Physics 10 Exam

Radioactivity

Bohr Model of the atom

Nucleus contains
- Protons
- Neutrons
Orbiting the nucleus are electrons
Isotopes are the same element with a different atomic mass (number of neutrons)
- Isotopes of a material are chemically identical
Atomic Number is the number of protons in a material
Atomic Mass is the protons plus the neutrons

Examples of Isotopes:
Hydrogen-1
1 Atomic Mass
H
1 Atomic Number

Hydrogen-2 (Deuterium)
2
H
1

Hydrogen-3 (Tritium, which is radioactive)

3
H
1

Recall that Water is H2O.

Heavy water is D2O.
- To get heavy water, you build large silos and fill them with water.
- You let the water sit, so that the heavy particles fall down
- Thus, you have heavier water at the bottom
- You extract this heavy water, put it in a new silo, and the cycle goes on
- D2O is used in nuclear reactors
- Nazi Germany did this, but the Scandinavian Resistance stopped them

Radioactivity is the release of high energy particles and rays of energy from a substance as
a result of changes in the nuclei of an atom
- It is the process of releasing rays out
Radiation refers to the energy rays and particles emitted by radioactive sources
- Actual ray sent out
- Light is a form of radiation humans can see

Why do isotopes exhibit radioactivity?

In a nucleus there are two forces
1 pulls together: this is the nuclear strong force
- Never complete dominant or else it would implode
1 pushes apart: this is the nuclear weak force
- If the weak force is dominant, we get radioactivity
- If both forces are in balance, we have a stable isotope with no radioactivity
The number of neutrons plays a critical role in the spacing of protons and neutrons in a
nucleus. Nucleus expands with more neutrons
Radioactive decay
- Process by which unstable nuclei lose energy by emitting radiation
- Unstable radioactive atoms undergo radioactive decay to form stable non-
radioactive atoms, usually made of a different element
Radioisotopes
- Natural or manmade isotopes that decay into stable isotopes, releasing radiation

Greater space, more weak force, and then it blows apart (eventually)
Nuclear Equation
237 233 4
U = Th + He
92 90 2
Reactant Daughter Isotopes
Parent Isotope Products

Charge and mass must be conserved

Types of Radiation
Alpha Radiation
(Particle)
- A helium nucleus has +2 charge
o 4 atomic mass units (2p+, 2N)
- Alpha radiation occurs in an unstable nucleus where the weak force is dominant
- The nucleus is falling apart
- In an effort to become stable, it kicks parts of itself out (the helium)
- The reactant’s atomic mass must be decreased by 4, and the atomic number must be
decreased by 2

237 233 4
U = Th + α
92 90 2

- Alpha particle= helium nucleus

- This process tends to happen in larger elements
The helium nucleus
- A sheet of paper is enough to stop it
- Because of its mass, it goes slower
 - Somewhat large +2 charge makes it “sticky”
- This makes it bond to neutral/ positive matter

Beta Radiation
A Beta particle is a high speed electron with a -1 charge
- Almost 0 amu
- A sheet of tin foil can stop it
- Its smaller size allows it to pass easier
- In a sense, a Beta particle is better than an alpha particle because it has less charge
and almost 0 amu, making it lighter and faster
- Beta particle comes from the disintegration of a neutron

1 1 0
N becomes p + e if it were to be disintegrated
0 1 -1

Nothing happens to the atomic mass, but the atomic number goes up by 1

14 14 0
N becomes O + β
7 8 -1

Gamma radiation
- Gamma Radiation is electromagnetic radiation (photons)
o Pure energy
- No mass and no charge
0
γ
0
- It takes a 15 cm lead plate to stop it
- Gamma Radiation is not directly caused by the nucleus.
60 60
Co* becomes Co + γ
27 27
* denotes an excited electron state

Quantum Physics states that only certain orbitals are allowed for electrons.

Nucleus

You can have an orbit

here and here, but not
in between
Electron energy loss is an electromagnetic wave
- The larger the orbit, the more energy required in the electron

A is for Atom
- Atoms are very small
- The atom is electrical
o Electrons are attracted by protons
o Neutrons have no charge
o The atom’s binding force, or cosmic glue, holds the nucleus together
- There are more than 90 basic elements
o Identified by number of protons in nucleus
- Within each element can be different members
- Isotopes
o Same number of protons but different number of neutrons
o Some elements have many isotopes
o Some, like aluminum, have 1
o Majority of atoms in an element are stable
- Some are radioactive
o They throw off rays along with protons and neutrons until they change their
own nuclear structure to become stable
o This changing of elements is natural transmutation
- Scientists thought: can man change an atom?
o Artificial transmutation was achieved when a British scientist turned
nitrogen to oxygen with an alpha particle
- What happens when you try to fire neutrons at uranium?
o Nuclear fission
o The atom split into 2
o The cosmic glue that holds together the nucleus has a mass of its own
o The two atoms uranium split into had cosmic glue, but less than in the
original
o The extra binding force had exploded into energy
o E=mc2
- When uranium is split, energy is released
o Powerful rays similar to x rays are emitted
o Free neutrons are driven off with speed
- If there is enough U 235 (critical mass= amount needed to set off chain reaction), then
neutrons are thrown out and hit other uranium atoms and split.
o Chain reaction
o Yankee Stadium filled with dynamite = baseball of U235
- How do you get enough U 235 for a bomb?
o Only a small amount of uranium is U 235
- At Oak Ridge, enough U 235 was separated to make a bomb
 - At Hanford, Washington, a huge plant was built
o Furnace of atomic energy
o You have graphite blocks in between rods of Uranium (U 235 and 238)
o Graphite slows down free neutrons from U 235
 Some hit other U 235 atoms
 Others hit U 238
o U 238 turns into neptunium which turns into plutonium
o Plutonium is fissionable
o Source of atomic fuel
- This reactor produced heat, which can be used to provide electricity
o Problems: Reactor needs to be shielded
o This adds lots of weight
- Research shows that many elements become radioactive when placed in a nuclear
reactor
- Geiger Counter measures radiation
- Isotopes are used a lot
o Agriculture: Isotopes test effectiveness of fertilizer and proper timing of
their use
o Industry: Isotopes are used in the automatic control of sheet aluminum to
ensure accuracy
o Radioactive sodium helps doctors solve heart and circulatory diseases
o Radioactive phosphorus helps doctors to find tumors in the brain and to
simply operations for their removal
o Iodine 131 is used in the treatment of thyroid cancer
Radiation
Units
1. Disintegrations per second = Becquerel (Bq)
2. Energy carried by ray or particle= Gray (Gy)
3. Effect on biological system= Sieverts (Sv)
Becquerels and Grays are used by chemists and physicists
Sieverts are used by doctors and biologists.

LD50
- Indicates that the lethal dose is 50
- Kills half of them

Limiting Dosage
- Limit time
o Less time, less dose
- Increase distance
o Farther distance, less dose
- Shielding
o Some material absorbs radiation

Electromagnetic radiation
From weakest to strongest
1. AC electricity
2. Shortwave
3. AM radio wave
4. FM radio wave
5. Microwave
6. Infrared
7. Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet
8. UV rays
9. X rays
10. Gamma rays
11. Cosmic Rays

C=fλ

C is the speed of light

F is the frequency
λ is the wavelength

Question 1: Sodium Street lights emit a 532 nanometer light. What is the frequency of this
orange light?
3E8=f(532E-9)

3E8/532E-9= 5.6 x 1014 Hz

Recall that:
10-1= deci d
10-2= centi c
10-3= milli m
10-6= micro 
10-9= nano n
10-12= pico p
101= deca D
102= hecto H
103= kilo K
106= mega M
109= giga G
1012= terra T

Radioactive Half Life

- Amount of time required for a parent nuclei to drop 50% in amount
 Exponential Decay Curve

Asymptotic= approaches 0 but never reaches it

A= Ao(original amount) * 1/2t./half life

Radioactive Dating uses a chart to estimate age

A sample will have both daughter and parent isotopes

Adding both together gives you Ao

Transcendental Number= non repeating, non terminating decimal

In a solid material that gives off gas, estimating the gas from bubbles (porous) gives you the
original amount
Carbon 14 Dating
- Used to estimate age of biological things
- How do we get it into biological things
o Inhaling
o Eating
- Assumes that living things absorb radioactive material
- Inhaling process relies on high atmosphere radiation

radiation

earth

1. Some radiation is reflected

a. Some is transmutated into N14
2. Bob breathes in this N14
3. The N14 inside Bob turns into C14
4. When Bob dies, no more C14 is absorbed
Today, measurements show that there is a constant ratio between C14 and other Carbon
isotopes (namely C12) in the body
Mass spectrometer: Find out age by comparing C14 to other Carbon isotopes. If there is less
C14, you know that it has had time to decay.

We are assuming that the radiation we have today was the same as before
Only organisms that lived within the last 50,000 years have enough C14 for radiocarbon
dating

Nuclear Reactions
Fission= Large nucleus splits apart
235 1
U + n Thermal
92 0 neutron

- A thermal neutron has a slower speed

- It stops inside another U-235 atom
 - If it did not stop, it would go right through, accomplishing nothing
- The neutron in the nucleus makes the weak force stronger, causing it to fission
That can lead to (this is an example)
92 141
Kr + Ba
36 56
All the protons are accounted for, but the there are three neutrons missing (originally 236)
So…
92 141 1
Kr + Ba + 3 n
36 56 0
- This leads to a chain reaction

The chain reaction stops when it runs out of material, or the neutrons leave
- The Critical mass (amount of material needed to sustain a chain reaction) needs to
slow down the neutrons for a chain reaction to occur
Note: U 235 is not abundant

Little Boy bomb

Conventional U 235
Explosive

The conventional explosive explodes, and the first piece of U 235 is shot at the other piece
Critical mass is achieved when both pieces of U 235 join.

Fat man bomb

Plutonium

Explosives
 - The explosives cause a perfectly symmetrical implosion.
- The plutonium is pushed together and makes critical mass
Fusion reactions= multiple small nuclei join
3 1 4
H + H= He + E
1 1 2
This happens in stars everyday

Atomic Bomb
- Nuclear fission
Thermonuclear Device AKA Hydrogen Bomb

Deuterium

Atom
Bomb

- The atom bomb is the size of a briefcase

o It causes the conditions of the Sun for 1 microsecond
- The deuterium is basically a helium bomb

Earth’s core is molten because of uranium. The uranium forms a magnetic field

Nuclear Fission is in atom bombs and nuclear reactors (used for electricity)
Nuclear Fusion is used in hydrogen bombs

Fusion reactors are only experimental

- They give off as much energy as we put into it
- Currently at “break even”
Plasma is a state of matter with no electrons

Mass Defect
235 1 92 141 1
U + n Kr + Ba + 3 n + E
92 0 36 56 0

92 protons = 92 protons
144 neutrons = 144 neutrons
Kilogram mass > Kilogram mass here
- This is because the atomic glue has decreased
- Mass must be conserved
- Mass was converted to energy
 - So…
E=mc2
M is the missing mass
C2 is the speed of light2
- Small amount of mass can be converted to a large amount of energy

Fission Reactors

C
F M O F
U O U

- The control rod absorbs neutrons

- It can be raised up and down
- Canada uses heavy water in the moderator.
- If you drain out the heavy water, the core goes inert (chemically inactive)
o This slows down neutrons
- The US and Russia use mostly regular water and carbon
- The Fuel Rods get hot
- The heavy water coolant turns to steam
- It is basically a big water boiler
The control rod is usually made from boron
Canada uses heavy water in the moderator
The control rod is made of plutonium

Radiation and Biology

Iodizing Radiation can split a molecule into “ions” or radicals
Non iodizing radiation does not split the molecule, but can make the DNA go wonky

Iodizing Radiation and Non iodizing radiation can both cause somatic and genetic damage

Somatic Damage usually results in cancer, because the cell starts producing uncontrollably

Genetic damage causes mutants

 Cell wall

DNA

If gamma radiation occurs here (does

not hit nucleus), the cell will try to
neutralize the damage that happened
If gamma radiation passes to the cell. In short, the nucleus has
through the nucleus, then the ability to repair the cell
DNA damage can lead to
somatic damage or genetic
damage

Non iodizing Radiation

Used in microwaves
H2O

The microwave causes the H20 to vibrate

Motion= heat

Electromagnetic radiation can affect ongoing chemical reactions

If it occurs in mitosis, for example, this can lead to duplication errors

The cell phone causes waves to go through your head

The wave gains resonance and this can cause brain cancer.
Standing wave: points at end are stationary, but the wave in between has a random
frequency or intensity

AC electricity
- High voltage power lines create an electromagnetic field
- Don’t live under them

Some other uses of non iodizing radiation

Smoke detectors
Use Americium 241
 - Alpha particle source
- Ionizing detector

Am-241 Electric
  Target

If there is smoke rising, the  particles react with the smoke

The current is stopped, and an alarm goes off

Magnetic Resonance Imaging

- Makes images of internal organs
- Uses radio waves
- Uses magnets

CAT scan
- Uses X rays
- Not good at seeing dense tissue
- shows organ tear and injury well

Pion therapy
- uses powerful Pion beams for short periods to destroy tumors

Radioactive isotopes are used in hospitals for

Imaging, tracing, and removal

Heat

Heat Energy
Heat is the amount of kinetic energy measured in joules contained within an object
- movement of particles
Temperature is the average energy per particle
- measured in degrees
Heat transfers from one object to the next when there is a difference in temperature
It is possible to have the same temperature but with different heat energy
- if you have 45 tons at room temperature, there are more particles and more energy
as compared to 1 ton at room temperature
Specific heat is the amount of energy needed to change 1 kg of matter by 1° Celsius
More Less
energy energy
 More energy Less energy

4180 ≈ 4200 J (specific water of H2O)

- this is the amount of needed to change 1 kg of H2O by 1° Celsius
H=mcT
H is the change in heat energy
M is mass
C is specific heat capacity
T is the change in temperature

How much electrical energy is required to heat 450 ml of H2O from room temperature
(22° Celsius) to boiling point (100° Celsius)
H= ?
M= .45 kg
C= 4200
T=78° Celsius
H=147420 J
Measuring heat energy is called calorimetry

Measuring Heat Energy

Celsius reference points
- uses freezing point of pure H2O (0° Celsius)
- uses boiling point of pure H20 (100° Celsius)
- This is at sea level (standard pressure)
- -273° Celsius is absolute zero
Fahrenheit uses body heat as a reference
- Tried to use 98°F for body heat as reference point
- Poor choice because body heat fluctuates
- So then they used the freezing point of brine as a reference point (0°F)
- Freezing point of pure H20 is 32°F
- Boiling point is 212°F
Kelvin
- Uses absolute 0 as a reference point
- 0 degrees Kelvin is absolute 0
- Absolute 0 means there is 0 temperature, and 0 movement
- This is impossible; even if you are in a vacuum there is still energy such as radiation
Celsius and Fahrenheit cross at -40°

Converting
Kelvin= Celsius + 273
Celsius= 5/9(f-32)
Fahrenheit= 9/5C+32

Heat transfer
Conduction
- Heat travelling in a solid
- Travels via bonds
- Bonds act like springs
- Mechanical energy sent via bonds in atoms of a solid
- Insulators prevent heat travelling
- Conductors allow heat to travel (e.g.: metals like copper or aluminum)
Convection
- Happens in fluids (gas/liquid) through collisions
- Molecules will travel until they hit other molecules, giving away some energy
Radiation
- Electromagnetic waves
- Does not require matter
- E.g.: microwaves cause motion in molecule, and makes heat

Recall that heat moves when there is a difference in temperature

Hot to cold

Convection cells

A heat source causes molecule speed to become faster. The spacing between molecules
increases, and there is less density
The low density rises
- The fluid then cools, so the speed slows down and the density increases
- The Fluid falls
- The cycle restarts
Heat transfer in local environments

TH2O ≈ T land (at middle of night)

H2O
C=4180 J/kg c C= less than 1000 J/kg c

C is specific heat capacity

- At midnight there is no heat transfer because the temperature of the water and of
the land are approximately equal

vacuum

H2O Land
- Heats up slower - heats up faster

- The wind blows towards the shore

- The air over the hot land tends to rise
Just after sunset

Vacuum

Water Land
Higher Joules Less Joules
Higher temperature Less temperature

- Wind blows away from land

Global Convection- Pt 1 Atmosphere

P
F
Trades= lots of wind

H
Doldrums= no wind
Equator

Trades= lots of wind

- Doldrums are areas north of the equator with no wind/ light winds situated
between trade winds
- Trade winds are prevailing tropical winds that blow towards the equator
- Solar radiation results in heating at the equator
- This directly results in the Hadley cell
- The polar cell occurs at 60° North
o Cold air descends over the North pole, causing pressure
o Cold air moves down to lower latitudes (60°) and starts a convection cell
- Ferrell cell is a result of movement of Polar and Hadley cells

Earth Geology
Sources of Earth Heat
1. Latent heat of Earth’s formation (Gravitational compression is related)
2. Sun (Solar Radiation)
3. Radioactive decay (Uranium/Radium decaying into more stable elements)
Global Convection Part 2 Geology
ridge

Mantle
Crust
Outer core Subduction zone/trench
core

The convection cells form Subduction zones, trenches, and ridges

Spin
- Atmospheric effect
- Coriolis effect is a change in the direction of moving air, water, or objects due to
Earth’s rotation
o Coriolis effect and convection currents results in trade winds, prevailing
westerlies and polar easterlies
o Move east to negate Coriolis effect
- Friction between surface and air
o Air moving on the surface starts moving in the same direction as the spin
o The earth rotates east, and the wind blows east
- A jet stream forms in the upper troposphere due to convection currents
o Become bands of fast moving air in the stratosphere
o Very strong, so airplane pilots try to fly with them
o Enhanced by cooler temperatures
o Fastest at the equator, because there is more spin there

CO2

1. First, the Sun gives Earth heat

 2. This is reflected partially
3. But the CO2 reflects this back making our earth warmer
4. The ice caps are melting (area covered shrinks)
5. Shrinking ice caps means more heat is absorbed

Albedo is the ability to reflect heat

Low albedo= black asphalt parking lot
High albedo= glacier (white)

El Nino
- Extremely weak westerly trade winds allow warm Pacific waters to move eastward
- Stops cold water from upwelling
- Warmer weather
La Nina
- Strong westerly trade winds allow cooler water to upwell
- Brings colder temperatures to Northwestern North America
Layers of the Atmosphere
1. Troposphere
a. Where weather occurs
2. Stratosphere
a. Where most ozone is
b. Protects us from ultraviolet radiation
3. Mesosphere
a. Protects us from meteors
4. Thermosphere
a. Where aurora occurs
5. Exosphere connects to space

Latent Heat
- If you have 100° of water and 100° of steam, the only difference is that the gas has
more energy
Gas
Latent heat

Liquid
Temp. 0° latent heat

-C°

- Latent heat is the energy needed to change a phase of matter

 - At 0°if you add energy, the ice will not change in temperature until it becomes a
liquid
- At the second latent heat period, the food (if cooking) absorbs all the energy before
liquid turns to gas
- If steam touches colder food, it condenses
- The food absorbs this steam turned water
- The water is turned back to steam, so it is a cycle

Liquid in plants can turn to gas without heating up. This is called Transvaporation. Thus if
you have more plant life, it is colder

Vectors and Scalars

- Vector is a physical quantity with both Magnitude and direction
- Magnitude means size
- An example of a vector is force
- If Bob punches me. This is a vector because there is size (big or small hit) and
direction (where does he hit)
- Scalars include magnitude only
o Mass
o Temperature

Distance (scalar)
- Length between two points
- Measured in meters
- Scalar

Displacement (vector)
- Distance with direction
- Vector
- Measured in meters or km

Displacement vs. Distance

- If I walk from A to B (10 meters apart), and return, the total distance is 20 meters
- The Total displacement is not because one direction is positive and one is negative
(+10 m and -10m). Total displacement is 0

Velocity (vector)
- How quick an object is moving
- I come to school from home for 4 km. You come to school from fome for 13 km. Who
was faster?
o Indeterminate
o You need both distance and time
- Velocity= distance/time
- Distance travelled per unit time
Average velocity is total displacement/total time
 - A car leaves home on km 21 of the Alaska highway at 12:00 pm
- At 12:45 pm, the car is at km 18 of the Alaska highway
- What is the car’s displacement, what was the time interval, what is the car’s average
velocity?
To find total displacement, you do (df-di)
Displacement: 18-21= -3km= -3000 m
Time interval: 45 minutes= 2700 s
Vav= -3000/2700= -1.1 repeating m/s

Think of a number line

Positive is to the right (or up)
Negative is to the left (or down)

Speed (scalar)
- Velocity without direction
- Average speed is total distance/ total time

Position
- Distance relative to a point of reference

Acceleration (vector)
- Rate of change in velocity
- Vector
- For example, in a drag race, the speed changes
- If you have something going around in a circle at uniform speed, acceleration still
changes because of direction
- Slowing down is negative acceleration

Aav= total velocity/ total time

Indiana Jones mine railcar goes from 5 m/s to .2 m/s as it goes up a hill in 4 seconds. What
is the average acceleration?
-4.8 m/s ÷ 4s
-1/2 m/s2

How long does it take for the rail car to come to a complete stop from its initial speed?
-1.2 m/s2= 0-5 ÷ total time
-5÷-1.2
4.1666(etc.) s

Distance time graph of uniform motion

Positive velocity
- Constant velocity
The displacement is changing

Velocity Time graph Equivalent

X axis

- Constant positive velocity

Acceleration time graph equivalent

At x axis because there is no acceleration (constant velocity)

Distance time graph for negative constant velocity

Negative velocity
- Constant

Velocity time equivalent

X axis

Acceleration time graph equivalent

Line is at x axis again

Distance time graph for stopped object

X axis

In this case, the object is at rest past the reference point

Velocity time graph equivalent

At x axis

Acceleration time graph equivalent

at x axis
Distance time graph for increasing acceleration
d-t

The line is a concave up

Velocity time graph equivalent

Increasing velocity

Acceleration time graph equivalent for concave up

 X axis

Constant acceleration

Distance Time graph for concave down

Velocity time graph

Slope is negative
Negative acceleration
When it reaches 0, the speed is 0, then it starts going backwards

A-t equivalent is

X axis
Practice:

First, the guy speeds up, then there is 0 movement, then there is negative acceleration

Gravity
At the earth’s surface all objects accelerate at g=9.81 m/s 2 excluding other forces (air
resistance and friction)
-A lighter object and heavy object land at the same time if dropped at the same time

A gravimeter (measures gravitational field) can find pitchblende and deposits of oil.
Uranium is mined from pitchblende. If you fly with a gravimeter over it, then the number
decreases
If you fly over something like oil, then the number goes down.

Practice
A plane falls off a ledge without its propellers on. Then James Bond jumps after it a few
seconds after watching it and sitting on the ledge.
distance time graph

The acceleration is essentially the same between the two. But the plane has had time to
accelerate, and this the gap between the airplane and Bond increase simply because Bond
jumped later. The acceleration is the same though.
Velocity time graph
Acceleration time graph

X axis

-9.8 m/s2

Practice 2
I drop a penny from a cliff into a dark pit. I wait 8.5 seconds and then I hear it land. How
deep is it?
D=vi t + 1/2at2
Coin has no speed at the beginning.
So vi=0
D=1/2at2
A=-9.81
So d=(1/2)(-9.81)(8.52)
D= -354.4 m

Practice: Graphing a Displacement time graph

Fictional scenario

You can make a velocity time graph from this by using the slope of the displacement time
curve
As the slope of a velocity time graph increases, the velocity increases
- If the displacement time graph curves up, then there is acceleration
The slope of a displacement time graph is basically the velocity.