Chapter 7

Print Culture and the Modern World

 The First Printed Books

 The earliest print technology was developed in China, Japan and Korea. From AD
594 onwards, books in China were printed by rubbing paper.
 China remained the major producer of printed material by printing vast numbers of
textbooks for the civil service examinations held for recruiting its personnel.
 Academicians and merchants used print in their everyday lives. Many people started
to read and write.
 Shanghai became the hub of new print culture, catering to the Western-style
schools. There was a gradual shift from hand printing to machine printing.
 Print in Japan
 AD 768-770: Buddhist missionaries from China introduced hand-printing
technology to Japan
 The Buddhist Diamond Sutra was the oldest Japanese book.
 The illustrated collections of paintings depicted an elegant urban culture involving
artisans, courtesans and teahouse gatherings.
 Print Comes to Europe
 11th century: Chinese paper reached Europe through the silk route
 In Italy, Marco Polo brought the knowledge of print.
 Scribes or skilled hand writers were employed by wealthy or influential patrons and
booksellers for increasing the production of handwritten manuscripts.
 However, the handwritten manuscripts could not satisfy the ever increasing demand
for goods because the manuscripts were fragile, awkward to handle and could not
be carried around or read easily.
 By the early 15th century, woodblocks were being widely used in Europe for
printing textiles, playing cards and religious pictures with simple, brief texts.
 1430s: Johann Gutenberg developed the printing press
 The first book printed on Gutenberg’s printing press was the Bible. It took three
years to print 180 copies of the Bible.
 Printed books at first closely resembled the written manuscripts in appearance and
layout.
  1450-1550: Printing presses were set up in most countries of Europe. 20 million
copies of printed books flooded the European markets during the second half of the
15th century.
 The time and labour required for producing each book decreased and multiple
copies could be produced with greater ease.
 Common people now had access to books and therefore the oral culture of a hearing
public was now replaced by a reading public.
 Oral culture entered print and the printed material was orally transmitted. Printers
began publishing new ballads and folktales with profusely illustrated pictures.
 Religious Debates and the Fear of Print
 The new printed literature was criticized as it was feared that if there was no control
over what was printed and read, then rebellious and irreligious thoughts might
spread. Those who disagreed with established authorities could now print and
circulate ideas.
 1517: A religious reformer, Martin Luther wrote ‘Ninety-five Theses’ criticizing many
of the practices and rituals of the Roman Catholic Church.
 Luther’s writings were immediately reproduced in vast numbers and read widely.
This led to a division within the Church and to the beginning of the Protestant
Reformation.
 Several scholars think that print brought about a new intellectual atmosphere and
helped spread the new ideas that led to the Reformation.
 1558: The Roman Church, troubled by effects of popular readings and questionings
of faith, imposed several controls over publishers and booksellers and began to
maintain an Index of Prohibited Books.
 The Reading Mania
 By the end of the 18th century, literacy rates in Europe were as high as 60 to 80%.
 Churches of different denominations set up schools in villages, carrying literacy to
peasants and artisans.
 New forms of literature appeared in print that targeted new audiences.
 There were almanacs or ritual calendars, along with ballads and folktales.
 In England, penny chapbooks were carried by petty pedlars known as chapmen.
They were sold for a penny and could be afforded even by the poor.
 Ancient and medieval scientific texts were compiled and published. Maps and
scientific diagrams were widely printed. The discoveries of Isaac Newton and the
 writings of Thomas Paine, Voltaire and Jean Jacques Rousseau were also widely
printed and read.
 People believed that books could change the world, liberate society from despotism
and tyranny and herald a time when reason and intellect would rule.
 Print Culture and the French Revolution
 Print culture created the conditions within which French Revolution occurred.
 Print popularized the ideas of the Enlightenment thinkers. They attacked the sacred
authority of the Church and the despotic powers of the state; thus, eroding the
legitimacy of a social order based on tradition. Voltaire and Rousseau were widely
read.
 All values, norms and institutions were re-evaluated and discussed by a public that
was inquisitive, critical and rational. Hence, new ideas of social revolution came
into being.
 By the 1780s: Literature mocked the royalty and criticized their morality. This led
to the growth of hostile sentiments against the monarchy.
 Children, Women and Workers
 As primary education became compulsory from the late nineteenth century,
children became an important category of readers.
 1857: A children’s press devoted to literature for children alone was set up in
France.
 Women became important readers and writers. The writings of George Eliot, Jane
Austen and the Bronte sisters were read and enjoyed.
 In the 19th century, lending libraries in England became instruments for educating
white-collar workers, artisans and lower middle-class people.
 Further Innovations
 By the mid-19th century, Richard M. Hoe of New York had perfected the power-
driven cylindrical press, which printed 8,000 sheets per hour.
 In the late 19th century, the offset print was developed that could print about 6
colours at a time.
 From the turn of the 20th century, presses operated electrically, methods of feeding
paper were improvised, the quality of plates became better, automatic paper reels
and photoelectric controls of the colour register were introduced.
 19th century periodicals serialized important novels, which gave birth to a particular
way of writing.
  1920s: In England, popular works were sold in cheap series, called the Shilling
Series.
 Book jackets were also introduced.
 India and the World of Print
 India had a very rich and old tradition of handwritten manuscripts in Sanskrit,
Arabic, Persian and other vernacular languages. Manuscripts were copied on palm
leaves or on handmade paper. They would be preserved between wooden covers or
sewn together. They were highly expensive, fragile and illegible.
 Print Comes to India
 Mid-16th century: The first printing press came to Goa with Portuguese
missionaries.
 By 1674: About 50 books had been printed in Konkani and in Karana
languages.
 Cochin, 1579: Catholic priests printed the first Tamil book
 1713: Catholic priests printed the first Malayalam book
 By 1710: Dutch protestant missionaries had printed 32 Tamil texts
 From 1780: James Augustus Hickey began editing the Bengal Gazette, a
weekly magazine.
 Religious Reform and Public Debates
 From the early 19th century, there were intense debates around religious
issues. Some criticized existing practices and campaigned for reform, while
others countered the arguments of reformers.
 Public tracts and newspapers spread the new ideas and generated discussions
and expressions from the public.
 1821: Raja Ram Mohan Roy published the Sambad Kaumudi and the Hindu
orthodoxy commissioned the Samachar Chandrika to oppose his opinions.
 From 1822: Two Persian newspapers were published, Jam-i-Jahan Nama
and Shamsul Akhbar. A Guajarati newspaper, the Bombay Samachar, was also
published.
 In North India, the ulema were deeply anxious about the collapse of Muslim
dynasties. They used cheap lithographic presses, published Persian and Urdu
translations of Holy Scriptures and printed religious tracts and newspapers.
 Calcutta, 1810: The first printed edition of the Ramcharitmanas of Tulsidas,
a 16th century text, appeared.
 New Forms of Publication
  New literary forms such as novels, lyrics, short stories and essays about political and
social matters reinforced the new emphasis on human lives and intimate feelings and
the political and social rules that shaped such things.
 By the end of 19th century, visual images could be easily reproduced in multiple
copies. Painters such as Raja Ravi Verma produced images for mass circulation.
 Cheap prints and calendars were easily available in the bazaar. These prints shaped
ideas about modernity and tradition, religion and politics, and society and culture.
 By the 1870s, there were imperial caricatures lampooning nationalists as well as
nationalist cartoons criticizing imperial rule.
 Women and Print
 Liberal husbands and fathers began educating their womenfolk at home and sent
them to schools.
 Many journals began carrying writings by women and explained why women should
be educated.
 Conservative Hindus believed that a literate girl would be widowed and Muslims
feared that educated women would be corrupted by reading Urdu romances.
 1876: Rashsundari Debi’s autobiography, Amar Jiban, was published. It was the first
full-length autobiography published in the Bengali language.
 From 1860s: Few Bengali women such as Kailashbashini Debi wrote books
highlighting the experiences of women.
 In 1880s (Maharashtra): Tarabai Shinde and Pandita Ramabai wrote with
passionate anger about the miserable lives of upper-caste Hindu women, especially
widows.
 Print and the Poor People
 Very cheap and small books were brought to markets in 19 th century. Madras towns
sold at crossroads, allowing poor people travelling to markets to buy them.
 Public libraries were set up from the early 20th century. These libraries were mostly
located in cities and towns and at times in prosperous villages.
 1871: Jyotiba Phule, the Maratha pioneer of ‘low caste’ protest movements, wrote
about the injustices of the caste system in his Gulamgiri.
 In the 20th century, B. R. Ambedkar in Maharashtra and E. V. Ramaswamy Naicker
in Madras, better known as Periyar, wrote powerfully on caste and their writings
were read by people all over India.
  1938: Kashibaba, a Kanpur millworker, wrote and published Chhote Aur Bade Ka
Sawal. The poems of Kashibaba and Sudarsan Chakr (another Kanpur millworker)
were compiled in Sacchi Kavitayan.
 By 1930s: Bangalore cotton millworkers set up libraries for educating themselves.
These were sponsored by social reformers who tried to restrict excessive drinking
among them, for bringing literacy and, sometimes, for propagating the message of
nationalism.
 Print and Censorship
 Before 1789: The colonial state under the East India Company was too concerned
with censorship.
 By 1820s: The Calcutta Supreme Court passed certain regulations to control press
freedom and the Company began encouraging publication of newspapers that would
celebrate the British rule.
 In 1835: Faced with urgent petitions by editors of the English and vernacular
newspapers, Governor-General Bentinck agreed to revise press laws. Thomas
Macaulay formulated new rules that restored their earlier freedoms.
 After the revolt of 1857, press freedoms were clamped down.
 1878: The Vernacular Press Act was passed, modelled on the Irish Press Laws. It
provided the government with extensive rights to censor reports and editorials in
the vernacular press.
 1907: When the Punjab revolutionaries were deported, Bal Gangadhar Tilak wrote
with great sympathy about them in his Kesari. This led to his imprisonment in 1908.
 During the First World War, under the Defence of India Rules, 22 newspapers had
to furnish securities.

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 Chapter 3
Nationalism in India

 Nationalism
It involves a strong identification of a group of individuals with a political entity defined in
national terms, i.e., a nation.
 Modern nationalism was associated with the formation of nation-states.
 In India, as in many other colonies, the growth of nationalism is connected to the
anti-colonial movement under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi.
 The First World War, Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movement
The war played an important role in shaping India‟s freedom struggle.
 Increase in defence expenditure due to the war led to the increase in taxes, custom
duties, prices and the introduction of war loans.
 Extreme hardships, poverty and forced recruitments in the army made people
hostile to the British rule.
 During 1918–19 and 1920–21, food shortages due to the failure of crops and
famines and epidemics, that took a heavy toll of life, created resentment among the
people of India against the foreign rule.
 Satyagraha
Satyagraha means appeal for truth. Mahatma Gandhi introduced this concept during his stay
in South Africa. It is based on the ideals of truth and non- violence.
 January, 1915: Mahatma Gandhi returned to India from South Africa.
 Champaran Satyagraha, 1916: First Gandhian mass-movement in India against
the oppressive plantation system in Champaran (Bihar).
 Kheda Satyagraha, 1917: Gandhiji led the movement in Kheda district of
Gujarat, demanding relaxation of the revenue tax owing to the poverty experienced
by the farmers because of the outbreak of plague and crop failure.
 Ahmedabad Mill Strike, 1918: Gandhiji organised a Satyagraha against the
cotton mill owners demanding an increase in the workers‟ wages and bonus.
 The Rowlatt Act (1919)
 Passed by the British Government.
 The Act gave the government enormous powers for repressing political activities
and allowed detention of political prisoners for two years without any trail.
 6th April, 1919: Gandhi started the non-violent civil disobedience movement for
opposing the Rowlatt Act with a nation-wide hartal.
 Shops were closed down, rallies were organised and rail workshop workers went on
strike. Widespread attacks on banks, post offices and railway stations took place.
 Government brutally repressed the nationalists. Martial law was imposed and
General Dyer took command.
 Jallianwala Bagh Massacre, 13th April, 1919
  A number of people had assembled at Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar for
attending the annual Baisakhi fair.
 General Dyer surrounded the park and opened fire on the crowd, killing
hundreds of people.
 Aftermath of Jallianwala Bagh Massacre
 Crowds took to the streets in many north Indian towns. Strikes, clashes with
the police and attacks on government buildings were extensively witnessed.
 The British used brutal repression, seeking to humiliate and terrorise
people. People were flogged and villages were bombed.
 This violence forced Gandhi to stop the movement.
 Criticism: The Rowlatt Satyagraha was limited mostly to cities and towns.
 Non-Cooperation Movement
Began in January 1921
 Causes
 Khilafat issue: After the First World War, the British sought to overthrow
the Khalifa, the spiritual head of the Islamic world and the Turkish Emperor.
This was deeply resented by Muslims all over the world, including the
Indian Muslims.
 Rowlatt Act: The dissatisfaction from the Rowlatt Act and the failure of
the Rowlatt Satyagraha.
 Jallianwala Bagh: The atrocious killing of hundreds of innocent people by
the British at Jallianwala Bagh had made the Indian masses resentful towards
the British rule.
 Gandhiji wanted to launch a mass movement encompassing the entire nation
and all communities.
 Methods: Surrendering of government titles, boycott of civil services, army,
police, courts and legislative councils, school, and foreign goods; and a full civil
disobedience campaign.
 Disagreements
 Few Congress members were not in support of the idea of boycotting the
council elections as they wanted to bring about changes in the system by
being in power. C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru formed the Swaraj Party
within the Congress to argue for a return to council politics.
 Some leaders feared the movement to turn violent.
 Events
 March, 1919 (Bombay): Khilafat Committee was formed with leaders
such as Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali.
 September, 1920: Gandhi, in the Calcutta session of the Congress,
convinced other leaders of the need to start a non-cooperation movement in
support of Khilafat as well as for Swaraj.
  December, 1920 (Nagpur): Non-cooperation programme adopted by the
Congress.
 The Movement in the Towns: The students left government schools and
colleges, headmasters and teachers resigned, lawyers gave up their legal
practices and the council elections were boycotted in most provinces except
Madras. Foreign goods were boycotted, liquor shops picketed and foreign
cloth burnt in huge bonfires.
 1921 and 1922: The import of foreign cloth dropped. Merchants and
traders refused to trade in foreign goods or finance foreign trade.
Production of Indian textile mills and handlooms went up.
 Rebellion in the Countryside: The peasants had to do begar and work
without pay in the farms of oppressive landlords. The peasant movement
demanded reduction of revenue, abolition of begar and social boycott of
oppressive landlords. In Awadh, the peasants were led by Baba Ramchandra.
The houses of talukdars and merchants were attacked, bazaars were looted
and grain hoards were taken over in many places. Local leaders told the
peasants that Gandhiji had declared that no taxes were to be paid and land
was to be redistributed among the poor.
 Nai-dhobi bands were organised by the panchayats for depriving landlords of
the services of even barbers and washer men.
 October, 1920: The Oudh Kisan Sabha was set up headed by Jawaharlal
Nehru, Baba Ramchandra and few others.
 Revolt by Tribals: The government had closed large forest areas,
preventing people from entering the forest to graze their cattle or to collect
fuel wood and fruits. Alluri Sitaram Raju led the guerrilla warfare in the
Gudem Hills of Andhra Pradesh. The rebels attacked police stations,
attempted to kill British officials and carried on guerrilla warfare for
achieving swaraj.
 Swaraj in the Plantations: Under the Inland Emigration Act of 1859,
the plantation workers were not allowed to leave the tea gardens without
permission. Thousands of workers defied the authorities, left the plantations
and headed home. They believed that Gandhi raj was coming and everyone
would be given land in their own villages.
 Impediments
 Movement slowed because khadi cloth was often more expensive than mass-
produced mill cloth and therefore, expensive for the poor people.
 Indian educational institutions were slow to come in place of the boycotted
British ones.
 February, 1922: Mahatma Gandhi decided to withdraw the Non-Cooperation
Movement because of its violent face in many places.
 Simon Commission
  Constituted by the Tory government of Britain under pressure of mass movements
in India.
 Sir John Simon was the Chairman.
 Sought to look into the demands of the nationalists and suggest changes in the
constitutional structure of India.
 Arrived in India in 1928.Congress and the Muslim League along with the other
parties received the commission with black flags and slogans such as “Go back
Simon”.
 October, 1929: The Commission recommended a „dominion status’ for India in
coming future and a Round Table Conference for discussing a future constitution
for India.
 Effects of Simon Commission
 December, 1929: Under the presidency of Jawaharlal Nehru, the Lahore session of
Congress formalized the demand of “Purna Swaraj”. 26th January, 1930 was
celebrated as the Independence Day.
 1930: Dr. B. R. Ambedkar established the Depressed Classes Association.
 Civil Disobedience Movement
 Medium: Gandhiji chose salt as the medium for protesting against the British rule.
 31st January, 1930: Gandhi sent a letter to Viceroy Irwin stating eleven demands
ranging from industrialists to peasants. The most important of the demands was the
abolition of salt tax as salt was the most essential commodity for the common man.
 The government was asked to accept the demands by 11th march, failing which a
civil disobedience movement would be started.
 Salt March
 Marked the beginning of the Civil Disobedience Movement.
 Started from Gandhi‟s ashram in Sabarmati to the Gujarati coastal town of
Dandi, spanning a distance of 240 miles.
 6th April, 1930: Gandhi reached Dandi with thousands of followers and
ceremonially violated the law by manufacturing salt from sea water.
 Spread
 Soon, the movement spread to the entire nation.
 Colonial laws were violated, salt was manufactured in numerous places,
foreign clothes were burnt and liquor shops were picketed.
 Peasants refused to pay revenue and chaukidari taxes.
 Village officials resigned and at many places people violated forest laws by
going into reserved forests for collecting wood.
 Government’s Response
 April, 1930: Abdul Ghaffar Khan was arrested
 May, 1930: Gandhiji was arrested
  Women and children were beaten by the government and peaceful
satyagrahis were attacked.
 About 100,000 people were arrested.
 Gandhi-Irwin Pact and End of Movement
 5th March, 1931: Gandhiji called off the movement entering into a pact
with Viceroy Lord Irwin. He consented to participate in the Round Table
Conference and the government agreed to release the political prisoners.
 December, 1931: Gandhiji went to London for the Second Round Table
Conference. The conference was a futile exercise as nothing fruitful came
out of it for India.
 The Civil disobedience movement was re-launched but by 1934 it lost momentum.
 Participation by People
 Rich peasant communities such as the Patidars of Gujarat and the Jats of Uttar
Pradesh took part in the movement. Trade depression and falling prices
caused a decrease in the cash income of these rich peasant communities.
They decided to oppose the high revenue demands of the government
through their participation in the Civil Disobedience Movement.
 The poorer peasantry found difficulties in paying their rent due to the
depression and the decrease in the cash income. They wanted the unpaid
rent to the landlord to be remitted.
 The business class wanted protection against imports of foreign goods and a
rupee-sterling foreign exchange ratio that would discourage imports. They
also opposed the colonial policies that restricted business activities.
 The business class, under the leadership of prominent industrialists such as
Purshottamdas Thakurdas and G.D. Birla, attacked colonial control over the
Indian economy, gave financial assistance and refused to buy or sell
imported goods.
 Causes of Failure
 The Civil Disobedience Movement was called off without the fulfilment of
the demand of the rich peasant communities.
 Many rich peasant communities decided not to join the restarted Civil
Disobedience Movement.
 The Congress was unwilling to support the „no rent‟ campaigns due to the
fear of upsetting the rich peasants and landlords.
 The spread of militant activities, worries of prolonged business disruptions,
growing influences of socialism amongst the young Congress members and
the failure of the Round Table Conference led to the withdrawal of support
to the movement by the business class.
 Industrial workers did not participate in the Civil Disobedience Movement
except in Nagpur.
  The dalits (untouchables) did not participate as the Congress sided with the
conservative high-caste Hindus.
 Muslim organizations and communities also sparsely participated in the
movement. The Muslims alienated from the movement due to the fear of
the dominance of the Hindu majority
 1920: Formation of the Indian Industrial and Commercial Congress
 1927: Formation of the Federation of the Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industries
(FICCI).
 Demands of Dalits
 During the course of the civil- disobedience movement, many dalit leaders
separately demanded reservation of seats in the educational institutions and separate
electorate for the legislative council elections.
 1930: Dr B.R. Ambedkar organised the dalits into the Depressed Classes Association
 Gandhiji began a fast unto death for opposing the demand of separate electorates for
dalits because he believed that this would disunite the Indian masses.
 Poona Pact (September, 1932)
 Signed between Ambedkar and Gandhiji.
 It gave the depressed classes reserved seats in provincial and central
legislative councils, which were to be voted in by the general electorate.
 Upsurge of Nationalism
 A sense of unity and nationalism was inspired by history and fiction, folklore and
songs, popular prints and symbols.
 Abanindranath Tagore‟s image of Bharat Mata and Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay‟s
song Vande Mataram united many people and communities.
 During the Swadeshi Movement, a tri-colour (red, green and yellow) flag was
designed. It had eight lotuses representing eight provinces of British India and a
crescent moon, representing Hindus and Muslims.
 1921: Gandhiji had designed the tri-colour Swaraj flag (red, green and yellow) with
the spinning wheel at the centre. This flag represented the Gandhian ideal of self-
help.

 The glorious developments in the ancient times when art and architecture, science
and mathematics, religion and culture, law and philosophy, and crafts and trade
flourished were discovered with the help of history. This instilled pride and united
the Indians.

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 Chapter 2
The Nationalist Movement in Indo-China

 Indo-China
Indo-China comprises the modern countries of Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia under the
Chinese rule.
 Vietnam
 Gained formal independence in 1945.
 The Republic of Vietnam was formed after three decades of their independence.
 Even after independence, Chinese culture and systems of government were
maintained in Vietnam.
 Vietnam functioned as the maritime silk route that brought in goods, ideas and
people.
 Colonial Domination of Vietnam
 1858: French troops landed in Vietnam.
 Mid-1880s: France had established a firm grip over the other regions of
Vietnam.
 Post Franco-Chinese War: French assumed control over Tonkin and
Anaam.
 1887: French Indo-China was formed.
 Realisation of sufferings experienced under the French rule mobilised
nationalist resistance in Vietnam.
 The French built canals and drainage lands in the Mekong delta to increase
cultivation. This benefitted production and export of rice.
 1931: Vietnam was the third largest exporter of rice in the world.
 A trans-Indo-China rail network was built in order to adjoin the Northern
and Southern parts of Vietnam and China. Vietnam was connected with
other parts of China and Southeast Asia through railways.
 Benefits of Colonies for French
 Colonies were important for supplying natural resources and other essential goods.
 Like all advanced European nations, France also thought of spreading the benefits of
civilization to the backward people.
 Economy of Vietnam
 Depended on rice cultivation and rubber plantations owned by the French and small
Vietnamese elite.
 Rail and port facilities provided services to this economy.
  Indentured Vietnamese labour was used in the rubber plantations.
 France did not industrialize the economy.
 Rural areas experienced landlordism and decline in the standard of living.
 Barriers in Economic Development of Vietnam
 High population levels
 Low agricultural productivity
 Extensive indebtedness among the peasants
 Colonial Education
 French colonialist in Vietnam believed that only they can civilize the local people by
bringing modern education in the country.
 French started a “Civilizing Mission” in Vietnam. It was carried out at the cost of
local cultures, religions and traditions.
 French administration required educated local labour force.
 At the same time, they also feared that educated Vietnamese might ask questions to
colonial domination.
 French citizens living in Vietnam were scared of losing their jobs to the educated
Vietnamese mass. Therefore, educational policies concerning the Vietnamese were
opposed and challenged by the French population.
 The elites in Vietnam were powerfully influenced by the Chinese culture. The
French administration had to consolidate their power by countering the Chinese
influence over culture, language and society. This was done by dismantling the
traditional education system and establishing French schools in Vietnam.
 French education was seen as a means of knowing the foreign culture and literature
by some, while others rejected the use of French as the medium of instruction in
Vietnam.
 The few people who acquired French culture and learnt their language were to be
rewarded with French citizenship.
 Education was limited to a few classes. Only the Vietnamese elite could enrol in the
schools and only a handful of them passed the final exams.
 School textbooks glorified the French and degraded the Vietnamese.
 1907: The Tonkin Free School was started for providing Western-style education.
 Schools introduced and encouraged the adoption of western ideas to be modern and
also look modern.
 Resistance in Schools
  Vietnamese teachers and students who were rapidly increasing in numbers
opposed the curriculum either through open opposition or silent resistance.
 The Vietnamese teachers subtly modified and criticized the texts.
 Students fought against the colonial government‟s efforts in providing the
posts of white-collar jobs only for the French.
 1920s: Students were forming various political parties such as the Party of
Young Annan and publishing nationalist journals (“Annanese student”).
 Schools became the hubs of the formation of political ideas and revolutions.
 The Vietnamese intellectuals feared the loss of both the Vietnamese territory
and culture. They believed that the native culture and customs were being
devalued and the development of a master–slave mentality was on the
progress in the country.
 Colonial education and its resistance ultimately added to the larger picture
of the entire revolution.
 Health and Hygiene
In the colonies, health and hygiene of the natives was neglected by the colonialist powers,
which resulted in the outbreak of many fatal diseases.
 1903: The modern part of Hanoi was struck by Bubonic Plague. The French
hired Vietnamese workers and paid them for each rat they caught. Thousands of rats
were caught. The Vietnamese caught the rats, clipped off the tail and let the rat go
free again. This way, the rats continued to stay and the Vietnamese gained both
economical and political advantage. The rat-hunt also provided an early lesson in the
success of collective bargaining for the Vietnamese. The French authorities could
not prevent the bubonic plague due to the many anti-French actions by the
Vietnamese people.
 Religion and Anti-Colonialism
 Religion played an important role in fighting colonialism in Vietnam.
 The French introduced Christianity in Vietnam. This was resented by Vietnamese
people who practiced Buddhism and Confucianism.
 The French believed that the flaw of worshipping supernatural forces by the
Vietnamese needs to be corrected.
 The Scholars Revolt (1868) took place as a movement against the spread of
Christianity and French power. This revolt was led by the officials at the imperial
court.
 The Vietnamese led a general uprising in the provinces of Ngu and Ha Tein
and over a thousand Catholics missionaries were killed. This inspired other
patriots to rise against the French government.
  The revolt was finally suppressed by the French.
 Hoa Hoa Movement (1939)
Occurred in the fertile Mekong delta area
 Founder: Huynh Phu So
 Opposed useless expenditure, sale of child brides, gambling and also the use
of alcohol and opium.
 The French tried to suppress the Hoa Hoa Movement by putting Huyng Phu
So in a mad asylum. They called him „Mad Bonze‟.
 The doctors became followers of his words and declared him sane as
opposed to the expectation of the French government.
 Huynh Phu So was exiled to Laos and his followers were sent to the
concentration camps. This further aroused anti-colonial sentiments in the
Vietnamese people.
 The Vision of Modernisation
 Late 19th century: The resistance to French domination was led by Confucian
scholars and activists.
 1903: Phan Boi Chau (1867-1940) formed the Revolutionary Society Duy Tan
Hoi and became a major anti-colonial revolutionary figure. Prince Cuong De
headed the society. Phan‟s most influential book “The History of the Loss of
Vietnam” focuses on the loss of sovereignty and severance of ties with China.
 Phan Chu Trinh (1871-1926): A nationalist, he strongly differed with Phan Boi
Chau. He opposed monarchy and the idea of resisting the French with the help of
the court. He wanted to establish a democratic republic. He was immensely
influenced by the democratic ideals of the West. He criticized the French for not
resorting to liberty. He demanded the French to set up legal and educational
institutions and develop agriculture and industries.
 Relations with Japan and China
 Vietnamese nationalists had a close relationship with Japan and China.
 China and Japan were the places where a wider Asian network of revolutionaries
existed. They also acted as the places of refuge for the early Vietnamese nationalists.
 Go East Movement was popularized in the first decade of the 20th century.
 1907-08: 300 Vietnamese went to Japan for acquiring modern education.
 The concerns of these students were:
 Ending the French rule
 Re-establishing the Nguyen Dynasty
 The Vietnamese looked for foreign arms and aid from Japan.
 The Vietnamese students established a branch of the Restoration Society in Tokyo.
 1907: Japan‟s victory over Russia
  1908: The Japanese Ministry of Interior clamped down the Restoration Society.
Many including Phan Boi Chau were deported and exiled to China and Thailand.
 Viet-Nam Quan Phuc Hoi: The Vietnamese students organized the Association
for the Restoration of Vietnam. They were inspired by the establishment of a
Republic in China in 1911 by Sun Yat Sen.
 The Vietnamese now wanted a Democratic Republic over a Constitutional
Monarchy.
 Communist Movement and Vietnamese Nationalism
 The Great Depression of 1930 had greatly affected Vietnam. Prices of rice and
rubber fell, which generated rural debts, rural uprising and unemployment.
 February 1930: The Vietnamese Communist Party (Vietnamese Cong San Dang),
later renamed as the Indo-Chinese Communist Party established by Ho Chi Minh.
 1940: Japan occupied Vietnam for achieving its imperial aspiration of controlling
Southeast Asia.
 September 1945: The League for the Independence of Vietnam (Viet Nam Doc
Lap Dong Minh) fought the Japanese and recaptured the lost territory of Hanoi. It
came to be known as the Vietminh.
 The Democratic Republic of Vietnam with Ho Chi Minh as its Chairman was
formed.
 The New Republic of Vietnam
 The new Republic of Vietnam faced many challenges.
 The French used the Emperor, Bao Dai, as their puppet in order to regain their
rule.
 1954: Finally, the French troops led by General Vo Nguyan Glap were finally
defeated after eight years of fighting at Dien Bien Phu by the Vietminh.
 Peace negotiations in Geneva after the French defeat led to the spilt of Vietnam into
North Vietnam and South Vietnam.
 North Vietnam: Ho Chi Minh and the communist took control of North Vietnam.
 South Vietnam: Bao Dai‟s regime was established in South Vietnam.
 The Bao Dai regime was overthrown by a coup led by Ngo Dinh Diem.
 Diem built a repressive and authoritarian government. People who opposed him
were branded as communists and were jailed and killed.
 This dictatorial regime was opposed by the people united under the banner of the
National Liberation Front (NLF).
 NLF received help from North Vietnam with which they fought for the unification
of the country.
  The Entry of the U.S. into the War (1965-1972)
 The US feared communists gaining power in South Vietnam; therefore, they
intervened by sending in their troops.
 Thousands of US troops arrived with heavy weapons and tanks. Chemical
weapons such as Napalm, Agent Orange and Phosphorus were used for
destroying Vietnamese villages.
 Many criticised the U.S. government for entering into an indefensible war.
 Service in the armed forces was made compulsory for all the US citizens
except for university graduates.
 The war arose because of the fear of the establishment of a communist rule in South
Vietnam and other countries in the area.
 The Vietnamese were ready to sacrifice anything for their independence. This
determination gave them the courage to fight with the most technologically
advanced country in the world.
 Ho Chi Minh (1890-1969)

His real name was Nguyen Van Thanh.

Born in Central Vietnam.

Became an active member of the Commintern and met Lenin.

May 1940: Returned to Vietnam after spending time in Europe, Thailand and
China.
 1943: Took the name of Ho Chi Minh.
 Became President of the Vietnam Democratic Republic and served the party for 40
years.
 Died on 3rd September, 1969.
 Ho Chi Minh Trail
 An immense network of footpaths and roads (“the trail”) was used for transporting
man and material from North to South Vietnam.
 The trail had support bases and hospitals along the way. Supplies were mainly
transported by porters who were mainly women. However, in some places trucks
were used for the same.
 Most of the trail was in Laos and Cambodia with branch lines extending into South
Vietnam.
 The US bombed these trials regularly but to no avail as they were built again very
quickly by the Vietnamese.
 By these trails, the Vietnamese showed how meagre resources can be used to great
advantage.
 Women As Rebels
 In Vietnam, women enjoyed greater equality than in China, especially among the
lower classes.
 However, they had no say when it came to determining their future and role in
public life.
 The status of women gained prominence along with the rise of the nationalist
movement.
 Writers and political thinkers idealized women who rebelled against the social
norms.
 1930: Nhat Linh, a writer, dealt with the scandalous issue of rejecting the forced
arranged marriage of a girl. His novel portrays a women character who marries a
person involved in the national politics out of her own choice.

 Heroes of the Past

 1913: Phan Boi Chau wrote a play on the lives of the Trung sisters who
had fought against the Chinese domination in 39-43CE.
 Trung sisters came to be idealized and glorified in paintings, plays and novels
representing the indomitable will of the Vietnamese nationalists.
 Trung sisters are said to have gathered 30000 forces in order to resist the
Chinese for two years. When ultimately defeated by the Chinese, they
committed suicide instead of surrendering to the enemy.
 Trieu Au (3rd century CE): She was an orphan and lived with her
brother. She left home, went into the jungles, organized a large army and
resisted the Chinese rule. Ultimately, she was defeated by the Chinese
forces after which she drowned herself. She became a sacred figure and not
only a martyr.
 Women as Warriors
 1960s: Various photographs and stories portrayed women as brave, young
and dedicated.
 The women were equally represented as a worker along with their warrior
image. Therefore, they were shown with a rifle in one hand and a hammer
in the other.
 The casualties of war increased as a result of which many women were
urged to join the struggle.
 The women helped in nursing the wounded, constructing underground
rooms and tunnels and fighting the enemy. They kept open 2,195 km of
strategic roads and guarded 2,500 key points along the Ho Chi Minh trail.
 They also built 6 airstrips, neutralized tens of thousands of kilograms of
cargo, weapons and food and shot down 15 planes. There were 1.5 million
women in the regular army, the militia, the local forces and professional
teams in Vietnam.
 The End of the War
 Consequences
 The US failed to crush the Vietnamese resistance.
 Thousands of young US soldiers and Vietnamese civilians lost their lives.
 Many were disillusioned by the actions of the US.
 Noam Chomsky called the war “the greatest threat to peace, to national self-
determination and to international cooperation”.
 This was called the first television war as battle scenes were shown on news
programmes.
 January 1974: A peace settlement with the US was signed in Paris for
ending the war.
 30th April 1975: The NLF occupied the presidential palace in Saigon to end
the conflict between them (NLF) and the Saigon regime.
 Ultimately, Vietnam was united.

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 The Age of Industrialisation 5
CHAPTER

Tips and Tricks

Introduction: Glorification of machines and (c) Coming of Europeans and East India
technology. Company (EICo), break down in network

Before the Industrial Revolution of exports controlled by Indian merchants,
(i) Proto-industrialisation. decline of old ports like Surat and Hoogly,
growth of Bombay and Calcutta.
(ii) The Coming up of the Factory
(ii) What Happened to Weavers
(a) Earliest factories in England (1730’s).
(a) The company established direct control
(b) Cotton, the first symbol of the new era.
over weavers through advances,
(c) Series of inventions increase efficiency of gomasthas.
each step of the production process.
(b) Clashes between weavers and gomasthas.
(iii) The Pace of Industrial Change
(c) Migration of weavers.
(a) Cotton and metals the most dynamic
(iii) Manchester Comes to India
industries in Britain.
(a) Decline of textile exports from India.
(b) Slow technological changes.
(b) Industrial groups in Britain pressurise
(iv) Hand Labour and Steam Power
government to impose duties to deter
In Victorian Britain, no shortage of human Indian textile imports.
labour, wages low. Demand for labour seasonal,
(c) Cotton weavers in India face problems—
range of products could only be produce by
collapse of the export market, and
hand, machines produced uniforms unfit to
shrinkage of the local market.
cater to individual, elite tastes.
(d) Outbreak of Civil War in America-Britain
Life of Workers
turns to India.
Possibility of getting a job depended on
(e) Indian weavers starve of raw cotton of
networks. Seasonality of work, fear of
good quality.
unemployment, workers hostile to the
introduction of new technology, after 1840 (iv) Factories come up: Cotton mill, Bombay
demand for infrastructure facilities open up 1854, Jute mill Bengal 1855, Elgin Mill,
greater opportunities for employment. Kanpur 1860s.

Industrialisation in the Colonies (a) The Early Entrepreneurs: Dwarkanath
Tagore, J.N. Tata, Seth Hukumchand,
(i) The Age of Indian Textiles
Dinshaw Petit.
(a) Before the age of machine and industries
Till the First World War, European,
Indian cotton and silk goods dominated
Managing Agencies control a large sector
the international markets in textiles.
of Indian industries.
(b) Indian merchants and bankers involved
(b) Where did the Workers Come from:
in the network of export trade.
Industrial regions, Workers came from

A-22
THE AGE OF INDUSTRIALISATION A-23

districts around. Example, from United (ii) Small-scale production continues to

Provinces to work in Bombay mills. predominate.
Industrialists employ ‘Jobbers’ to recruit (iii) Expansion of handloom cloth
new recruits.
production. Adoption of new
(c) The Peculiarities of Industrial
technology e.g., flyshuttle.
Growth
(i) Most of the industries developed with (iv) Weavers and crafts people despite
an eye towards exports—tea and growth live hard lives and work long
coffee plantations, mining, indigo and hours.
jute.
Market for Goods: Use of advertisements, labels,
(ii) India produced coarse cotton yarn texts with beautiful images of Indian gods and
(thread) rather than fabric. goddesses. Indian manufacturers use advertise-
(iii) World War I dramatically changed ment as vehicle of nationalist message of
the situation. Over the war years swadeshi.
industrial production boomed.

Conclusion: Industrialisation entailed major
(iv) After the war economy of Britain
technological changes, growth of factories and new
crumbles.
industrial labour force. Yet hand technology and
(d) Small-scale Industries Predominate:
small-scale production remained an important part
(i) Large scale industries, mostly located
of the industrial landscape.
in Bengal and in Bombay.

Formative Assessment
6. Where did the workers come from to work in
ORAL QUESTIONS (Conversation Type)
Indian factories?
1. What do we associate industrialisation with? 7. How did these workers seek jobs?
2. Where in the world did industrialisation first 8. What really gave an impetus to Indian
occur? industries?
3. When did the earliest factories come up in
England?
4. What change occurred with the setting up of TRUE OR FALSE
factories? 1. When merchants offered advances to peasant
5. What made this change possible? households to produce goods for them, they did
6. Do you think the pace of industrialisation was not accept the offers eagerly.
rapid. Why? 2. Cotton was the leading sector in the first phase
7. What are the negatives that human beings are of industrialisation upto the 1840s.
facing, due to increased mechanisation of 3. Proto-industrial system was a part of a network
production processes? of commercial exchanges.
4. Technological changes spread rapidly.
ORAL QUESTIONS 5. In Victorian England, there was no shortage of
labour.
1. How did industrialisation in Britain impact
India? 6. Gas works and breweries were especially busy
throughout the hot months.
2. When and where did industries first come up
in India? 7. A range of products could be produced only with
hand labour.
3. Name any two early entrepreneurs in India.
4. How did they collect funds to undertake these 8. The abundance of labour in the market did not
industrial enterprises? affect the lives of workers.
5. What are the Tata’s most known for? 9. Supply merchants linked the port towns to
inland regions.
A-24 NEW AGE CCE SOCIAL SCIENCE—X

10. By 1750’s the network controlled by Indian 32. The early cotton mills in India produced coarse
merchants was breaking down. cotton yarn rather than fabric.
11. Before the age of machine industries silk and 33. Handicrafts people adopted the fly shuttle to
cotton goods from India dominated the improve quality.
international market in textiles. 34. Like the images of gods, figures of important
12. By 1860’s the weavers had access to sufficient personages adorned advertisements and
supply of raw cotton of good quality. calendars.
13. Most often mill workers moved between village 35. The demand for finer cloth bought by the well-
and the city. to-do fluctuated violently.
14. The jobber over time became a person with some 36. Weavers who expanded production through the
authority and power. 20th century lived hard lives and worked long
15. The First World War gave a boost to production hours.
in Indian industries, and setting up of new 37. Historic figures were used to create new needs
factories. for the product.
16. Mills sought to imitiate specialised weaves. 38. Advertisements became a vehicle of nationalist
17. When buyers saw labels ‘Made in Manchester’ message of Swadeshi.
they were expected to reject foreign made cloth.
18. Images of gods and goddesses intended to make QUIZ
the manufacture from foreign land appear
somewhat familiar to the Indian people. 1. Identify the following pictures:
19. Production in the countryside allowed careful
(i)
supervision, watch over quality and regulation
of labour.
20. In the early 19th century factories became an
intimate part of the Indian landscape.
21. By 1873 Britain was exporting iron and steel
worth £ 77 million, double the value of cotton
exports.
22. In the late 19th century there were no more
than 321 steam engines all over England.
23. As work in many industries was seasonal, after (ii)
the busy season was over, the poor were on the
streets again.
24. Seasonality of work in many industries meant
prolonged periods without work.
25. By the 1740’s value of trade that passed through
Surat had slumped.
26. Trade through new ports continued to be
controlled by Indian merchants and bankers.
27. In the early phase the East India Company had
found it difficult to ensure a regular supply of (iii)
goods.
28. Over time many weavers revolted, refused loans
and took to agricultural labour.
29. Many Indians earned through trade with
Burma, the Middle East and East Africa before
becoming industrial entrepreneurs.
30. Seth Hukumchand who set up the first cotton
mill in Calcutta in 1917, traded with China.
31. In most industrial regions workers came from
districts around.
THE AGE OF INDUSTRIALISATION A-25

(iv)
(viii)

(v)

(ix)

(vi) (x)

(vii) 2. Answer the following:

(i) Exclusive right to trade.
(ii) Indian soldier.
(iii) Seasonality of work.
(iv) Precolonial port on the Coromandel Coast.
(v) Speeded up the spinning process.
(vi) Port having trade links with SE Asian
ports.
(vii) Desertion by weavers.
(viii) Reason why Britain turned to India from
the US for cotton supplies.
(ix) Set up the 1st jute mill in India.
(x) Trade venture in which most Indian
entrepreneurs made capital.
 A-26 NEW AGE CCE SOCIAL SCIENCE—X

(xi) Movement in early 20th century that gave 6. Paid servant (8).
impetus to national industries.
8. District from where most of the cotton mill
(xii) Vehicle of nationalist message of
workers came from in Bombay (9).
Swadeshi.
10. Term referring to countries of Asia (6).
⇓ Vertically
PUZZLE
1. Place of first cotton mill in India (6).
Solve the Puzzle by filling the blank spaces with 3. Intricate designs, specific shapes (4, 4).
the help of hints:
5. Precolonial port (5).
⇒ Horizontally
7. Person who staples. (5)
2. Person who gathers cloth for pleating (6).
4. Early form of something (5). 9. Person incharge of new recruits (6).

  
$ #
  0
2 1 6

/ 4
 
$ 5 ) / #

' 0 6

'

( . 4


4 # ) 4 +

2. Industrialisation and problem of Environment

SUGGESTED PROJECTS
Degradation.
1. What has industrialisation meant to peoples 3. Conduct an interview with any worker and re-
lives. port how industrialisation has impacted his and
his family’s life.

NOTES
THE AGE OF INDUSTRIALISATION A-27

Assignments

Name: ...................................... Class: ....... Section: ....... Roll No.: ....... Grade: .... Teacher’s sign.: .............

6. State any 3 major problems faced by new

CLASS ASSIGNMENT 1
European merchants in setting up their
industries in towns before the Industrial
Choose the correct answer: Revolution.
1. Which of the following was the dynamic industry
in England during the earliest phase of
industrialisation (till 1840) ..............................................................................
(a) Metals (b) Footwear
(c) Cotton (d) Iron ..............................................................................

..............................................................................
..............................................................................
2. Which of the following countries were known
as ‘Orient’? ..............................................................................
(a) New Zealand and Australia
(b) African countries ..............................................................................
(c) China and Japan
(d) Countries to the east of the Mediterranean
..............................................................................

..............................................................................
..............................................................................
Fill in the blank:
3. ........................ improved the steam engine ..............................................................................
produced by Newcomen.

Write True or False: ..............................................................................

4. Merchants were based in town and the work
was mostly done in towns. ..............................................................................

.............................................................................. 7. Give any three advantages of mill production.

5. Define protoindustrialisation.
..............................................................................
..............................................................................
..............................................................................
..............................................................................
..............................................................................
..............................................................................

..............................................................................
..............................................................................

.............................................................................. ..............................................................................

.............................................................................. ..............................................................................
A-28 NEW AGE CCE SOCIAL SCIENCE—X

.............................................................................. ..............................................................................

.............................................................................. ..............................................................................

.............................................................................. ..............................................................................

..............................................................................
..............................................................................

8. Explain, how rapid was the process of

..............................................................................
industrialisation? (3 pts.)

.............................................................................. ..............................................................................

.............................................................................. 10. On the map of India mark two Indian sea ports
from which vibrant trade was carried out with
.............................................................................. SE Asian ports.

..............................................................................

..............................................................................

..............................................................................

..............................................................................

..............................................................................

..............................................................................

..............................................................................

9. Why did bourgeoisie in the Victorian period

prefer handmade products in the 19th century?

..............................................................................

..............................................................................

..............................................................................

..............................................................................