Hydraulic Structures II (CENG 4602) G4C Chapter One

Chapter One
1. Introduction to River Engineering
Rivers have always played an important role in human development and in shaping civilizations.
Primary function of a river is the conveyance of water and sediment. Besides serving as a source
of water supply for domestic, irrigation, and industrial consumption, rivers have been useful in
providing facilities for navigation, recreation, hydropower generation, and waste disposal.

Rivers, except when flowing through well-defined narrow sections confined by high and stiff
banks, have also generally caused problems of flooding; change of course, banks erosion etc.
The structure and form of rivers including plan-forms, channel geometry (i.e., cross sectional
shape of river), bed form, and profile characteristics together form what is termed river
morphology. The morphology of river changes considerably on account of natural causes.
Besides, changes made by man in an attempt to harness a river strongly influences behavior of
the river.
Rivers in Human History:
From the very beginning of human history, rivers have been of high important in the life and
activities of man. The two most ancient civilizations were built along the valleys of great rivers
Sumeria-Babilonia along the Tigris and Euphrates, and Egypt along the Nile and depended for
their sustenance on the waters flowing in them. The river Jordan is of key significance in the
development of both ancient and Modern Israel. One also thinks that the Ganges and Indus rivers
in southern Asia, the Yangtze in China, the Rhine and Danube in Europe and others. The total
annual discharge in the rivers of the world is about 82000(miles)3 representing about 1/3 of the
annual precipitation. The largest rivers of the world are probably as follows.

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L a rg e s t R iv e rs o f th e W o rld
A p p r o x . le n g th
R iv e r O u tflo w m i. km
N ile M e d ite r r a n e a n S e a 4 ,1 8 0 6 ,6 9 0
A m a z o n A tla n tic O c e a n 3 ,9 1 2 6 ,2 9 6
M is s is s ip p i-M is s o u r i G u lf o f M e x ic o 3 ,7 1 0 5 ,9 7 0
Y a n g tz e K ia n g C h in a S e a 3 ,6 0 2 5 ,7 9 7
O b G u lf o f O b 3 ,4 5 9 5 ,5 6 7
H u a n g H o (Y e llo w ) G u lf o f C h ih li 2 ,9 0 0 4 ,6 6 7
Y e n is e i A r c tic O c e a n 2 ,8 0 0 4 ,5 0 6
P a r a n á R ío d e la P la ta 2 ,7 9 5 4 ,4 9 8
Ir tis h O b R iv e r 2 ,7 5 8 4 ,4 3 8
Z a ir e (C o n g o ) A tla n tic O c e a n 2 ,7 1 6 4 ,3 7 1
H e ilo n g (A m u r ) T a ta r S tr a it 2 ,7 0 4 4 ,3 5 2
L e n a A r c tic O c e a n 2 ,6 5 2 4 ,2 6 8
M a c k e n z ie B e a u fo r t S e a (A r c tic O c e a n ) 2 ,6 3 5 4 ,2 4 1
N ig e r G u lf o f G u in e a 2 ,6 0 0 4 ,1 8 4
M e k o n g S o u th C h in a S e a 2 ,5 0 0 4 ,0 2 3
M is s is s ip p i G u lf o f M e x ic o 2 ,3 4 8 3 ,7 7 9
M is s o u r i M is s is s ip p i R iv e r 2 ,3 1 5 3 ,7 2 6
V o lg a C a s p ia n S e a 2 ,2 9 1 3 ,6 8 7
M a d e ir a A m a z o n R iv e r 2 ,0 1 2 3 ,2 3 8
P u r u s A m a z o n R iv e r 1 ,9 9 3 3 ,2 0 7
S ã o F r a n c is c o A tla n tic O c e a n 1 ,9 8 7 3 ,1 9 8
Y u k o n B e r in g S e a 1 ,9 7 9 3 ,1 8 5
S t. L a w r e n c e G u lf o f S t. L a w r e n c e 1 ,9 0 0 3 ,0 5 8
R io G r a n d e G u lf o f M e x ic o 1 ,8 8 5 3 ,0 3 4
B r a h m a p u tr a G a n g e s R iv e r 1 ,8 0 0 2 ,8 9 7
In d u s A r a b ia n S e a 1 ,8 0 0 2 ,8 9 7
D a n u b e B la c k S e a 1 ,7 6 6 2 ,8 4 2
E u p h r a te s S h a tt-a l-A r a b 1 ,7 3 9 2 ,7 9 9
D a r lin g M u r r a y R iv e r 1 ,7 0 2 2 ,7 3 9
Z a m b e z i M o z a m b iq u e C h a n n e l 1 ,7 0 0 2 ,7 3 6
T o c a n tin s P a r á R iv e r 1 ,6 7 7 2 ,6 9 9

Table 1.1: largest rivers of the world

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 Hydraulic Structures II (CENG 4602) G4C Chapter One

Discharge
% of total
Runoff
River m^3/sec mm/yr entering
Ratio
oceans
1 Amazon, Brazil 190,000 835 13.0 0.47
2 Congo, Zaire 42,000 340 2.9 0.25
3 Yangtse Kiang, China 35,000 560 2.4 0.50
4 Orinoco, Venezuela 29,000 845 2.0 0.46
5 Brahmaputra, Bangladesh 20,000 1070 1.4 0.65
6 La Plata, Brazil 19,500 235 1.3 0.20
7 Yenissei, Russia 17,800 215 1.2 0.42
8 Mississippi, USA 17,700 175 1.2 0.21
9 Lena, Russia 16,300 210 1.1 0.46
10 Mekong, Vietnam 15,900 630 1.1 0.43
11 Ganges, India 15,500 455 1.1 0.42
12 Irrawaddy, Burma 14,000 1020 1.0 0.60
13 Ob, Russia 12,500 135 0.9 0.24
14 Sikiang, China 11,500 840 0.8 -
15 Amur, Russia 11,000 190 0.8 0.32
16 St. Lawrence, Canada 10,400 310 0.7 0.33
Table 1.2: Some world’s river Characteristics

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1.2 Application of River Engineering

In years gone by River Engineering could only based on the observation and experience,
nevertheless, some spectacular ancient waterworks show just what can be achieved on that basis.
In recent times however a technology based on mathematical and physical sciences has been be
able to provide a thorough knowledge of fluid mechanics and fair insight in the behavior of
sediment motion. This has resulted in far more sophisticated solutions to River Engineering
problems. However even the use of these modern tools cannot always guarantee accuracy in the
results of river project and this may be due to shortage of reliable data or still insufficient
knowledge of the phenomenon involved for instance in the field of meteorology.

As an example the effects of engineering projects which involve important changes in the
morphological appearance of a River may be very difficult to predict. This is because some
phenomena in the formation and deformation of river channels are still not yet fully understood
and models cannot yet give the fully reliable answer.

Purposes of River Engineering knowledge:

a. Flood control and drainage of the flood plain (flood control by levees i.e. alignment
of main levees along a migrating channel).
b. Retarded flood plain storage
c. Storage flood volume in reservoirs
d. Flood control with detention basin
e. Reservoir operation for reservoirs with different storage capacities
f. Diversion of flood water
g. Navigation i) ships and navigation’s ii) aids to navigation iii) waterways
improvement
h. Hydropower i) Turbines ii) planning power stations
i. Water supply
j. Waste discharge
k. Crossing by roads, railways, pipes, cables etc…
l. Multiple projects

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1.3 River Characteristics

The primary function of a river channel is the conveyance of water and sediment. It should be
appreciated that this primary function cannot be stopped. Nor can the long-term average be
changed by measures carried out in the riverbed. Thus alterations in space and time can only be
made within the context of ultimate equilibrium.

The most conspicuous aspect of a river channel, apart from its size, is the amount of water it
carries. This is best shown in a hydrograph. A hydrograph is a time series of water level data or
discharge data. Changes in discharge cause changes in water level in the river channel. At very
high discharges a river channel overflows its banks on to the adjacent land. This periodically
flooded land is called the flood plain. Whilst in the upper reaches the flood plains are usually
narrow or even non-existent, in the lower reaches of a river the flood plains could be tens of
kilometers wide.

1.3.1 The Catchment Area

Total area from which surface runoff flows to a given point of concentration is called a
catchment area, drainage basin, drainage area, or a watershed. Hence, a catchment area is
always connected to a certain point of concentration, the lowest point of the respective basin.
Therefore, whenever specifying a watershed area of a given stream, it should always be clearly
stated upstream of which point on the stream course it is related to (Ref. Fig. 1.1). By summing
the partial watershed areas of all the tributaries, and by adding the areas draining directly into the
stream, total area of the watershed above the concentration point is obtained.

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Figure 1.1: Watershed boundaries

The imaginary line delimiting various watersheds is known as water dividing line or water-
divide. Its configuration depends on the topography only, and it runs along the highest points of
the surrounding area. Precipitation falling outside the area enclosed by this line will form a
runoff flowing to another stream, over another catchment area.

The farther downstream along the stream the point of concentration, the more tributaries will join
the stream and the larger the respective watershed. Sudden increase of area indicates the inflow
of a large tributary, the point at which the whole partial watershed of the tributary joins the
watershed of the main watercourse. Gradual increases are derived mainly from overland flow
areas or small gullies.

1.3.2 Watershed Forms

Form of a watershed varies greatly, however, and is tied to many factors including climatic
regime, underlying geology, morphology, soils, and vegetation.

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Drainage Patterns: One distinctive aspect of a watershed when observed in plan form (map
view) is its drainage pattern (Figure 1.2). Drainage patterns are primarily controlled by the
overall topography and underlying geologic structure of the watershed.

Stream Ordering: A method of classifying, or ordering, the hierarchy of natural channels within
a watershed was developed by Horton (1945). Several modifications of the original stream
ordering scheme have been proposed, but the modified system of Strahler (1957) is probably the
most popular today.

Figure 1.2: Watershed drainage patterns. Patterns are determined by topography and geologic structure.

Strahler’s stream ordering system is portrayed in Figure 1.3. The uppermost channels in a
drainage network (i.e., headwater channels with no upstream tributaries) are designated as first-
order streams down to their first confluence. A second-order stream is formed below the
confluence of two first-order channels. Third-order streams are created when two second-order
channels join, and so on. Note in the figure that the intersection of a channel with another
channel of lower order does not raise the order of the stream below the intersection (e.g., a
fourth-order stream intersecting with a second-order stream is still a fourth-order stream below
the intersection).

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Within a given drainage basin, stream order correlates well with other basin parameters, such as
drainage area or channel length. Consequently, knowing what order a stream is can provide clues
concerning other characteristics such as which longitudinal zone it resides in and relative channel
size and depth.

Figure 1.3: Stream ordering in a drainage network. Stream ordering is a method of

classifying the hierarchy of natural channels in a watershed.

Channel and Ground Water Relationships: Interactions between ground water and the
channel vary throughout the watershed. In general, the connection is strongest in streams with
gravel riverbeds in well-developed alluvial floodplains.

Figure 1.4 presents two types of water movement:

 Influent or “losing” reaches lose stream water to the aquifer.
 Effluent or “gaining” reaches receive discharges from the aquifer.

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Figure 1.4: Cross sections of (a) influent and (b) effluent stream reaches.

Practitioners categorize streams based on the balance and timing of the storm flow and base flow
components. There are three main categories:
 Ephemeral streams flow only during or immediately after periods of precipitation. They
generally flow less than 30 days per year.
 Intermittent streams flow only during certain times of the year. Seasonal flow in an
intermittent stream usually lasts longer than 30 days per year.
 Perennial streams flow continuously during both wet and dry times. Base flow is
dependably generated from the movement of ground water into the channel.
Discharge Regime: Stream flow is one of the variables that determine the size and shape of the
channel. There are three types of characteristic discharges:

 Channel-forming (or dominant) discharge: If the stream flow were held constant at the
channel-forming discharge, it would result in channel morphology close to the existing
channel. However, there is no method for directly calculating channel-forming discharge.
An estimate of channel-forming discharge for a particular stream reach can, with some
qualifications, be related to depth, width, and shape of channel. Although channel-forming
discharges are strictly applicable only to channels in equilibrium, the concept can be used to
select appropriate channel geometry for restoring a disturbed reach.

 Effective discharge: The effective discharge is the calculated measure of channel-forming

discharge. Computation of effective discharge requires long-term water and sediment
measurements, either for the stream in question or for one very similar. Since this type of
data is not often available for stream restoration sites, modeled or computed data are
sometimes substituted. Effective discharge can be computed for either stable or evolving
channels.

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 Bank full discharge: This discharge occurs when water just begins to leave the channel and
spread onto the floodplain. Bank full discharge is equivalent to channel-forming
(conceptual) and effective (calculated) discharge.

1.3.3 Longitudinal View along a Stream

Channel width and depth increase downstream due to increasing drainage area and discharge.
Related structural changes also occur in the channel, floodplain, and transitional upland fringe,
and in processes such as erosion and deposition. Even among different types of streams, a
common sequence of structural changes is observable from headwaters to mouth.

The overall longitudinal profile of most streams can be roughly divided into three zones:
 Zone 1, or headwaters (or upper course), often has the steepest gradient. Sediment erodes
from slopes of the watershed and moves downstream. Typically erosive stream
characteristics.

 Zone 2, the transfer zone (or Middle course), receives some of the eroded material. It is
usually characterized by wide floodplains and meandering channel patterns. Longitudinal
slope of the stream gradually eases; tributaries join the main stream, and therefore often
sudden changes of flow regime. Although stretches of erosion and deposition frequently
exchange, both in space and time, this transitional reach of the stream is on the whole
generally the most stable and balanced part. Stream characteristics obtained from the middle
course are frequently used as basis for design of stream training projects.

 Zone 3, the depositional zone (or Lower course): Longitudinal slope flattens; discharge
increases in Zone 3, the primary depositional zone (ref Fig. 1.5 a and 1.5b). gradual
deposition of sediment eroded upstream, hence relatively short-period shifting and changing
of the main stream channel.

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Figure 1.5a: Three longitudinal profile zones. Channel and floodplain characteristics change
as rivers travel from headwaters to mouth.

Though the figure displays headwaters as mountain streams, these general patterns and changes
are also often applicable to watersheds with relatively small topographic relief from the
headwaters to mouth. It is important to note that erosion, transfer, and deposition occur in all
zones, but the zone concept focuses on the most dominant process.

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Figure 1.5b: Changes in the channel in the three zones. Flow, channel size, and sediment
characteristics change throughout the longitudinal profile.

1.4 Types of Rivers

Rivers can be classified as follows:
i. Based on variation of discharge in river, as
(a) Perennial rivers
Perennial rivers obtain their water from melting snow for the larger part of any year besides
getting rain water during the rainy season. Being snow-fed, perennial rivers carry significant
flow all through the year.
(b) Non-perennial rivers
Non-perennial rivers are not snow-fed rivers and, hence, get completely dried up or carry
insignificant flow during the dry season. They get their supplies only during the monsoon as a
result of rains in their catchment areas.

(c) Flashy rivers

In case of flashy rivers, the river stage rises and falls in a very short period of a day or two due to
the steep flood hydrograph. A small flow may, however, continue for some time.

(d) Virgin rivers

In arid regions, waters of some rivers may get completely lost due to evaporation and
percolation. Such rivers become completely dry much before they join another river or sea, and
are called virgin rivers.
ii. Based on stability of river, as
(a) Stable rivers

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When the alignment of a river channel, river slope, and river regime are relatively stable and
show little variation from year to year except that the river may migrate within its permanent
banks (i.e., khadirs) (as shown figure 1.6 below), the river is said to be stable. However, changes
in bed and plan-forms of a stable river do take place, but these are small.

Figure 1.6: Typical cross-section of river in flood plains

(b) Aggrading rivers
When the sediment load entering a river reach is greater than the sediment load leaving a river
reach, the river in that reach becomes an aggrading river due to deposition of excess sediment.
This situation may arise due to obstructions (e.g., barrage or dam) across a river, extension of
delta at the river mouth, or sudden intrusion of sediment from a tributary. Aggrading rivers
usually have straight and wide reaches with shoals in the middle which shift with floods. The
flow in the river channel gets divided into a number of braided channels.
(c) Degrading rivers
When the sediment load entering a river reach is less than that leaving the river reach, the river in
that reach becomes a degrading river due to erosion of the bed and bank material.

iii. Based on the location of reach of river, as

(a) Mountainous rivers
Rivers in mountainous reaches are further divided into incised rivers and Boulder Rivers. Incised
rivers have a steep bed slope and high velocity of flow. The bed and the banks of these rivers are
made up of rocks and very large boulders which are, usually, highly resistant to erosion. The

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sediment transported by an incised river is often different from that of the river bed and comes
from the catchment due to soil erosion.
The bed and sides of a boulder river consist of a mixture of boulder, gravel, shingle, and sand.
The bed slope and the velocity of flow are smaller than those of incised rivers. The river cross-
section is usually well-defined. There is, however, considerable subsoil flow due to high
permeability of the bed material.
(b) Rivers in flood plains
After the boulder stage, a river enters the alluvial plains. The bed and banks are now made up of
sand and silt. The bed slope and the velocity of flow in the river are much smaller than those of
Boulder Rivers. The cross-section of the river is decided by the sediment load and the erodibility
of the bed and banks of the river. A typical cross-section of a river with a flood plain is shown in
Figure 1.6 above. The sediment transported by such rivers is predominantly of the same type as
the material forming the channel bed. During high floods, these rivers inundate very large areas
and cause considerable damage to life, property, and crops. Such rivers are also called alluvial
rivers.
(c) Delta rivers
A river, before becoming a tidal river, may split into number of branches due to very flat bed
slopes resulting in shoal formation and braiding of the channel. This part of the river reach is
called Delta River. The delta river indicates a stage, rather than a type of river.

(d) Tidal rivers

All rivers ultimately meet the sea. In the reach of a river just upstream of the sea, there would
occur periodic changes in water levels due to tides. This reach of the river is called tidal river and
receives sea water during flood tides and raises its level. During ebb tides, the river water level is
lowered. The length of the river reach affected by tidal effects depends on the river slope, the
tidal range, discharge, river configuration etc.

iv. Based on the plan-form of river, as

(a) Straight rivers
In the straight reaches of a river, its section has the shape of a trough and maximum velocity of
flow occurs in the middle of the section. It is very difficult to find the straight reach of an alluvial
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river over large lengths. Alluvial rivers seldom run straight through a distance greater than ten
times the river width. Even in the apparent straight reaches the line of maximum depth -
commonly known as talweg – moves back and forth from one khadir (permanent bank) to
another khadir.

(b) Meandering rivers

On account of the slight asymmetry of flow in alluvial rivers, there is a tendency for such rivers
to vary their plan-forms into bends which eventually result in a meandering pattern (Figure 1.7).
The term meandering has been derived from the Great Menderes river in Turkey which follows a
winding or intricate course (Figure 1.7). Rivers having such meandering patterns are known as
meandering rivers which, in plan, comprise a series of bends of alternate curvature. The
successive curves are connected through straight reaches of the river called ‘crossing’.
Meandering increases the length of river and decreases its slope.

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Figure 1.7: Meandering channel

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(c) Braided rivers

When a river flows in two or more channels around alluvial islands, it is called a braided river
(Figure 1.8). The braided patterns in a river develop after local deposition of coarser material
which cannot be transported under prevailing conditions of flow and which subsequently grows
into an island consisting of coarse as well as fine material.

Figure 1.8: Typical braided reach of a river

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