}} { { { }}} < ( { { } }} A building as a frame, can be an object having different kinds such as house, college, and shopping complex and with different slots, room and doors as two facts for house with corresponding values of room are as bedroom, drawing room and bathrooms. Similarly, college and shopping complex are given with corresponding fact and values. Hierarchical view A top level view of a frame system is shown in Figure 6.11, a computer can be represented with three links: a kind of AKO, a part of and instance of computer is a kind of machine; parallel computer is a kind of computer, vector register is a part of supercomputer and Cray2 is an instance of parallel computer. Basically, a frame is looked upon as a form to be filled. The structural frame system with objects and links can be shown as given below. Cray is the instance of parallel computer. ‘Type: value concept. ‘Memory: value string. Input device: value string: min 1: max 5. ‘Output device: value string: min 1; max 3. Processor: value: min 1: max 16 Define an instance of Cray, with valid input of all the parameters. Define: Cray instance of parallel, ‘Type: value, instance. Memory: GB. Processor: value 16. Input: value keyboard. Output device: CRT. Figure 6.11 Hierarchical view of a frame system. Properties: There are various properties associated with a frame, regarding their structure, values and procedures, Nested structure: In programming, the nested loops are loop within a loop, similarly, a frame within a frame or a slot may contain a frame. In the above example, the building is considered as a frame, the room may be taken as one of the frames. It means above slot filled by lower level frames. A frame is composed of the interrelated frames that are required to represent a domain.136 © _ Artificial Intelligence Values: The values may be constrained. For example, the height of a man cannot be greater than 18 ft., weight not more than 300 kg, exceptions are exempted to be quoted here. So the constraint should be imposed on the values. Also the range of values should be specified in terms of minimum(min) and maximum(max) as mentioned above. The min and max show the number of items the fact should be in the range of value which can be shown with predicates such range (M, N). Default value: When a frame is called upon by default, the slot and the associated values also come into view. For example, if a frame ‘Building’ is considered then rooms, doors and size, etc. are by default get associated with the frame. Procedure in frame: The slots are associated with the procedural information. The most common examples of such procedures being attached to the slots are if needed and if added. Ifneeded procedure describes the process required to establish a value for the associated slot when a value is required, if added procedures are event-driven processes that are triggered when the associated slot has been assigned a value. CONCEPTUAL GRAPHS Conceptual graph (CG): A conceptual graphs a system of logic based on Pierce’s ‘existential graphs’. CG has a full power of FOL and CG represents higher order logic. Conceptual graph has a finite bipartial graph. The ends of nodes are concepts and conceptual relations. Conceptual relations have one or more arcs, each of which is related to some concepts. Canonical graphs: The canonical graphs are the distinguished meaningful graphs that represent real or possible situations in external world. Formation rules are the basis for derivation of new canonical graphs from other canonical graphs. There are five formation rules. for deriving a conceptual graph W from conceptual graph U and V are organized into hierarchy such as horse is sub type of Arabian and Arabian is a sub type of mammal. Marker specific but unnamed individuals are indicated by CG. Marker is a unique token written as a number preceded by #. Like horse, #248 indicates a horse having number 248 as. the marker. Referent: Each concept node can indicate an individual of a specified type, which is the referent to the concept being individual or generic. For example, in figure, the concept (PERSON: Sam] has the type person and the referent Sam. Sam and wine are individual concepts since they refer to specific entities whereas DRINK AND JAR has no referent fields since they are generic concepts; which refer to unspecified entities. Copy(U): It produces a duplicate copy of a CG. W is the exact copy of U or V. Restrict(U, C,L): It modifies the graph by replacing a type label of a concept with the subtype or a specialization from generic to individual by inserting a referent of the same concept. For example, one can replace animal with a horse.Chapter 6 Knowledge Representation 137 In the formal way, any concept C in U, type(C) may be replaced by a subtype 7, if C is a generic. Its referent may be changed to an individual marks J where L = T:l. These changes are permitted only if referent(C) conforms type(C) before and after the change; i.e. T::1. The use of restriction rules is to make two concepts match together so that join can be performed. Simplify (U, R, S): if conceptual relations in the graph U are duplicates, then one of them may be deleted from U together with all its arcs. Join: It combines two graphs into a single graph. If a concept Cl in U is identical to a concept C2 in U; then join (U, Cl, C2) to obtain the graph by deleting D and linking to C all ares of conceptual relations that had been linked to D. Fuse: For two disjoint conceptual graph U and V, if a concept C in U is identical to a concept Din V, then fuse (U, V, C, D) is the graph obtained by deleting D and linking to C all arcs of conceptual relation that had been linked to D. CG to FOPL Changing conceptual graph to the first order predicate logic is given by Sowa (1984) in the following manner: © Assign a unique variable name to each of the generic concept of the graph. © The DRINK and WATER in Figure 6.12, are assigned the variable name x and y, respectively. © All types of labels of a concept node such as PERSON and WATER are converted to unary predicates with some name and whose argument is the variable or constant given by that node. Represent each N-ary conceptual relation in graph as N-ary predicate whose name is the same as the conceptual relations such as AGENT, OBJECT and INSTRUCTION are converted to predicates with as many arguments as these are connected to the relation. Concept referents such as Sam and mineral become FOPL constants © Concepts with extended referents such as? map the universal quantifier? Take the conjunction of all atomic sentences formed by conceptual node and conceptual relation. « In FOPL, which is the body of the predicate calculus expressions, all the variables in the expression are existentially quantified. For example: “The every elephant has a trank” can be represented in conceptual graph as (ELEPHANT: V] (ORGAN) [Trunk] ‘The equivalent FOPL representation is given by V x y (ELEPHANT (x)) (Trunk) (y) & ORGAN (x, y)]138 © Artificial Intelligence Restriction of Two Graphs Fusion vn f#-Gom[ ic} Toe | fie Peon fe—CAsent )e—{ Drink: }—>(Quatiy)—o[ Heavy Plan: Sam ‘cen Drink |»(oriee >| Heavy Tee Man:Sam_}e—CAsent)}¢— Denk | —»@eants) —[ Heavy <> Jar Figure 6.13 Fusion of graphs. Joining of two Act Man: Sum Je—Cagen «| Drink [Conic )—of Water ieee [oa |-+ eo Her Man: Sam i} Ascot e[ Drink }oerie | Water Quanity —»] “Heavy Figure 6.14 Simplification by canonical rules.Chapter 6 Knowledge Representation 139 ‘The generalization hierarchy of the graph T et je Gant fa ea Gee antit) }¢ [Attnbute lak Ged in Def Man: Sum fe-CAgend¢{ Denk [-»CObject)o[ Heavy Figure 6.15 Hierarchical view. Sowa (1984) developed the representation model of the knowledge being perceived by a human being. The perception consists of different concepts and their relationship about physical entity and an abstract or combination of both. CONCEPTUAL DEPENDENCY The conceptual dependency is a model to represent knowledge in a natural language sentences. There are certain conceptual primitives that can be combined on the basis of certain set of rules to represent the concept or meaning of a particular sentence. Schank and Riesbeck (1973) presented the theory and further developed by Abelson for understanding the meaning of a sentence. There are various components as the building blocks of such representation scheme, such as (i) entities (ii) primitives action (PA) (iii) primitives conceptual categories (iv) rules for semantic relations or conceptual dependencies and (v) conceptual time and space Primitive Acts (PAs) There are various primitive acts which represent a particular action. The representation of certain actions is also built from these acts. There exists slight differences among the different sets of primitive acts, Following are the sets of PAs proposed by Schank and Abelson (1977).140 _& Artificial Intelligence ‘ATRANS’: TRANSFER OF AN ABSTRACT (1) Entities: There are four primitive conceptual categoies from which dependency structure can be built. These are also called entities. ACTs_: Actions PPs : Picture Producers AAs; Action Aiders PAs _: Picture Aiders. These are modifiers of aiders. Primitives Meaning actions concerned ATRANS Transfer of an abstract relationship. PTRANS Transfer of the physical location of an object. PROPEL Application of physical force to an object. MOVE Movement of a body part by an actor. GRASP Grasping of an object by an animal. INGEST Ingestion of an object by an animal. EXPEL Expulsion of something from the body of an animal. M TRANS Transfer of mental information. MBUILD Building new information out of old. SPEAK Production of sounds. ATTEND Focussing of a sense organ toward a stimulus. Conceptual cases: All actions involve one or more combination of these four conceptual cases which are objective, directive, instrumental and recipient, Semantic rules: The relationship between an actor and an event, or a primitive action and an instrument, two PPs, etc. are formed by a set of rules. These rules and the corresponding conceptual dependency structures are described below: RI: It shows the relationship between an actor and the event performed by the actor. It is bi-directional. The K indicates the past tense. R2: It shows the relationship between a PP and a PA that is being asserted. The attribute of PP (Hari) is PA completion (fair). R3: It is the relationship between wo PPs, each belongs, to a different set and defined by each other like one set of PPs is (Hari, Jack, Janni) and another set of PPs (Doctor, Engineer, Professor), R4: It describes the relationship between a PP and an attribute that has already been predicted by it. The direction of the arrow toward the PP is being described. RS: It shows the relationship between two PPs one of which provides any of the three kinds of most commonly used information provider such as possession (Poss-by), Location (LOC), and physical containment (CONT). R6: It shows the relationship between an ACT and the PP; that is the object of that ACT. The direction of the arrow is toward the ACT.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.142 8 Artificial intelligence D -—> PP D, ield 9. ACTH Sham «+> PTRANS Sham fertilized + pp bag the field. Fertilizer PA Dimension > y 10. Flower <= C The flower PA Dimension = blooms. Shami 11. (a) ~— (b) & Pati < Propel-Arrow— R. ee Pati hit health(-10) bow Shami. ° Yesterday 12. ¢ John ¢ PTRAN Sham went yesterday. ° College ? 13, > Rate While coming PTRANS < I < college I saw ‘ I rat. PP O donkey cP 14, 4 Street I< MTRANSe— e T heard a donkey eo eyes on the street <= MTRANS¢- donkey CP ears Other properties There are four categories of the 12 acts. These are physical with 5, instrumental with 2, mental with 3 and global with 2 acts. The physical acts are: PROPEL and MOVE INGEST: Taking something from one’s inside. The object of the INGEST must be smaller than the mouth of the actor or must be divided into pieces smaller than the mouth opening, is the food object. FXPEL: Taking something from one’s inside and force it out. Its object must be previously INGESTED. GRASP: To grasp object which must be within size limit. MTRANS: It represents a change in the mental control of conceptualizations and underlies verbs like recall, commit to memory, perceive, sense, and communicate. The donor and recipient are not always two different mental process.Chapter 6 Knowledge Representation @ 143 Conscious processor (CP Itis the storage place of the currently being processed entity. Long-term memory (LIM): It is a passive element whose level of activity is too low to characterize. It is a processor in the sense that forgetfulness and subconscious activities are associated, together with one’s belief of the world. Immediate memory (IM): It is the storage area for the current context being processed as well as the processing area for conscious thought. Sense organs (eye, ear, nose, tongue, and skin): These are in all preprocess which convert raw information or data or signal into the conceptualizations describing that data. Body: The internal sensations such as pairs, unease, and excitement, etc. pertain to body. An example of MTRANS is given below. You remember Jake was a driver. Jake p——> cP 0 R You < > MTRANS¢—— + Driver i MBUILD: MBUILD is an ACT underlying the verb and it accounts for thought combination on, and there is no conceptualization such as think ORS, consider, resonant, resolve, conclude, solve, relate, etc. It is written as RESULT CON ACTOR <]——> MBUILD « CON CON —— Move (low) I< = >MBUILD «—| Feathers <—>> LOC (on bird) ‘RULE those fly who have feathers144 & Artificial intelligence PLAN: One’s ability for step-by-step course of action, which leads to the goal, is measured by PLAN. It takes input as a goal and a set of possible plans that actor includes to act out in order to achieve the desired goal. This structure of PLAN is shown below: Actor <— PLAN ACTI, ACT2, ACT3, ... [|< Goat |_< Facts Conceptual Tenses The tense, mood or other aspects of a verb in the sentence can be described by conceptual tenses proposed by Schank and Riesbeck (1973) which are as follows: P = Past, F = Future, t = transition Ts = Start transition, tf = Finished transition, k = continuing 2 = Interrogative, /= Negative, Nil = Present delta = Timeless, C = Conditional SCRIPTS A script is a structure that is used to describe stereotyped events and also the prototypes of expected sequences of events. These events are likely to occur in a given situation or context. These are basically a frame like structure and script of a play, it is described in terms of actors, roles, props and scenes. It consists of a set of slots like a scene of a play. Some kind of information is associated with each slot. The various components of the script are as follows: Entry conditions: Some initial conditions are to be set before the occurrence of events described in a script. Result: After the completion of the events, the conditions should be true. Props: In the description of the events in the script, these are the slots representing the objects in the event. Roles: Slots represent the people involved in the actions of the script. ‘Track: The specific variation on a more general pattern is represented by this particular script. Scenes: The sequence of events that occurs apart from the above components one can include entries regarding time factors, place of occurrence or points of view.Chapter 6 Knowledge Representation © 145 A slot in a script, which corresponds to the parts of the events, is filled with primitives of conceptual dependency structure. These are shown in Table 6.1, which is a script model of the events corresponding to the description of a visit to party in a hotel. Visit to a party in a hotel Prop: Garage Car Hotel Roles: Person Host Entry Condition Some one to host a party Reasoning with Script Scene 1: Scene 2: Scene 3: Scene 4: Scene 5: Start up Person reaches garage Person takes out his car Person closes his garage (if not automatic) Person comes out of the compound Person moves on the road On drive Person sets drive on the highway Person tracks down to road Person reaches the hotel In the hotel Person gets car parked Person reaches the reception counter Person is welcome by the host. In the party ‘The person is escorted to the drink comer Person is invited to dance Person is involved with the chitchat Person is requested to dine Person bids goodbye to the host Person returns in jubilant mood. Back to house Person gets back to the car Person sets on drive Person drives on the highway Person enters the town Person enters his house Person parks car in his garage. Person finds himself in his house. The reasoning process involves finding the S best-fit match between the observed conditions and the entry conditions of the script. On the basis of certain observed events in a particular scene, one can infer unobserved events. For example, a person is welcomed by the host in Scene 2 or 3, one may infer that the party is certainly going to take place at the scheduled venue. But it may not be true, the host shows overwhelmed welcome and will beg excuses in due change of venue.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Chapter 6 Knowledge Representation @ 147 s 6. & 63 64 65 65 EXERCISES Distinguish between the methods of FOL and Prolog for Knowledge Representation on the basis of syntax, semantics and variables. Represent the following sentences in PROLOG: : Som is a computer science student. : He does not sing. : Jane jumps well : She is a player. : She plays well and dances well. : Som and Jane are close friends. Develop a rule-base model in PROLOG indicating the proper domain, database, predicates, clauses and rules for following facts: A computing system with a networking to be developed for different purposes such as laboratory work, information processing, research work, scientific computation and course instruction. One has to select different configuration of a computing system and a particular topology and protocol of networking. Make a selection procedure for the above purpose in PROLOG. ‘A: Discuss backtracking mechanism in the Problem no. 6.3 step by step. B: What are static and dynamic databases in PROLOG. How are these implemented? For the three types of query, numeric, binary and text; develop a program in PROLOG. QUERY1: Q: What is your age? A: 42. QUERY?: Q: Are you young? A: Yes. QUERY3: Q: What is your name? ‘A: My name is Fyoder. Develop a script model of the events: Starting with bike from the hostel, then to the main road, and then to the classroom and finally return to hostel.Chapter 7 Automated Reasoning Automated reasoning is concerned with the real world problems that have imperfect information exhibiting the attributes as uncertain, imprecise, inconsistent, and ambiguous or some combination thereof. There are various approaches to handle such situations based upon logic and measures or some combination of these two. The measures may be confidence factor, probability, belief or degree of membership in a set. The logic may be predicate calculus, abduction and inheritance. Default reasoning combines the properties and approaches of many reasoning methods. Reiter (1980) proposed the default reasoning that incorporated heuristic assumptions and default into the reasoning process. Non-monotonic logic is also one of the approaches to deal with imperfect information. In this chapter, default logic, closed word assumption, circumscription, model-based and case-based reasoning methods have been discussed. In this context, some of the problems which have the characteristics of imperfect information are also discussed. DEFAULT LOGIC Default logic was introduced by Reiter (1980) and is one of the most extensively used non- monotonic formalisms. The default theory is defined as a pair (D, W), where D is a set of default and W is a set of formula. D is also a collection of special inference rule called defaults. A default is a rule of the form: A (ax): MBCX))/y(x) oF (Aa): By(X) --- Bul) A) where a(x), A(x), and y(x)) are well-formed formula in first order logic whose free variables are x = (x), %,). Q(x) is called the prerequisite, (x) is the justification and y(x) is the consequent of *. JUST (D) denotes the set of all predicate symbols appearing for a set D of defaults in the justification of defaults in D. The default D is called closed if none of ox), (Kx) and y(x)contains free variables usually represented by a: MA/y. Otherwise, it is called open. When n = 0, then the proportional constant T (true) is implicitly assumed as the justification of the defaults. A default theory is closed if all the defaults in D are closed. The 148Chapter 7 Automated Reasoning B 149 defaults (a(x): MA(x))/7/(x) state that for all variables in x if the prerequisite a(x) is believable, and the justification, B(x) is not believable, then the consequent y(x) can be assumed. The semantic of closed default theory (D, W) is based on the notion of the extension. 4 is closed when every default in D is used and every formula in W is closed. Otherwise, it is open. It will be quantifier free if every default in D is quantifier free and every formula in W is quantifier free. A closed quantifier free default theory is caused by ground default theory. Extension Definition of extension of default theories and generation defaults was originally introduced by Reiter (1980). Each extension E of (D, W) is identified by its generating defaults which allow for a compact representation of E. The generative default of E is defined by GD(E, (D, W)) are the defaults (cr ,,.. B,)/y form D such that « € E and —B, ¢ E for all j = 1, ..., n, then E is constructible from W and GD (E, (D. W)) as follows. If E be an extension of the closed default theory A = then E=cons|WuU 2: BBs eGDUE, A) [rot tame The definition of extension is extended to D default theories by assuming that the default with free variables implicitly stand for the infinite set of closed defaults obtained by replacing the free variables with the terms of the Herband universe of the default theory. If A = (D, W) is an open quantifier, is free default theory and E is a set of quantifier, is free ground formula. Then define E® = INST (W); E*) = ThE®) u (ya: MBly © INST(D), where ae E and af ¢ E} E is an extension for A iff E = Uj29 E” INST(W) and INST(D) denote the result of instantiation of every free variable in W and A with a ground term, respectively. (E®) denotes the set of all logical consequent from E. A formula is said to be believable in a default theory if it is contained in some exclusion of the default theory. For A = (D, W) an open quantifier-free default theory and E is an extension of A, the set of generation defaults wart. E denoted by GD(E) is given by GD(E) = (66 = a: MB/ye INST(D), where a € E and —f € E) A’ = ((GD(E)), INST(D)) is the generalization theory war.t. E. By definition, every default in GD(E) is a ground default, i.e. a closed quantifier default.150 © Artificial intelligence Example 7.1 A well-known example of default theory is as follows: Assume that D= (Q: PIP, R: — Pi =P}, W ={P, Q} where P, Q and R are propositional atoms, with meaning that someone is pacifist, a quaker, and republican, respectively. Two extensions of the default theory A = (D, W) are: Cons ({P, @, R}) and cons ({P, Q, R}). The first exclusion states that a republican is a quaker as well as pacifist, whereas the second exclusion states that the republican is a quaker but not a pacifist. The first exclusion has the (single) generating default Q: P/P the second R: —P/—P. The credulous semantics conduces that the person is a pacifist as well as not a pacifist. The cautious semantics support none of the conclusion. Application in query language Marcoli et al. (1997) have used default as query language, naming DQL for finite relational databases. They have illustrated several examples for electric circuit, company’s control strategies and maximal trust, etc. An example is given to make the understanding of the default logic more clear. Suppose, two relation scheme MARRIED and STUDENT have a single attribute NAME, The I/O query is specified by (B, D) is used to compute instances of the output relations ADULT (NAME) and EMPLOYEE (NAME). B = {married(x)} adult(x)}, p= femeane: employee(x) adult(x): sans —employee(x) ' — employee(x) The basic assumption is that students are generally not married and are also not employed but adults are usually employed. Consider the following instance W of R when the domain is (Sam, Jane, Patrick). marriep [NAME JANE NAME STUDENT | SAM PATRICK The query computes the following output putt [NAME JANE EMPLOYEE x JANEaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Chapter 7 Automated Reasoning @ 155 Il. W$— denotes a formula is a consequence of ¢ in W iff each preferred state for @ is such that fis) @ 2 framework Z framework of reasoning was developed by Pearl (R) based on a ranking of default rules that deal with the notion of specificity. Between a default rule c —> B and the possible world W, the following three relations are formed: © Verification: This world verifies the rule if W a « B. © Satisfaction: This world satisfies the rule if Wa v B. © Fealsification: This world falsifies the rule if W a a -B. ‘The rank order of rules in given default base A = (aj > B |i = 1, ..., m}, is made in such a way that the rules with general premise get (least specific) the least priority. A notion of tolerance was introduced by Pearl such as a rule a > is said to be tolerated by a base A = {@;— B |i= 1, ... m), iff aA B,- OV By, 4 On V Bn are consistent. © Ais partitioned in a ordered set (stratification) (Aj, Ap, ..., Ag} such that rules 4; are tolerated by all rules in 4; U ... U Ay. © Aranking Z correspondingly order the rules of A is defined such that Z(d) = I for each rule d in A; The non-monotonic consequence relation Z is defined by building a ranking function K on the words from Z ranking by K(w)= max{Z(d) + 1 | w qa B; d)= a; > B, A) and K(w) = 1 if w satisfies all the rules of A. © A ranking function formula Z is induced by K Za) = min{ Kw) | w a) If the models of @ have lower rank than Z(@), then it denotes the degree of ‘abnormality’ of a, with respect to the rule in AZ is disbelief function. Now the Z relation is defined by Jo B iff Z(a@ 0 B) < Zanrpl Penalty logic Pinkas proposed penalty logic and was used by Benferhat and Dupin (1996) for modelling the inconsistency in the knowledge base. It states: Each formula of a KB is associated with a number, called penalty, representing a kind of price. If a formula is not satisfied, a price is charged in such a way that the sum of penalties (charged price) for the unsatisfied an interpretation cost induce a preference over interpretation. For each price of information, ie. default A with satisfaction (Ay As, .... A,) a penalty C(d) = I is associated with each default d in A,, if d is unsatisfied. Based on the cost, the compute order on the elements of Q is induced by these penalties such as: Cw)= E{Cid) | de As-tw) =aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Chapter 7 Automated Reasoning @ 169 Order-based retrieval: The order-based retrieval offers an expressive query language for defining and combining ordering relations, and the result of query evaluation is to partially order the cases in the case base. The query language supports queries that naturally combine preferred values with other preference information. There is no need for an explicit measure of recommendation diversity. Explanation-oriented retrieval: The explanation-oriented retrieval is a precedent-based approach, but once a classification or diagnosis has been reached on the basis of the nearest neighbours, the system performs an additional retrieval step, using an explanation utility metric to obtain the explanation case. These explanation cases are more compelling than the nearest neighbour (Doyle, 2004). Adaptation Single-case adaptation If only the most similar case is taken as the adaptation object, the adaptation type is named as single-case adaptation. It can be classified as follows: ‘Transformational adaptation: Transformational adaptation reorganizes the elements. It can revise, add, delete and change solution elements under certain conditions. According to the structure of solution, it can be classified into two categories substitutional adaptation and structural adaptation. Substitutional adaptation: In substitutional adaptation, only the parameter of solution is changed, and the structure of solution is not changed. Transformational adaptation needs the knowledge on how the attributes difference leads to different solution. Structural adaptation: In structural adaptation, rules are directly applied to the solution stored in cases (Kolodner, 1989). In this method some operators such as adding, deleting, changing and so on are adopted. This technique is used in JUDGE (Bain and Muggleton, 1991) and CHEF (Hammond, 1987). Compositional adaptation: In compositional adaptation, the solution element (set) is obtained by combining solution elements of several partial similar cases, as in CAPLAN/CBC. Iris not the simple combination of above adaptation types. Due to the complexity of problems, sometimes similar cases cannot be retrieved. Now, the case attribute set is divided into several independent subsets, then for similar cases according to subset can be retrieved, and the solution elements according to different subset can be obtained. Finally, the solution elements are combined a new solution. Derivational adaptation: This method reuses the algorithms, methods or rules that are used to generate the original solution for producing a new solution to the current problem. Derivational adaptation needs the knowledge of generating solution from scratch. It stores theaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Chapter 7 Automated Reasoning 171 © Case-based substitution: This method uses cases to suggest solution adaptation. This technique of adaptation is used in ACBARR (Moorman and Ram, 1992), a system for robot navigation. MULTIMODAL REASONING Multimodal reasoning (MMR) is an approach that integrates different types of knowledge in the same decision-support system. The logic behind the strategy of integrating different kinds of knowledge is that the knowledge for a given domain and given task has to be modelled in different ways because it is inherent at different levels. The two types of knowledge are: explicit knowledge, and implicit knowledge. Explicit knowledge is the knowledge which is already well established and formalized domain knowledge. This knowledge can be present in books and in written documentation, or can be Tepresented by some formalisms for developing knowledge-based systems, for example, taxonomies or rules, or finally by mathematical or probabilistic models. While implicit or tacit knowledge consists of individual expertise, organizational practices, and past cases, It can be represented by heuristics that even experts are not fully aware of, or can be stored in databases and case libraries. Implicit knowledge is managed by a methodology case-based reasoning (CBR) and explicit knowledge is managed by two most suitable methodologies rule-based reasoning (RBR) and model-based reasoning (MBR). The different types of combination in multimodal reasoning are: © Combination of rule-based reasoning with case-based reasoning. © Combination of case-based reasoning and multimodel reasoning. Combination of Rule-Based Reasoning and Case-Based Reasoning In the development of expert systems, symbolic rules play an important role in knowledge representation. They represent general knowledge of the domain and exhibit a number of attractive features such as naturalness, modularity and ease of explanation. The major drawback of them is the difficulty of acquiring them. The traditional process of eliciting rules through the interaction with the expert may turn out to be a bottleneck because it causes delays in the system’s overall development and the acquired rules may be imperfect and not covering the full complexities of the domain. To deal with these advantages rule induction methods are highlighted but they are still unable to recognize exceptions in small, low frequency sections of the domain. Finally, rules may contain terms that are not well-defined. These drawbacks are partially overcome by case-based reasoning (CBR). The specific feature of CBR are: © Cases represent specific knowledge of the domain. © They are natural and usually easy to obtain. © New cases can be easily inserted into a knowledge base without making changes to the pre-existing knowledge. © Incremental learning comes natural to case-based reasoning. © The more the cases are available the better will be the domain knowledge represented.172 _@ _Artiicial intelligence ‘The accuracy of a case-based system can be enhanced throughout its operation, as new cases become available. Cases also have a negative aspect as compared to symbolic rules, that is, they do not provide concise representations of the incorporated knowledge. Furthermore, the time-performance of the retrieval operations is not always desirable. To deal with the drawbacks of CBR and rule-based reasoning (RBR), an integrated approach of CBR and RBR is used. Integrating rule-based and case-based reasoning have given interesting and effective knowledge representation schemes. The goal of these efforts is to derive hybrid representations that augment the positive aspects of the integrated formalisms and simultaneously minimize their negative aspects. RBR's main strength is that it does not require a lot of space for storing all the generalized rules. CBR in the other hand, allows the reasoner to propose solutions to problems really fast-based on the stored cases. CBR also allows the reasoner to propose solutions in domains that are not completely understood. Furthermore, it allows the avoidance of previous mistakes. ABDUCTION C.S. Peirce, a logician and mathematician, defined abduction in the following way: “The first stating of a hypothesis and the entertaining of it, whether as a simple interrogation or with any degree of confidence is an inferential step which I propose to call abduction or retroduction” and “nothing justifies a retroduction inference except it affording an explanation of the facts.” The adductive method has been applied (Punch (III) et al., (1990)), on the red systems for blood antibody identification. They had developed a tool called PIERCE which enables knowledge engineers to determine when a method is appropriate for invocation and how the process selects a method for invocation. The salient features are as follows: ‘© The adductive assembly algorithm contains three main modules, viz. plausibility, evaluation, assembly and entique. ‘© The hierarchical classification is used to produce eventually a list of antibodies and their associated plausibility. It passes this list to assembly module as a set of candidate hypothesis to be used in explaining test panels’ reactions. ‘© The three requirements—coverage, plausibility and compatibility—lead to following algorithms: © Single finding required for explanation is selected, © Select those hypotheses that offer explanation from the antibody hypotheses found by hierarchical classifier, © Select only the one hypotheses which offers to explain the finding otherwise most plausible, © Integrate the selected hypothesis into the compound explanation, © Update any other findings that the integration might explain and if some findings still remain unexplained, go to the initial step.Chapter 7 Automated Reasoning 173 Abduction is non-deductive form of inference. Given the truth of proposition of Q and the implication P > Q, one gets the conclusion P. If two propositions: there is a smoke Q and there would be fire P is written in casual relationship as P —> Q by abduction, then there is smoke it is concluded that there would be fire. But presence of smoke may not be caused by fire, it may be smoke gas. Thus, abduction does not guarantee the definite conclusion. The abduction inference is represented in the following way: (PSQ)P Where Q is assertion PQ is an implication where c over the implication arrow means a possible casual relationship between P and Q. P is the conclusion obtained through abduction. TRUTH MAINTENANCE SYSTEM (TMS) The truth maintenance system is concerned with maintaining truth in the system which revises the set of benefits when new information contradicts existing information. The TMS works with the inference engines (IE) that acts as a problem solver. In a large search space, the IE uses different search strategies for altemative paths or choices and examines the consequence of each path. If a contradiction is found during this process, the TMS eliminates it by reusing the knowledge base. The IE and TMS, together can solve the problem where algorithm solution does not exist. However, the IE cannot derive valid conclusion if it uses data from different problem states or contexts. A typical structure of TMS-based knowledge-based system is shown in Figure 7.3. Knowledge base | Beliefs = a ine @ So ™ forking Inference engine se taeton = = Figure 7.3 Structure of TMS-based KBS. ‘The knowledge base contains the description of problem in terms of facts, figures and their relationships which is also the initial problem state in the working memory. The working memory contains the dynamic data that reflect problem data transmission. The inference engine calls TMS function to obtain data required in reasoning coupled with belief reason. The number of TMS functions that must be implemented depending on the complexity of each such problem. The minimal TMS configuration has function that performs belief revision to determine which data hold when a context switch occurs. TMS functions that perform non- monotonically handling must be used to enable solution of problem with in couple information. In the justification-based TMS, each node has association with justification for the node's truth value. In TMS, a node represents one unit of knowledge, a fact, rule assertion, etc, At any174_B _Artiicial Intelligence point in execution, every node is one of two conditions IN: currently believed to be false. Justification for the truth node’s truth value is associated with each node. Support list (SL) is the simplest form of justification which is of the form [SL (in-nodes){out-nodes)]. Where in- nodes is the list of all nodes that must be; IN for this node to be true and (out-node) is the list of all nodes that must be out for this node to be true. For example, the following statements or assertions are given, (i) It is a house, (ii) It is a hotel, (iii) It is personal, (iv) It is public, (v) It is an enterprise. Then support list for the above statements are developed as shown in Table 7.3. Table 7.3 Node number Proposition Justification 1 It is a house [SL (0)(2)] 2 Tt is a hotel {SL (0)(2)} 3 It is a personal {SL (1)(2)] 4 It is public ISL 20) 5 It is enterprise {SL (2)()] Assertions (i) and (ii) are premises which do not have IN, and (iii), (iv), (v) are derived facts. Premises in principle are the basic assumption to start with and, hence, they do not have IN list. The working principle of JTMS can be illustrated with an example. Suppose Jane wishes to go for picnic as it is fine weather, but when she sets out for the purpose weather becomes cloudy and it begins to rain. Then she changes her plan and goes to gymnasium. In the evening she becomes tired and she went to hostel to relax. In the given description of situation we derive the proposition and supports the list for the justification on the following manner: Node number Proposition Justification 1 Normal weather (SL() @) 2 3 Raining 4 Not raining 5 Play time (SL () ©) 6 Evening (SL () 6) A problem solver concludes using assumptions (i) and (i) that the weather is fine. It provides a justification for node 7 which makes this node (n), ie. 7: fine weather. [SL(1,4) ( )]. It is time for picnic is inferred by node 7 and 5 and is directed for providing corresponding justification for node 8 which takes IN in SL. 8: Picnic [SL (5,7), ( )]; The contradiction arises in the situation when it begins to rain which leads to the introduction of contradiction node 9. 9: Contradiction [SL 4,( )].aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have 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either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.| This book has been written keeping in view the requirements of undergraduate and postgraduate students and research scholars in the area of computer science and engineering in particular, and other branches of engineering which deal with the study of Al such as electronics engineering, electrical engineering, industrial engineering (robotics and FMS). Besides the engineering students, the postgraduate students of computer science and computer applications and cognitive sciences researchers can equally benefit from this text. The basic concepts of artificial intelligence, together with knowledge representation, reasoning methods, acquisition, management and distributed architecture, have been nicely and instructively described. The various application domains and disciplines in engineering, management, medicine which cover different aspects of design, assembly and monitoring, have been presented with : utility aspects of Al concepts in logic and knowledge. The book maintains a simple and comprehensible style of presentation for the different categories of readers such as students, researchers and professionals for their respective uses. You may also be interested in Neural Networks, Fuzzy Logic, and Genetic Algorithms: Synthesis and Applications (with CD-ROM), S. Rajasekaran, GA. Vijayalakshmi Pai Artificial Neural Networks, B. Yegnanarayana Fundamentals of Artificial Neural Networks, Mohamad H. Hassoun Foundations of Robotics: Analysis ‘Tsuneo Yoshikawa Introduction to Al Robotics, Robin R. Murphy Mechanics of Robotic Manipulation, Matthew T. Mason nd Control, = 325.00 www.phindia.com Artificial italitvartets R.B. Mishra eae CoC eae kee ea aca a res RTC eini ac Enea ar Oe Cum eR Cd eee eet ae Ceeer cn Eu ena BCC eeu eae ty in conferences and journals of Pen ORE Ten Rarer nr ct Cac Ce eae ra Maite Pe cueen mae song Pore ey re ee a MCRL tutoring system, and robotics es , medical computing, TSBN:978-81. 3ae9-4 Wil