Flares: Types, Parts,

Components, Operation And

Troubleshooting
July 23, 2019

By the end of the Article, You will be able to understand:

Purpose of flare systems

How flare systems operate
Different types of flare
Safety when operating flare systems
Source of Flare gas
Flare System Components

Introduction
Flares are essentially special burners designed to safely dispose of
large volumes of flammable vapours. The vapours are normally
generated intermittently as a result of abnormal process
conditions occurring during plant start-up, shutdown or
emergencies.

Flares are mandatory items of safety equipment installed at crude

oil and gas producing fields, natural gas plants, oil refineries,
petrochemical plants and indeed at any plant capable of
producing flammable vapours which cannot be stored during
emergencies.

The combustion efficiency of earlier designed flares was normally

very poor due to inadequate air inspiration. These flares were
characterised by excessive smoke emission, long red unstable
flames and noisy operation.

On the other hand, modern design of flares is characterised by

clean and stable flame patterns. These characteristics are
achieved by using multiple burner assemblies, to give improved
air mixing in the combustion zones and by the injection of
smokeless fuel gases such as methane and ethane to special
smoke suppression burners.

Greater attention has also been paid to the siting of flare

installations in modern processing plants. Proper siting ensures
that flares are remote from the process units and have a
minimum disturbing impact in terms of noise and light intensity
on neighbouring residential and amenity areas.

Because of the vital and very special role flares play in a

processing plant it is essential that all plant personnel should
have a good understanding of the equipment in a flare
installation and how a flare operates in emergency situations.

Purpose of Flares
The purpose of flares is to provide a method whereby unwanted
gases and volatile liquids are disposed of or burnt in a safe
manner and at a safe location.

During normal operations, only small quantities of unwanted

gases and liquids are normally produced. Occasionally, very large
quantities have to be disposed of quickly and safely when process
equipment is depressurized.

Flaring of vented gases is necessary in order to avoid the

following two problems if a gaseous emission is not burnt:-

1. The possibility of hydrocarbon vapours reaching the ground

in sufficient concentrations to cause a fire or explosion
hazard with the possible devastating consequences for plant
personnel, the plant itself and surrounding areas.

2. The possibility of toxic vapours reaching the ground in

sufficient concentration to cause potential health hazards.

Thus, unflared gaseous emissions consisting of hydrocarbons and

toxic components create environmental pollution problems.

Flaring provides a ready solution to these two problems, but

creates its own problems of heat, smoke, light and noise.
Therefore, any flare design must necessarily consider the
inherent problems associated with burning of gases.

Design consideration for Flares

The initial consideration for any flare design must be the vapour
sources which obviously will determine the ultimate flare system
required.

Vapours are typically released automatically from process

equipment by various forms of pressure protection devices such
as relief valves and rupture discs.

Design consideration for Flares Other design considerations must

include the following: –

1. Intensity of heat radiated from a flare which constitutes a

potential danger to personnel and equipment in close
proximity.

2. Hydrogen sulphide (H S) if present in the vapours forms

sulphur dioxide (SO ) and as such can cause damage to
vegetation, if present in sufficiently high concentrations at
ground level.
3. Hydrocarbon vapours issuing from a plain open-ended tip
tend to burn with a very unstable flame, accompanied by
large volumes of smoke, mainly due to inefficient
combustion air distribution.
4. Continuous source of ignition is required.
5. Vapour flows can vary from zero to very high rates and vice
versa in a short space of time.
6. Vapour compositions can vary due to emanations from
different sections of a plant.
7. Blowdown header system from which the vapour emanates
is basically a hydrocarbon vapour pipeline open to the
atmosphere at the flare.
8. Expansion of high pressure hydrocarbon vapours through
pressure relief devices results in cooling and partial
liquefaction of vapours in the blowdown header system.
Liquid carry -over into elevated flares must be eliminated by
a knockout device.
This particular installation is for an elevated flare used for
 the disposal of hydrocarbon vapours.
The vapour source is shown to originate from a multiple
number of sections within a plant and discharging into a
blowdown header. Intermediate equipment between the
blowdown header and the flare is for the purpose of liquid
knockout and a liquid seal.

The followings are the areas which needs to be considered for

designing a flare system:-

– Heat radiated by flares

– Problems of combustion

– Explosion hazards

– Liquid carry-over

Heat Radiated by Flares

The location and height of a flare stack has to be carefully

selected in order to protect plant personnel, critical process
equipment and vegetation from the dangers of exposure to the
thermal radiation from the flame.

For these reasons and other environmental considerations, flare

stacks are usually located downwind of residential areas and
remote from process units or plant equipment. Wherever
possible, flare stacks should be approximately 90 metres (300
feet) from critical process equipment.

The plot plan also shows a dotted circle round the flares stacks
within which no process equipment is installed or access allowed
by non-authorized personnel.
The radius of this circle is called the flare sterile radius or safety
radius. Its significance is that at any point within the circle, a
person could be suddenly exposed to the intense heat liberated
from a large flame at the flare tip.
Design consideration for Flares
It is a sterile radius diagram for a flare stack in a derrick structure.
Normally, the sterile area is flat and circular with a low bund wall
at the perimeter.

A sterile radius is generally determined by considering the flare

height and heat liberation capacity. By taking into account the
maximum flame length, the height of the flare stack and the
prevailing wind it is possible to draw a radius around the flare,
outside of which one can work safely for an unlimited time.
Conversely, working inside a sterile radius must be restricted.

The flare auxiliary equipment including knockout drums, seal

pots and flame front generator panels must be sited outside the
sterile radius.
Problems of Combustion

Flare vapours generated in natural gas plants will burn naturally

with a lazy red smoky flame, except in the case of methane rich
vapour which burns naturally with a blue, relatively, colourless
flame.

The main cause of smoke emission or smoking is insufficient

mixing of air in the combustion zone at the flare tip.

The modern method of achieving smokeless flaring is by

installing a ring of special burners round the top edge of the flare
tip and burning a low molecular mass gas at a controlled rate.
The burner configuration is arranged so that additional air is
drawn into the larger combustion zone and the overall effect is to
reduce smoke generation.

Explosion Hazards

Explosions can occur within the flare stack or the blowdown

system, if an explosive mixture is formed by the ingress of air and
the mixture is subsequently ignited at the flare tip.

Air can enter a flare system in several ways:-

1. By venting equipment, containing air, into the flare system

during plant start-up operations or after maintenance
periods.

2. By allowing air to enter the system through vents or drain

points which have not been isolated.

There are, in general, two ways of preventing air ingress into a

flare system during non-flaring periods: –

1. Purge continuously with a hydrocarbon gas into the

upstream end of the blowdown system to ensure that the
quantity of air which may be drawn in during periods of no
flaring is not sufficient to create an explosive mixture. Since
it requires approximately 13 volumes of air to 1 volume of
light hydrocarbon vapour to produce an explosive mixture, a
relatively small flow of purge gas is sufficient.

2. Install seals in the flare stack and immediately upstream of

the flare stack. Two types of seals are commonly used. One is
 a gas seal called a molecular seal. The other is a liquid seal
containing a mixture of glycol and water which has a
relatively low freezing point.

The gas molecular seal is installed in the flare stack near the flare
tip and the liquid seal is installed immediately upstream of the
flare stack.

Liquid Carry-over

The fourth design consideration is that of liquid carry-over into a

flare. From a vapour flow sequence this consideration precedes
any other and is critical since flares are designed for vapour
disposal, not liquids.

Hydrocarbon liquids can enter a flare system either as slugs of

liquid or as droplets entrained in the blowdown vapours, in the
following ways:-

1. Release of liquid and vapour from process vessels with a

defective level control.
2. Formation of liquid in the blowdown system by excessive
expansion and cooling of hydrocarbon vapours vented at
very high rates from low temperature process units.
3. Operation of the flare knockout drum with a high liquid level
or a defective level control.
4. Build-up of liquid in the knockout drum due to failure of the
liquid disposal equipment.
5. Build-up of hydrocarbon liquid in the liquid seal drum.

If hydrocarbon liquids enter a flare stack either as slugs or as

droplets they will be ignited at the tip and then will shower over
the surrounding area as “burning rain”. Although there is no
process equipment in the sterile area, there is a very real danger
of burning liquid damaging and weakening the support structure
near ground level.

The most practical way to prevent carry-over of liquids to the

flare is to install a properly sized knockout drum as near as
possible to the sterile area.

It is equally important to provide a reliable means of detecting

liquid level and removing accumulated liquids from the knockout
drum.

The drain line from the knockout drum to the liquid disposal
device is susceptible to blockage either by ice or other solids. No
water or steam should ever be allowed to enter a flare blowdown
system in which cold vapours and liquids are present. Electrical
tracing is normally provided at the bottom of the knockout drum
and along the drain line to prevent accumulation of frozen
liquids.

Types of Flares
The requirements for flaring in the process industry has led to the
development of three general types of flares in order to ensure
high operating performance and efficiency, namely:-

1. Non-smokeless Flares

Non-smokeless flares are generally used for flaring hydrocarbon

or vapour streams which burn naturally with a smokeless flame
such as methane, hydrogen, carbon monoxide and ammonia.

2. Smokeless Flares

Smokeless flares are used for the clean disposal of hydrocarbon

streams, which normally burn with a dense smoke emission.
Most hydrocarbons fall into this category. Flares are made
smokeless by providing an adequately distributed quantity of air
into the combustion zone. Sufficient air is induced into the
combustion zone typically by using methane or ethane gas as an
inspirator.

The key factors affecting the smokeless quality of flares are:-

– Quantity and distribution of air in the combustion zone.

– Temperature in the combustion zone.

– Type of hydrocarbon being burned

3. Fired or Endothermic Flares

Endothermic flares or incinerators are used for clean disposal of

waste liquids. Most liquid streams which are released from a
process can be recycled for re-processing. However, certain waste
streams are of no commercial value and in fact may be pollutants.
Such waste streams are sometimes incinerated in endothermic
flares.

Flare System
A flare system should provide an integrated combination of
equipment which will receive volatile liquids and gases that are
disposed of or burnt by smokeless means.

The special considerations for the flare equipment sizing,

location and operation will normally have recognised the
problems of combustion, heat radiation, explosion hazards and
liquid carryover.

The flare system receives both high and low pressure vapours
from different plant sources by means of a high pressure
blowdown header and a low pressure blowdown header. The
vapours are discharged through a knockout drum to avoid liquid
carryover and a liquid seal to avoid associated explosion hazards
by ingress of air during non-flaring periods.

Components Parts & their functions

The flare system will now be considered in terms of the
component parts and how the various parts operate or function
as an integrated part of the flare system.

A flare system has the following component parts:-

1. Liquid knockout drum 2. Flare liquid seal

2. Flare stack structure
3. Flare stack molecular seal 5. Flare tip
4. Ground flare combustion cabin 7. Ground flare multi-burner
5. Ignition system

Flare Knockout Drum

This listing excludes the various valve and piping arrangements

which necessarily comprise the blowdown and flare header
assemblies. Since the knockout drum operates as a conventional
gas/liquid vertical separator, we are not going to discuss in detail
its operation.

The critical function of assure that no liquid is either of the flares.

the liquid knockout drum to entrained and carried over to

Flare Liquid Seal

The first component to consider which is a specific application to

reduce the hazard of explosions is the liquid seal.

The liquid seal is simply a vertical vessel located upstream of the

flare header which receives low pressure vapours and functions
as a minimal liquid block between the blowdown header and the
flare stack.

The vapours enter the seal drum through a vertical dip pipe
which is normally submerged in the seal liquid. The dip pipe is
enclosed in a stilling tube to prevent excessive turbulence and
foaming in the seal drum during flaring.

When flaring commences the flare vapours bubble through the

seal liquid and out of the drum. However, at high flaring rates
there is no positive liquid seal in the drum, since the flare vapour
displaces all of the liquid in the stilling tube. The relatively high
pressure of the seal drum compared to atmosphere during flaring
periods eliminates any concern of air ingress other than via the
vapour source. When the flaring stops the dip pipe is
automatically refilled and prevents the movement of air from the
flare stack back into the blowdown system.
Flare Stack Structure

Flare stacks may be erected and supported in one of the following

ways:-

– Self support

– Guy support

– Derrick support

The derrick support structure is a totally separate structure from

the flare stack lending to simplicity of design and erection.

The other two types of structures, self supporting and guyed,

require a more complex design construction. From a long term
operational point of view these two structures have the obvious
disadvantages of accessibility for future maintenance
requirements and/or modifications.
Flare Stack Molecular Seal

A second means of sealing the flare stack against ingress of air is

by the use of a gas molecular seal mounted near the top of a flare
stack.

The sealing fluid is a hydrocarbon gas with a molecular mass less

than that of air, hence the name molecular seal. In natural gas
plants, a methane rich gas with a molecular mass of
approximately 19 is used as the sealing fluid (molecular mass of
air is 29).

The seal gas is continuously injected as a purge into the flare

stack below the seal section. Whilst flaring is taking place there is
no seal because the high velocity flare vapours drive the seal gas
out of the seal cap and flare tip.
When vapour flow stops, the seal gas fills the stack up to point T
and then overflows to fill the seal cap before flowing up to the
flare tip. At the same time atmospheric air, of higher molecular
mass, slowly diffuses downwards from the flare tip. The heavier
air displaces the light seal gas until it reaches point BS on the
outside of the seal cap.

Thus, a gas molecular seal is achieved since the air will not
displace the lighter seal gas in the annular space which forms a
molecular seal cap.

Flare Tip

The flare tip as shown in Figure takes the form of three to five
metres of pipe at the upper end of the stack. The flare tip is
normally flange mounted to the flare stack for easy maintenance
and renewal purposes. The tip is made of special high-
temperature steel alloy to withstand the flame temperatures.

A smokeless flare tip design as shown in Figure eliminates flame

lift-off at high exit velocities ensuring flame stability and efficient
combustion, even in high winds.

Flame stability is ensured by utilising flame stabiliser tabs on the

end of the stack tip and by injecting a stream of high pressure
flare vapour to an annular flame retention group of burners
integral with the flare tip.

The ring of auxiliary flames encircles and continuously ignites the

main flare vapour streams preventing flame lift-off.
In addition to the flame retention burners a smokeless flare tip
utilises a ring of special smokeless burners also mounted round
the top edge of the flare tip.

Four groups of smokeless fuel burners are located symmetrically

round the main flare tip. Four pilot burners are installed with one
between each group of smokeless burners.

Thus, the arrangement of smokeless burners aids in additional air

being drawn into the combustion zone with the overall effect of
reducing smoke generation.
Ignition System
The most common remote ignition system is the flame front
generator type. The flame front generator is normally used for
both ground flares and flare stacks.

The flame front generator utilises a small bore line from the
ignition console to the tip of the pilot burner. Fuel gas and air are
mixed, in a combustible ratio, at the ignition console and allowed
to fill the small bore line. When the line is full of the correct
gas/air mixture, it is ignited at the ignition console by means of a
spark plug. The flame front thus generated rapidly travels
through the line to the top of the flare stack where it ignites the
pilot burner.

As shown in the illustration this type of ignition system provides

a controlled supply of fuel gas to the pilot burner where an air
venturi is used to assure a combustible mixture for ignition.

Surveillance of the pilot burners is by use of thermocouples

located in the flame zone of each burner. The thermocouple is
connected to a panel mounted alarm to give warning of the flame
failure of a pilot burner.
General Operation
The use or operation of a flare system is normally very
infrequent. Therefore, the first operating consideration is to
maintain a flare system in a ready state to receive combustible
vapours.

A typical check list for inspecting a flare system in a ready to

operate state would include: –

1. Assuring operability of relieving system into blowdown

header or system. 2. Checking blowdown header for closed
drains and liquid.
2. Inspecting knockout drum for ability to discharge any
collected liquids. 4. Inspecting liquid seal drum for proper
operation and liquid seal level. 5. Confirm continuous supply
of fuel gas for pilot and smokeless burners. 6. Confirm
operability of flame front generator ignition system.
3. Observe that all pilot burners are ignited.
4. Enforce personnel restrictions as regards safe distances and
proximities of flares.

When a plant is shutting down in emergency conditions and relief

valves are relieving at high flow rates, the hydrocarbon vapour
can reach low temperatures, in the order of -50°C. The following
effects on the operation of a flare system should be considered:-

1. Flare Feed Line Contraction

Considerable axial contraction occurs and can result in the line

supports moving out of the guide shoes. Expansion bends or
bellows units are normally installed to avoid pipeline damage
when sudden contraction occurs followed by line movement.

After a low temperature flare operation, the operator should walk

the blowdown and flare inlet lines to ensure that the line supports
have returned to their normal positions on the support plates.

2. Ice Formation on Exterior of Flare Stack

Thick layers of ice can be formed if the flare operates under cold
vapour conditions for a prolonged period. When the feed vapour
temperature returns to normal, the sudden detachment of large
ice fragments presents a potential hazard to personnel.

3. Hydrocarbon Liquid Entrainment

Liquid level control of flare knockout drums generally becomes

difficult under cold conditions and high vapour loads. If liquid
level becomes too high, entrainment of liquid will occur and the
subsequent release of “burning rain” from the flare tip can
damage the support structure members near ground level. For
this reason, the lines from the knockout drums to the flare stack
are usually sloped back towards the drums, preventing liquid
accumulation in the lines.

Flares are sometimes provided with a water drenching systems to

protect the lower parts of the derrick from flare fires caused by
liquid entrainment.

4. Flare Stack Support Protection

Tall flare stacks are normally supported by a section of skirt

which is bolted to a concrete foundation block.

The concrete can become damaged by frequent exposure to very

cold operating conditions and this is generally prevented by
adequate ventilation of the skirt section to maintain the metal at
or near ambient temperature.

5. Personnel Access to Flare Stack

It must be emphasized that access to the flare stack is absolutely

forbidden except when the flare is out of commission and
positively isolated from the flare header.