes. Various Clostridium species produce exotoxins associated with
disease. Clostridium botulinum toxins are responsible for botulism; Clostridium tetani
toxins cause tetanus. These toxins produce severe nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea, but the
possibility of death is remote.

Endotoxins
Endotoxins: are not secreted but are released only when the cells are disrupted.
Many (particularly certain classes of bacteria) do not elaborate a soluble toxin from the
living intact cells. Instead, their toxins are associated with their cell wall and are not
released until the cell disintegrates. Rickettsiae prowazekii, which causes typhus fever,
produces an endotoxin. This endotoxin causes the rapid destruction of the red blood cells
and increases the permeability of blood vessels, resulting in hemorrhage.

4) These toxins can be classified as either neurotoxins or cytotoxins by the way they
act.
Neurotoxins
Neurotoxins interfere with nerve impulse transmission and could be called nerve toxins.
The neurotoxins exert highly specific effects upon the nervous system. Some neurotoxins
cause symptoms similar to those of chemical nerve agents leading to convulsions and
rigid paralysis. However, the mechanism causing the symptoms does not usually inhibit

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acetylcholine esterase. Many neurotoxins block the transmission of impulses along nerve
and muscle fibers. These neurotoxins can cause numbness or extreme weakness, tremors,
and muscular incoordination leading to severe muscle weakness and flaccid (limp or rag-
doll) paralysis. Confusion, headache, blurred vision, and light sensitivity (because of
dilation of pupils) may occur. Some neurotoxins affect the central nervous system.
Neurotoxins tend to act rapidly.
Cytotoxins
Cytotoxins cause cellular destruction or interfere with metabolic processes, such as cell
respiration or protein synthesis. Cytotoxins exert effects upon a variety of tissues or
systems. These tissues or systems include the digestive respiratory, and circulatory
systems and the skin. Symptoms of exposure may resemble those of disease or of various
chemical agents. Cytotoxin effects may include irritation, blistering, and lesions of the
skin; nausea or vomiting; hemorrhaging, bloody diarrhea and vomit; difficulty in
breathing or sudden death.

5) The agents which can be used as biological weapons into three categories, Category A, B, and
C

Biological Weapons Category A

Bacteria Viruses Toxins

Variola major

Bacillus anthracis (Smallpox/Pocken

Chlostridium
(Anthrax/Milzbrand)
botulinus toxin

(Botulism/Botulismus)
Yersinia pestis Filoviruses
(Plague/Pest)
(e.g., Ebola, Marburg
Francisella tularensis Arenaviruses

(Tularemia/Hasenpest (e.g., Lassa, Machupo

Category A

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  can be easily transmitted from person to person;
 result in high mortality rates and have the potential for major public health
impact;
 might cause public panic and social disruption; and
 Require special action for public health preparedness.
Anthrax: Anthrax is an acute infectious disease caused by the bacteria Bacillus
anthraces. It can be highly lethal in its most virulent form. Anthrax most
commonly occurs in wild and domestic herbivores, but it can also occur in
humans when they are exposed to infected animals, tissue from infected animals,
or high concentrations of anthrax spores. The anthrax vaccine is highly effective
at preventing spread of anthrax. Antibiotics can effectively treat anthrax, if
administered in time.

Smallpox: Smallpox is a serious, contagious, and sometimes fatal infectious disease. There is
no specific treatment for smallpox disease, and the only prevention is vaccination. The name
smallpox is derived from the Latin word for "spotted" and refers to the raised bumps that appear
on the face and body of an infected person.

Botulism: Botulism is a rare but serious paralytic illness caused by a nerve toxin called botulin.
Botulin is produced by the bacterium Clostridium botulinum, which blocks nerve function and
leads to respiratory and musculoskeletal paralysis. The most frequent source is home-canned
foods, prepared in an unsafe manner. Wound botulism occurs when C. botulinum spores
germinate within wounds. Infant botulism occurs when [Link] spores germinate and
produce toxin in the gastrointestinal tract of infants.

Plague: Plague, also referred to as Bubonic plague, is the mortal disease caused by the bacteria
Yersinia pestis, which is spread by fleas and rodents to human beings. Historically, Plague has
reached epidemic and even pandemic proportions in Asia and Europe. It is primarily a disease of
rodents such as rats, prairie dogs, chipmunks, squirrels and other similar rodents. Human
infection most often occurs when a person is bitten by infected animals.

Tularemia: Tularemia (also known as "rabbit fever") is an infectious disease caused by the
bacterium Francisella tularensis. Humans are most often infected by tick bite or through handling
an infected animal. Ingesting infected water, soil, or food can also cause infection. Tularemia can
be acquired by inhalation; hunters are at a higher risk for this disease because of the potential of
inhaling the bacteria during the skinning process. Tularemia is not spread directly from person to
person.

Viral Hemorrhagic Fevers: Viral hemorrhagic fevers (VHFs) are a group of illnesses that
are caused by several distinct families of viruses: Arena virus, Filoviridae, Bunyaviridae and
Flavivirus. Some of these cause relatively mild illnesses, while others can cause severe, life-

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threatening disease. Examples include Lassa fever, Marburg virus, Ebola virus, Bolivian
hemorrhagic fever, Korean hemorrhagic fever, and Dengue hemorrhagic fever.

Biological Weapons Category B

Bacteria Viruses Toxins

Brucella species Alphaviruses (Encephalitis/
(Brucellosis/Brucellose) Gehirnentzündung) Ricin toxin from Ricinus
communis (Castor bean
/Rizinusbohne)
Coxiella burnetii (Q Fever/ Q-
Fieber)
Salmonella species, Shigella,
E. coli (Foodsafetythreats)
Rickettsia prowazekii (Typhus
fever/ Fleckfieber

Category B

The CDC states these agents are the second highest priority. These are agents that:

 Are moderately easy to disseminate

 Result in moderate morbidity rates and low mortality rates; and
 Require specific enhancements of CDC's diagnostic capacity and enhanced
disease surveillance.
Examples of these are Q-fever, Brucellous, Salmonella, Typhus, and Ricin

Biological Weapons Category C

Viruses
Nipah virus
Hantavirus

Category C

Third highest priority agents include emerging pathogens that could be engineered for
mass dissemination in the future because of
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  Highly availability
 Easy of production and dissemination; and
 The potential for high morbidity and mortality rates and major health impact.

Included in this category are emerging infectious diseases such as Nipah virus and
hantavirus

6) Desirable characteristics of a biological agent developed for military use include:

1. The ability to infect reliably in small doses;
2. High virulence, or capacity to cause acute
3. Illness resulting in incapacitation or death, without experiencing an undue loss of
potency during production, storage, and transport;
4. A short incubation period between infection and the onset of symptoms;
5. Minimal contagiousness of the disease from one individual to another, to avoid triggering
an uncontrolled epidemic that could boomerang against the attacker’s population;
6. No widespread immunity-either natural or acquired-to the disease in the population to
be attacked;
7. Insusceptibility to common medical treatments, such as generally available antibiotics
8. Suitability for economic production in militarily significant quantities from available raw
materials;
9. Ease of transport, and stability under wartime field conditions of storage and delivery;
10. Ease of dissemination (e.g., as an aerosol cloud transmitted through the air);
11. Ability to survive environmental stresses during dissemination (e.g., heat, light,
desiccation, and shear forces) long enough to infect; and
12. Availability of protection against the agent for the attacking troops, such as a vaccine,
antibiotics and/or protective clothing and respirators.

7) Comparative study of chemical and biological warfare

Chemicals are compounds derived from chemical bases or mixtures that chemically attack
your body and render you immobile are kill you. Chemical agents include nerve agents,
blood agents, choking agents and blister agents.
Biological agents are biological organism (bugs) that militarily are used to introduce
disease and death on the battle field. Anthrax viruses, brucellosis even the plague are
common disease used in biological warfare. Biological weapons require some sort of
biological /living/ process.
To summarize the general differences between biological and chemical agents, the effects of
chemical agents are typically recognized within minutes to hours after a release, while it
may be anywhere from a couple days to a week before the effects of a biological attack are
seen as symptoms. After a biological attack is recognized, it may take several additional
days to confirm the type of biological agent. With respect to the potential impact of an
attack in terms of the size of the geographic region in which health effects are seen,
chemical attacks are unlikely to have health effects beyond 10’s of miles, and are more
likely to be restricted to several city blocks For a biological attack, the range may vary
from local for non-contagious agents, to global for a highly contagious agent.

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 However, it is relatively difficult to obtain bio-agents of the purity and quantity to affect
many people. In contrast, many chemical agents are commercially available, making a
chemical attack perhaps the easiest to carry out.
Chemical agents:
 Time of effects is lower than biological
 Higher availabilities than biological
 Symptoms can easily recognized
 Stable under war time field

Biological agents
 Higher effectiveness/higher persistent from weeks to years
 Highly infectious or toxic properties
 Lower availabilities
 Some of them highly contagious
 Many of them multiply in the body
 Symptoms may be delayed
 Some agents have no vaccine
 Some survive dormant in the environment for years
 Suitability for economic production
 Biological agents are identified through symptoms after time consuming but they
cannot be seen smelled.

8) Steps in preparing to prevent biological warfare

 Enhance epidemiological (the study of the distribution of disease) capacity to detect

and respond to the biological warfare agent.
 Supply diagnostic reagents for state of local public health centers.
 Establish communication programme to deliver accurate information.
 Enhance bio-terrorisms related education and training to health care professionals.
 Prepare educational materials that will inform and reassure (grants) the public
during and after attack.
 Stock piles the appropriate vaccines and drugs.
 Develop research to strengthen epidemiology, diagnosis, training and supplies
vaccines and drugs.

9) blood agents work at the cellular level by preventing the exchang of oxygen and carbon
dioxide between the blood and the body’s cells. This causes the cells to suffocate from lack

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of oxygen. Cyanide-based agents do so by interrupting the electron transport chain in the
inner membranes of mitochondria. Arsine damages the blood cells which deliver oxygen
throughout the body.
10) Comparative study of chemical and biological warfare
Chemicals are compounds derived from chemical bases or mixtures that chemically attack
your body and render you immobile are kill you. Chemical agents include nerve agents,
blood agents, choking agents and blister agents.
Biological agents are biological organism (bugs) that militarily are used to introduce
disease and death on the battle field. Anthrax viruses, brucellosis even the plague are
common disease used in biological warfare. Biological weapons require some sort of
biological /living/ process.
To summarize the general differences between biological and chemical agents, the effects of
chemical agents are typically recognized within minutes to hours after a release, while it
may be anywhere from a couple days to a week before the effects of a biological attack are
seen as symptoms. After a biological attack is recognized, it may take several additional
days to confirm the type of biological agent. With respect to the potential impact of an
attack in terms of the size of the geographic region in which health effects are seen,
chemical attacks are unlikely to have health effects beyond 10’s of miles, and are more
likely to be restricted to several city blocks For a biological attack, the range may vary
from local for non-contagious agents, to global for a highly contagious agent.
However, it is relatively difficult to obtain bio-agents of the purity and quantity to affect
many people. In contrast, many chemical agents are commercially available, making a
chemical attack perhaps the easiest to carry out.
Chemical agents:
 Time of effects is lower than biological
 Higher availabilities than biological
 Symptoms can easily recognized
 Stable under war time field
Biological agents
 Higher effectiveness/higher persistent from weeks to years
 Highly infectious or toxic properties
 Lower availabilities
 Some of them highly contagious
 Many of them multiply in the body
 Symptoms may be delayed
 Some agents have no vaccine
 Some survive dormant in the environment for years
 Suitability for economic production
 Biological agents are identified through symptoms after time consuming but they
cannot be seen smelled.

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