Meditations

Study Guide by Course Hero

(161–180 CE) was fraught with continual conflict, both in Rome

What's Inside and across the outer reaches of the empire. The entries in The
Meditations serve as a reminder of the morals of a Stoic, a
believer in the ancient Greek philosophy that an individual must
j Book Basics ................................................................................................. 1 practice virtue and ignore such distractions as emotions and
pain in order to be happy. They also show how Aurelius
a Main Ideas .................................................................................................... 1
uniquely applied his values to the challenges he faced. He
d In Context .................................................................................................... 2 struggled as an individual to attain a balanced state between
nature and fate, social and personal truth, and reason amid
a Author Biography ..................................................................................... 4 chaos.

h Key Figures ................................................................................................. 6 PERSPECTIVE AND NARRATOR

The Meditations of Marcus Aurelius are told mainly in the first-
k Plot Summary ........................................................................................... 10
and second-person by a Roman emperor musing over the best
way to live one's life. At times he speaks directly in first person;
c Book Summaries .................................................................................... 13
at other times he addresses himself as "you."
g Quotes ......................................................................................................... 21
ABOUT THE TITLE
l Symbols ..................................................................................................... 24 Meditations originally did not have a title and was not intended
for publication. A title was assigned to it in 364 CE as ta eis
m Glossary ..................................................................................................... 24 heauton (Greek for "to himself") by Roman philosopher
Themistius in a manuscript now lost. The title reflects the
e Suggested Reading .............................................................................. 24
nature of the text: personal reflections on the author's life.

j Book Basics a Main Ideas

AUTHOR
Marcus Aurelius
Nature and Universe
YEAR PUBLISHED
c. 161–180 CE The philosophy Aurelius repeatedly reminds himself of
throughout Meditations is that nature is at the foundation of all
GENRE
life—human and animal. As such, it is an ongoing manifestation
Philosophy
of the universe (Fate, Providence, or God), but in specific
AT A GLANCE instances, it is also transient and temporary. An individual
The Meditations of the Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius (prince or pauper) lives for a short period, but humanity goes
(121–180 CE) were a series of discussions begun earlier in life on. The trick is to discern which of these two principles is in
with esteemed philosophers. The reign of Marcus Aurelius action for any given condition. Being able to do this is, for
Meditations Study Guide In Context 2

Aurelius, the key to making sure he is acting according to his like Alexander the Great seem to have everything, but in order
own nature, leaving others to act according to theirs as allotted to keep it, must spend time and energy slaving away in
to them by the universe. constant worry. By contrast, those philosophers who have
command only of themselves, and who take the time and effort
to master their own disciplines of mind, body, and soul,
Transience of Life possess the only thing that will last: intelligence. The
attainment of such a balance is the only way to counteract the
Emperor Aurelius spent most of his time and energy on need to avoid pain and suffering, and the need to pursue
battlefields far from the comforts of his own home and Roman pleasure and happiness. Book 12 concludes with the phrase,
society. He experienced years of watching men fight, suffer "Depart then satisfied."
mentally and physically, and die. He struggled to put aside his
own desires for the sake of duty, as he reminded himself that
life is not given to simply be thrown away while seeking d In Context
gratification.

Aurelius's experience with facing death informs the

Meditations. All 12 books of the text are rich with references to Greco-Roman Culture
the brief conditions, whether desirable or undesirable,
contained in a person's span of life. He constantly reminds Greco-Roman culture was a blend of Greek, Roman, and
himself of all the people who had been rich, famous, and Hellenistic or "Greek-like" cultural elements that prevailed in
powerful in their time, but now have succumbed to death. For Mediterranean regions from about the middle of the 1st
example, in Book 7, he says, "Consider yourself to be dead, and century BCE to the early Roman Christian era, 4th century CE.
to have completed your life up to the present time; and live, Greco-Roman culture not only enclosed the Mediterranean
according to nature, the remainder that is allowed you." Sea to include all of North Africa from present-day Morocco to
Egypt, but it also extended well into present-day India to the
east, creating the first truly international and multicultural trade
Parts and Whole society the world had known.

A brief summary of Greco-Roman culture supports an

The relationship between the parts and the whole of a system
understanding of Aurelius's approach to life as expressed in
was very much a concern of the Stoics, and the philosophy
Meditations. Skilled and unskilled labor was imported
upon which particularly the Roman Stoics based their ideas.
wholesale into Rome from Africa, while Far Eastern religious
Later considerations of modern philosophy (mainly German)
and philosophical influences came in via the trade routes
would return to this in a different way, but Aurelius examines
between Rome, India, and China. Professional female poets,
this here as a means of determining the truth of nature as
philosophers, and physicians were active in the intellectual life
directed by a greater—possibly creative—power of Providence
in the major cities of Alexandria in Egypt (home to the most
or the universe. The concert of the individual relative to his
comprehensive library in the Western world), Rome, and
society is another view, suggesting a symmetrical unity of
Carthage in present-day Tunisia. All these influences
reiteration between groupings of units—the idea behind the
contributed to a centralized cosmopolitan urban life of the very
classical geometry of the Greeks.
rich and the very poor, including lavish architecture to glorify
kings instead of deities.

Simplicity versus Ostentation Temples and their corresponding cults proliferated, supporting
priests, elaborate secret ceremonies, and marvels of
Aurelius evidently struggled with his desire to enjoy the extraordinary engineering. Of these, the Eleusinian Mysteries,
benefits of being emperor of Rome, but he counters this with celebrating the cult of Demeter and Persephone and the
practical restraint, and reminds himself of previous emperors cycles of the harvest, lasted 2,000 years and were open to
who overindulged themselves. Even "good" and powerful men anyone regardless of social status. Initiation to the cult is

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Meditations Study Guide In Context 3

reputed to have included ingestion of a hallucinogenic drink. back and forth to test for himself the reasoning supporting
Several Roman non-Christian emperors became members of these philosophies in practical applications.
this cult—including Hadrian and Aurelius—but the only-
speculative evidence of this in Meditations might be traced to
an admittedly wavering belief in a possible afterlife for the soul Stoicism
(Book 12). The Cult of Mithras was also a favorite of Roman
soldiers, as Mithras represented the ideal soldier of earlier Stoicism comes from the word porch, or stoa poikilĕ, after the
times. area where Stoics gathered at the Agora in Athens. Founded
by the philosopher Zeno (c. 333–262 BCE), it provides much of
the background for Aurelius's thoughts, and he credits both
Greco-Roman Thought Greek and Roman Stoics throughout his Meditations. Important
features of Stoicism are the ideas that everything will recur
Tutors from Greece who were experts in not only the sciences and change is constant. Therefore, the stoic individual seeks to
and mathematics but also in the philosophies of Plato (c. live according to the reasoned laws of nature with direct
429–347 BCE) and Socrates (c. 470–399 BCE), were hired by simplicity and attention. This discipline allows the philosopher
the rich and powerful to teach their sons. These tutors brought to acknowledge the presence of—but not be controlled by—the
with them the prevailing disciplines of rhetoric and philosophy. passing forces of emotion. Virtue and dedication to the duty of
These included sophistry (what would be called one's allotted condition in life is sufficient for true happiness
"argumentation" today), Epicureanism (belief in a life of across periods of confusion, chaos, and adversity. Despite
pleasure gained by living moderately) and Stoicism (rejection transient appearances, the order of the universe unfolds
of social norms and emotions to live a life of virtue). through time.

While Sophism was characterized by Aurelius in Book 1 of Much of Meditations displays the influence of two Stoics:
Meditations as something to avoid, it was taken up by Athenian Epictetus and Rusticus. Epictetus had been born an illiterate
youth in the time of Socrates as a quick means to wealth and slave, but dictated his philosophy to one of his pupils, who
power. This philosophical view granted its adherents the ability wrote his master's Discourses. Epictetus was an unorthodox
to argue their way out of just about anything to the point of Stoic, who believed in greater individual freedom of will rather
nonsense in a court of law—the practice of which persisted than the role of Fate. He had a strict moral underpinning to his
into Roman times. But whether they taught in Athens or Rome, informal, question-and-answer approach, supported by the
"masters" of sophistry made fortunes for themselves in lecture idea that individuals are responsible for their own actions and
fees. the consequences resulting from them, not Fate. Aurelius's
mentor, Rusticus, may have studied with Epictetus and passed
Although Socrates didn't write down any of his teachings, his on his perspectives to the future emperor.
admirers did, including Plato. In turn, Plato, who founded the
Academy of Athens sometime around the 380s BCE, taught
Aristotle (384–22 BCE), who added his own observations on
the principles of art and society, among other issues. Aristotle
Empire and Character
was also the teacher of Alexander the Great, the Macedonian
The Romans Aurelius presents in his Meditations (notably Book
king and conquerer whom Aurelius evidently admired. The
1) as admirable people adhere to three important
emperor liberally acknowledges this philosophic lineage in his
characteristics; pater familias, gravitas, and pietas.
Meditations.
The patrician, or aristocratic, Roman citizen established his
Other philosophies discussed in Meditations include Cynicism,
standing through his ancestry. Thus, pater familias, or familial
or the perception of the corruption and illusions of society that
rule by the eldest living male, was an important Roman trait.
defy nature, and Skepticism, by which all things come under
Romans placed marble busts of their forefathers together in a
reasoned scrutiny. In opposition to the Stoic worldview stands
household shrine to honor them. The fact that Aurelius even
Epicureanism, or the discipline of becoming free from fear in
credits his mother in Book 1 is something of a departure from
an unordered and random universe. Aurelius often takes sides

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Meditations Study Guide Author Biography 4

this tradition, for only male ancestors were revered—those memories, allusions, and philosophical concepts. The author's
whose inheritance of virtue and honor is received either by goal was to juxtapose these meditations in various
blood, adoption, or (as was the case of Aurelius's teacher combinations by replicating philosophical discussions between
Rusticus) mentorship. two people. In these discussions, the implication is often that
one speaker is the teacher and the other is the student.
It was not unusual for a powerful elder Roman to formally Aurelius was middle-aged when he wrote his Meditations and
"adopt" a younger man (who may or may not be a blood presented the student/teacher exchange as a dialogue in
relation) with great promise and potential as his "son." The which he took both roles. As Gregory Hays, one translator of
route to becoming emperor of Rome for Aurelius demonstrates the text, puts it, "The first voice seems to represent Marcus's
the importance of this practice of adoption. Emperor Hadrian weaker, human side; the second is the voice of philosophy."
first chose Lucius Ceionius Commodus as his successor by
publicly declaring his adoption, but this failed when Commodus His responsibilities in directing the vast Roman empire gave
died in 138 CE. Hadrian then chose Aurelius's uncle, who Aurelius little time to continue the philosophical discussions he
consequently became Emperor Titus Antoninus Pius when enjoyed. Meditations was the means by which Aurelius could
Hadrian died. Titus then adopted his nephew Aurelius at age continue the discussion within himself—a kind of chart along
17, along with the son of Commodus (following Hadrian's wish), which he could examine his life and perceptions. Regardless of
which placed Aurelius in a position to succeed his uncle as the what adverse events he faced, he would be able to keep a
next emperor. In like manner, Aurelius paralleled the practice balanced state of mind and make reasoned, sensible decisions.
by pulling his adoptive brother in as co-emperor to honor What this means is that the 12 books revolve around the same
Hadrian's wishes, even though his brother exhibited little issues from different perspectives in a recurring fashion, with
political or military ability. no clear organization by which one book can be distinguished
from another. Even so, each book opens with a specific
The virtue of gravitas represented a deep-rooted seriousness statement. Recurring reminders of the ubiquitous presence of
and adherence to self-discipline and duty. The downfall of death are found throughout Meditations. Ultimately, it is
Rome in the latter years of the empire was in part due to an important to remember that Meditations was written for the
abandonment of this strict sense of self-discipline, along with personal and private use of the warrior/emperor and was not
increased slave labor and a foreign army base. Aurelius hints at meant to be made public.
this himself throughout Meditations. By contrast, Romans
attributed to any non-Roman (i.e., women, slaves, barbarians)

a Author Biography
the opposite attribute of furor (emotion, or strong, overruling
passion).

The Roman trait of pietas represents respect for both

forefathers and the Olympian gods. Respect for religion was
more or less public. Many upper-class and well-educated
Early Life and Education
Romans either didn't believe in the gods in private, or left the
Marcus Aurelius Antoninus was born in 121 CE as Marcus
matter open to question, as Aurelius shows in Book 12 of
Annius Verus into a prominent Roman patrician, or aristocratic,
Meditations. However, to cater to those who were religious, or
family. His father, Marcus Annius Verus, and his mother, Lucilla,
who needed religion as a moral and ethical base, the ideal
died sometime around 130 or 135 CE. Although orphaned at a
Roman citizen acknowledged the official Roman pantheon
young age, Aurelius was surrounded by wealth built upon the
along with the gods of others.
family's olive oil and tile factory businesses, which he inherited.
Aurelius was adopted by his grandfather, Verus, and given a
careful private education at home by tutors. It was considered
A Unique Work of Literature preferable in patrician Roman families to hire or retain skilled
slaves (some of whom were Greek) as reliable tutors for their
Aurelius never intended for Meditations to be made public. The
sons, instead of sending them to public school, where teachers
12 books that make up these personal, written notes are—to
would take on any student who could afford the fees. One
some extent—arbitrarily drawn from recurring thoughts,
such tutor, mentioned in Book 1 of Meditations as Diognetus, is

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Meditations Study Guide Author Biography 5

praised for instructing him in drawing and providing him with a Rusticus is evident in his description of his mentor in Book 1 of
good sense of skepticism regarding superstitions and miracle Meditations, which includes mention of his mentor's simplicity,
workers, along with a high regard for a sensible foundation in lack of pretensions, and consistent virtue in dealing with every
education. This education likely included other skills and kind of person. He placed a bust of Rusticus with those of his
activities engaged in by Roman upper-class youth, such as forefathers in an expression of Roman pater familias, or
boxing, wrestling, hunting and falconry, running, and ball respect for the authority of the father. It is also through the
playing. generosity of Rusticus that Aurelius had access to his mentor's
library, from which he was able to study the Discourses of
Patrician parents also made sure their male children received a Epictetus. These writings had a profound impact on Aurelius's
firm grounding in reading and writing in both Greek and Latin. It life and his meditations on life. Epictetus's form of Stoicism
is likely that Aurelius read not only the epic poems of Greek held that since humans can control only their own actions, the
poet Homer, but also the tragedies of Greek playwright key to a successful life combines self-discipline with calm
Euripides and the work of Greek orator Demosthenes. acceptance.
Additionally he would have read the Stoic deliberations in Latin
of both Roman philosophers Lucius Annaeus Seneca the In Book 1 of Meditations, Aurelius credits other contemporary
Younger (c. 4 BCE–CE 65) and the administrator Gaius philosophers with whom he probably studied. Even after
Musonius Rufus (c. 30–100 CE), who taught the former slave becoming co-emperor at age 40, Aurelius continued to attend
turned philosopher, Epictetus (c. 55–135 CE), who is cited in lectures by prominent Stoic philosophers, and many at court
Meditations. who wished to curry favor with him professed superficial
attachment to this philosophic lifestyle.
The philosophical deliberations, terminology, and discussions
of Greek philosophers required fluency in Greek, so it is not
surprising that, in his relentless pursuit of this discipline,
Aurelius wrote his Meditations in Greek. Another prominent
Personal Life
feature of his education was a thorough grounding in rhetoric,
Marcus married his cousin, Annia Galeria Faustina, in 145 CE
as would be consistent with a career in public service for a
and had 14 children with her; of these, only four daughters and
young man of his social/political standing. To this end, Aurelius
a son survived. His adoptive brother, Lucius Verus (130–169
studied rhetoric with Roman orator Marcus Cornelius Fronto
CE), would rule with him as co-emperor. Although the people
(c. 95–166 CE) and maintained an enduring correspondence
and patricians of Rome had little regard for Verus, Aurelius
with his mentor. The meticulous attention to detail and
himself insisted Verus be given equal respect even though
precision of written language that distinguished Aurelius from
Aurelius would shoulder most of the burden of managing the
previous emperors is likely due to Fronto's influence.
far-reaching Roman Empire.

Aurelius's education was also supervised by Emperor Hadrian

(76–136 CE). When Hadrian was succeeded by Aurelius's
uncle, Antoninus Pius (86–161 CE), Pius adopted the 17-year- Political Career
old Aurelius as his heir in 138 CE. From then on the young
man's education plunged him into lengthy studies designed to Aurelius was the 16th emperor of the Roman Empire. He was
shape him into the next Roman emperor. considered the last of the "five good emperors" at the end of
the Pax Romana, or Roman Peace. During this era the empire
expanded in territory and population with relatively little

Education in Philosophy warfare—at least, within its borders. Since the first emperor
Augustus (27 BCE–14 CE), subsequent emperors such as his

At age 25 Aurelius concentrated his philosophical studies with adoptive son, Tiberius (42 BCE–37 CE), Nero (37–68 CE), and

Roman philosopher Junius Rusticus the Stoic (c. 100–70 CE), a Caligula (12–41 CE) set the standard for megalomaniacal

prominent Roman statesman, who impressed Aurelius with a tyranny, murder, and cruelty. Although Aurelius ruled during a

simplicity and directness of speech rarely supported by the period in which the early Christians were persecuted, there is

rhetoricians of the day. The reverence in which Aurelius held no evidence he had any direct antipathy toward them. He

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Meditations Study Guide Key Figures 6

mentions them only once in Book 11 of his Meditations as being

"obstinate" in their readiness to face death. Death and Legacy
Aurelius ruled Rome from 161 to 180 CE and was the first of A showdown between Cassius and Aurelius seemed inevitable
the emperors to co-rule. Verus had little political or military until Cassius's troops took matters into their own hands and
skill, so the bulk of the burden of rule and conquest rested murdered him. In an effort to make the stability of succession
upon Aurelius. He was noted for his generosity and simplicity firm, Aurelius made his son his co-emperor. Together they
of lifestyle, despite being ruler of the Roman Empire. The continued battling the Quadi until the barbarian tribes had
Greek physician Galen (129–216 CE)—whose practical been driven past the Danube in 180 CE. But by then it was
approach to medicine dictated the discipline well into the clear that the battle Aurelius had been waging privately against
Renaissance—was an esteemed member of Aurelius's court. a long-term illness could not be won. He died near Sirmium on
the 17th of March the same year and was entombed in the
Mausoleum of Hadrian. Two monuments in Rome memorialize
Conflicts at Home and Abroad the great emperor: a column commemorating one of his battle
victories and a statue of Aurelius mounted on horseback that
The period of comparative calm that characterized his uncle can be seen in the Capitoline Museums in Rome.
and predecessor's rule did not last into the reign of Emperor
Aurelius. Almost immediately, the Roman army was sent to the
battle of the Parthians for control over land that is now part of h Key Figures
Syria. To this end, co-Emperor Verus was sent at the head of
the Roman legions, but he evidently spent most of his time
enjoying himself in Antioch. This meant that the campaign had
to be managed by his generals and supervised at a distance by Marcus Aurelius
Aurelius—no easy task when it could take months for
information or orders to pass back and forth between Rome Marcus Aurelius ruled as Roman emperor from 161–180 CE, the
and the front. years in which he wrote the Meditations. Not only was he
heavily occupied with running the administrative and judicial
Worse still was that on their return in 166 CE, the troops affairs of a vast empire, he was also waging campaigns against
brought back the plague. The disease not only rapidly spread barbaric incursions at the time Meditations was written. Never
throughout the empire, but also through the ranks of the one to live in luxury back in Rome while his generals endured
military, to the extent that a campaign to the north in 167 CE the hardships of war, Aurelius led the troops himself.
headed by both Verus and Aurelius had to be called off. On the Otherwise, he would not have been able to maintain their
return to Rome, Verus died, possibly of the plague. Now the loyalty. However, having to endure long periods of time away
40-year-old Aurelius was put to the test. Both as a ruler at from home meant that Aurelius did not have access to the
home and as a campaign leader into the Danube with a plague- stimulating philosophical discussions he was accustomed to. It
weakened army, his personal resources, dedication, discipline, is unlikely that anyone in the Roman military with whom he had
and skill were challenged. daily contact in the field had the time, energy, or inclination
toward the finer points of introspection. The Meditations
However, dealing with incursions that threatened the borders
allowed him to continue these discussions as he reflected on
of the Roman Empire was only one of the troubles besetting
his life and beliefs.
Aurelius's rule. When he fell ill fighting on the Danube in 175 CE,
a false rumor that he had died quickly spread, and the Roman
governor of Syria, Marcus Cassius, was hailed Emperor of
Rome by his troops. The move might have been motivated by
Quintus Junius Rusticus
fears that Aurelius's most unpopular son, Commodus, would
Rusticus evidently had a long-term influence on the formation
become emperor, even though Cassius was probably loyal to
of Aurelius as a philosopher king, and it can be said that his
Aurelius.
teachings underpin Meditations. Rusticus made his extensive

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Meditations Study Guide Key Figures 7

library available to his student, particularly the words of the

Stoic Epictitus. A bust of Rusticus was included in Aurelius's Socrates
pater familias home shrine. Meditations may be thought of as a
"portable" shrine. Probably the most famous philosopher of the ancient world,
Socrates had been a teacher of Plato, but did not produce any
written material. Therefore, this line of Greek philosophy is

Epictetus really a combination of both Socrates and Plato, who recorded

his teacher's life, teachings, and death. The unique method of
question-and-answer following the principles of logic is now
Born a slave, Epictetus was unorthodox as a Stoic, in that he
known as the Socratic Method.
believed in greater individual freedom of will rather than Fate.
Aurelius encountered the philosophy of Epictetus through his
mentor, Rusticus, who may have studied directly under
Epictetus. Epictetus lived his beliefs with faithful determination
despite adverse conditions—he was lame but lived a sparse
life, lecturing on city streets. He is recorded as having said,
"You are a little soul bearing up a corpse" (Book 4).

Hadrian
Hadrian was careful to send to Aurelius's household tutors at
the peak of philosophical expertise. Aurelius uses the rule of
Hadrian, one of the "good" Roman emperors, as a reminder to
himself that even the most respected and honored emperor
does not rule forever.

Epicurus
Epicureans held that all creation is random and therefore not
subject to any organization by Providence. Aurelius examines
this philosophy most prominently in terms of living in the
present moment without past regrets or future fears.
Containing the seeds of modern-day physics, the approach of
Epicurus is offset throughout most of Meditations by its
opposition to a systematic universe as described by the Stoics.

Heraclitus
Heraclitus was particularly noted for his very short and
perplexing statements that had his students scratching their
heads in an attempt to understand them. He asserted that
reason is the ultimate power of the cosmos and the
interchanges of the four elements.

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Meditations Study Guide Key Figures 8

Full Key Figure List Alexander the Macedonian, also

known as Alexander the Great, is
cited as an example of the most
Alexander the
powerful and influential ruler of his
Key Figure Description Macedonian
time. However, as Aurelius continually
points out, Alexander and all who
Marcus Aurelius was emperor of knew him are now gone.
Rome at the time he wrote his
Meditations, c. 161–180 CE. He refers
Antisthenes was a Greek orator of
Marcus Aurelius to himself in both the first and second
some repute—Plato lists him as
person as he presents his
Antisthenes among those who witnessed the
philosophical discussions as
death of Socrates. He was more
dialogues.
interested in ethics than metaphysics.

Rusticus was influential in mid-​ 160s

Antoninus Pius was Aurelius's uncle
Quintus Junius CE Rome as two-​time consul and city and Emperor of Rome before him.
Rusticus prefect. He is considered Aurelius's Antoninus groomed Aurelius over a
philosophical father. Antoninus Pius long period of time to follow him as
emperor, and he is credited with
Epictetus is the Roman Stoic having influenced Aurelius's better
philosopher who dictated his judgement and discipline of mind.
Epictetus
philosophy to one of his students,
who wrote down Discourses. Apollonius was a Stoic philosopher
Apollonius of who came to Rome to teach Aurelius
Roman Emperor Hadrian evidently Chalcedon on the invitation of Aurelius's uncle,
took a shine to the very young Emperor Antoninus Pius.
Hadrian
Aurelius and wanted him as his
successor. Archimedes was a Greek scientist
Archimedes
and mathematician.
Epicurus was the Greek founder of
Epicurus one of two major philosophical Although not named in Meditations,
schools in the Greco-​Roman empire. the writings of Aristotle profoundly
influenced the Stoicism expressed by
Heraclitus was a Greek Stoic who Aurelius—particularly in discussion of
Heraclitus Aristotle
hailed from the city of Ephesus. the ideal state that benefits, and is
benefitted by, each individual.
Observations on the mimicry of art to
Socrates was the Greek founder of nature can be attributed to Aristotle.
philosophy. He believed in the free
Socrates
exchange of ideas based upon the
principles of reason. Arius Didymus was a prominent Stoic
Arius Didymus
philosopher for Augustus, first
of Alexandria
emperor of Rome.
Chrysippus was a Stoic philosopher
who led the school in Athens.
Chrysippus Crysippus is remembered as having Athenodorus Athenodorus Cananites was a Stoic
laid out the basic tenets of Stoic Cananites philosopher who taught Fronto.
philosophy.
Augustus was the first emperor of
Augustus
Alexander was a Greek tutor from Rome from 27 BCE until his death in
Alexander the Caesar
Cotiaeum (Syria) employed to teach 14 CE.
Grammarian
Aurelius.
Bacchius of
Bacchius was a Platonic philosopher.
Paphos

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Meditations Study Guide Key Figures 9

Benedicta is assumed to have been Empedocles was a pre-​Socratic

Benedicta one of the household slaves in the Empedocles philosopher, poet, and follower of
home where Aurelius grew up. Pythagoras.

Cato the Elder was a Roman consul Euripides was an Athenian tragic
Marcus Porcius who wrote on history and agriculture. playwright little appreciated in his
Cato To Romans, Cato was a paragon of Euripides own time, but whose general style of
virtue and moral strength. expression enhances Aurelius's
thoughts.
Little is known of Catulus, except that
Catulus he is listed as one of Aurelius's Stoic Fronto was a Roman rhetorician of
mentors. Cirta (North Africa) who was brought
Marcus in by Hadrian to provide strong
Cornelius support to Aurelius's education in law.
Caninius Celer was a rhetorician and Fronto He also wrote letters to Aurelius over
one of three tutors (along with Aninus a period of time, in which he
Caninius Celer
Macer and Herodes Atticus) hired to continued his discussions.
educate the young Aurelius.

Gaius Julius Caesar was a famous

Crates was a Greek Cynic Roman general whose popularity
Crates Gaius Julius
philosopher attached to Diogenes. propelled him into civil war and who
Caesar
became "dictator for life" until his
Croesus was the last king of Lydia assassination in 44 BCE.
and considered the wealthiest man of
Croesus his time. He controlled a vast area of It is possible, but not certain, that
Greece and made lavish gifts to the Leon of Salamis was an Athenian
Oracle of Delphi. general and a contemporary of
Leon of Salamis Socrates. Although Socrates refused
Democritus was a pre-​Socratic to arrest Leon on the orders of the
philosopher whose theory on atoms Athenian authorities, he also did
Democritus nothing to warn Leon he was at risk.
as the smallest unit of matter was
later taken up by the Epicurians.
Lucilla was Aurelius's mother, whom
Diogenes of Sinope was a Greek he credits with modesty and simplicity
philosopher who ardently opposed Lucilla of life, so as to forgo the lifestyle of
Diogenes of the wealthy. She is credited as a
the writings of Plato, poked fun at the
Sinope source of inspiration.
pretensions and rules of society, and
debunked the principles of sophistry.
Maximus was a Stoic philosopher
Claudius
Diognetus was the tutor hired to who, along with Catulus, was one of
Maximus
teach drawing to the young Aurelius, Aurelius's mentors.
Diognetus but it seems that he also had an
informal philosophical influence on his Philip was the father of Alexander the
student. Great, and ruler of the first
Philip II of
Macedonian empire. He is presented
Macedonia
Dion was a wealthy, aristocratic as an example of the transience of
student of Plato, who trained him in earthly glory.
the appropriate life view for a
Dion of
philosopher-​king. However, Dion Athenian philosopher Plato's
Syracuse
proved to be an arrogant tyrant with a concepts of the ideal society and art
bad temper, which cost him his Plato
suffuse most of what Aurelius has to
attempt to liberate Sicily. say.

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Meditations Study Guide Plot Summary 10

Pompeius is a champion of the Marcus Annius Verus was Aurelius's

Roman Republic, standing against the grandfather, who raised him in the
Gnaeus Magnus
dictatorship of Julius Caesar, and early years of his life as an orphan.
Pompeius
ending in Egypt, where he was Verus (2) The virtues and personality of Verus
murdered. are glowingly praised, and his bust
would have been featured in
Aurelius's pater familias.
Pythagoras was a combination
mystic, mathematician, and
Pythagoras
philosopher in Greece. His attributes Also named Lucius Ceionius
of opposites inform Aurelius's ideas. Commodus, Verus was the adoptive
Lucius Aurelius brother of Aurelius, who was
Verus (3) established as his co-​emperor by
Along with Benedicta and Theodotus, Aurelius to honor the dying wish of
Rusticus Rusticus was probably a slave in the the previous emperor.
household of the young Aurelius.

The Greek Stoic Xenocrates was a

Severus is the great-​grandfather of Xenocrates Platonic philosopher and head of the
Severus Aurelius. He is part of Aurelius's Pater Athenian Academy.
Familias.

Sextus of Chaeronea was a Stoic

Sextus of
Chaeronea
philosopher who taught both Aurelius
and his adoptive brother. k Plot Summary
Sophocles was a Greek tragic
Sophocles playwright who wrote Oedipus the
King. Book 1
Theodotus is presumed to have been As the most clearly defined unit of distinct thought, Book 1 is a
a slave in the household of the young dedication to all the people who influenced Aurelius's frame of
Theodotus
Aurelius, along with Benedicta and thinking, moral virtue, power of reasoning, and education. It is
Rusticus.
here the reader gets some idea of the author's character as
sincere, straightforward, and reverent to the life of the mind.
Theophrastus followed Aristotle to
He is serious, but with a wry sense of humor creeping in now
Theophrastus become the leader of the Peripatetic
school of philosophy. and then.

Thrasea adamantly opposed the

Thrasea
cruelty and abuse of power by Roman
Emperor Nero. He was a Stoic
Book 2
philosopher and admirer of Cato.
Book 2 starts by presenting all the aggravations other people
contribute to daily life, and a reminder that paying too much
Marcus Annius Verus was Aurelius's
father, whom Aurelius could have attention to what other people think is not nearly as important
Marcus Annius
known about only through reputation, as what a person knows about himself. Self-discipline, Aurelius
Verus (1)
although his bust would have been concludes, is the key to knowledge and acceptance.
among Aurelius's pater familias.
Furthermore, only the philosopher can keep untouched the
divine spirit within.

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Meditations Study Guide Plot Summary 11

examples from Plato, who urges an overview of all things and

Book 3 events as if from above, and as a mix of contrary, opposing,
dynamic, and changing conditions subject to a universal core.
Making the most of the present moment is the theme of Book
3. This is done by attending to the duty each individual is
guided to perform without distractions or complaint based on
others' judgments. People can form opinions, but they should
Book 8
be in keeping with nature and with what a reasonable person
In Book 8, Aurelius looks at the illusions of power and wealth
would believe. Those who live in this way can then die in peace.
by comparing two groups of historical figures. The first group
consists of Roman emperors, and the second of philosophers.
By believing they possess power, the emperors seem unaware
Book 4 of the fact that having such power and possessions makes
slaves of them to many things. By contrast, the philosophers
Book 4 continues this line of thinking by stating that the rule of own nothing but command of themselves, and are therefore as
each creature is according to nature. Being distracted by free as any person can possibly be.
creating physical sanctuaries only creates a temporary sense
of refuge, with the side effect being discontent. The antidote to
this is to live as simply and directly as possible in the present
moment, according to one's own natural condition.
Book 9
Book 9 uses logic to explore the idea that "injustice is impiety,"
a condition supported by a desire for pleasure with a
Book 5 corresponding desire to avoid pain. The interconnectedness of
all people as individuals contributing to or detracting from the
Book 5 speculates on the variety of human beings and their whole of creation brings forward the strongest perspective yet
allotted stations in life to which they are suited by their own of a central consciousness engaged in a continuity of co-
natures. Aurelius uses this thought to remind himself that it is creation with the creatures of its own creation.
useless to blame or praise others who are acting according to
the force of that nature, as it is the whole of society that
benefits the individual, just as it is the individual who supports
the whole.
Book 10
Book 10 is about how the soul focuses on what it desires
instead of recognizing that it already has everything it needs.
Book 6 However, Aurelius backtracks a bit here on the "intent" of the
universe, stating that whether a person can bear the struggles
In Book 6, Aurelius explores a consideration of the universe as that come his way is not the point. Either way, complaining
perfectly balanced in such a way that it can be neither evil nor about it does no good. It is not useful and is therefore a waste
benign—a thought that seems to support the perception of of time and effort.
ultimate rationality as both random and absolute. Whether the
universe is good or bad makes no difference, because reason
and the individual's course of action based upon it is constant.
Book 11
Without directly referencing Aristotle, Aurelius presents a
Book 7 number of concepts on the nature of art and the rules of art-
making, which Aristotle outlined in his writings. In this book,
Book 7 urges an even and compassionate attitude toward allusions to the dramatic arts are woven into perceptions of
other people, regardless of their attitudes that either irk or illusions and mimicry in an odd fashion. That is, while pointing
please the individual. In this book, Aurelius brings out several out the transience of a performance as being more or less

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Meditations Study Guide Plot Summary 12

useless, the author also suggests that each person in society

necessarily performs a series of roles relative to position and
status.

Book 12
Meditations makes a general (although somewhat vague)
progression from a non-creationist to a creationist point of
view over the course of the work. This is clearly evident in the
use of the word "God" and "Providence." Determining whether
or not the universe is ordered or random is beside the point,
because human beings have no way of knowing everything.
The composition of a human being is simply of "body, breath
(life) and intelligence," and while the first two are temporary,
the third is not.

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Meditations Study Guide Book Summaries 13

Diognetus also instilled in his student a high regard for a

c Book Summaries sensible foundation in education.

Bacchius of Paphos is listed as a Platonist whose lectures

Aurelius attended when a young man.
Book 1
Benedicta, Theodotus, and Rusticus are presumed to have
been household servants during the time Aurelius was growing

Summary up. The mention of Benedicta and Theodotus in the same

phrase discussing "amatory passions" (lust) suggests that
The opening section of Meditations serves as both an these people had been physically attractive and vulnerable to
introduction to the philosophical and ethical orientations of the the sexual indulgences of their masters. As for Rusticus, it
author and a dedication/acknowledgments passage. The first seems likely that since this person is mentioned in the same
sentence reads, "From my grandfather Verus I learned good phrase as the other two, he is not Rusticus the Stoic.
morals and the government of my temper." Subsequent
The name Cato here most certainly refers to Cato the
paragraphs continue in kind, naming his influences and then
Younger, a Stoic and Roman senator of the Republic who
stating what he learned from each one. This book provides a
opposed Julius Caesar in 49 BCE. Cato took his own life rather
kind of symbolic "shrine" through which Aurelius pays homage
than submit to the tyranny of a dictator.
to his forefathers and mother, peers, mentors, teachers, and
those philosophers who contributed to the foundation of his Marcianus was probably Lucius Volusius Maecianus, a jurist
personal sense of moral, ethical, and reverential honor. who also tutored Aurelius in law.

The last paragraph thanks the gods, the givers of all these Aurelius could not have known his father, Marcus Annius
good people in his life. By mentioning his sources of inspiration, Verus, because he died when Aurelius was about three years
Aurelius reminds himself of his intent to maintain a simple, old. He likely heard many stories about him, which he presents
humble, and respectful attitude over the course of his life. in this first book. His grandfather Verus, who first adopted
Aurelius at a young age, is presumed to have been the Roman
consul, Marcus Annius Verus, while his great-grandfather,
Analysis senator and praetor Annius Verus, amassed a fortune from the
production of olive oil. The fourth "Verus" is also named Lucius
It is remarkable that, unlike the usual acknowledgements of Ceionius Commodus, and is Aurelius's adoptive brother and
Roman pater familias, Aurelius here also credits his mother, as co-emperor. In naming him here, Aurelius is being gracious, for
well as his paternal forefathers, and mentions his relationship other accounts of Commodus did not hold him in particularly
with household servants and slaves. Greeks as well as Romans high regard. Given Aurelius's approach to people, it is likely that
are included, regardless of social status in a manner the lessons gained from Commodus could have been more
appropriate to Aurelius's philosophical orientations. Following cautionary than exemplary.
are some of the names he invokes as having influenced his life
and beliefs. Aurelius states his thanks that he does not follow either "the
Parmularius or the Scutarius" at the gladiators' fights. These
Epictetus had a strict moral underpinning to his informal, are classes or types of gladiators often pitted against each
question-and-answer approach (not unlike that of Socrates, other in the arena games. Parmularius refers to any gladiator
who was also illiterate). His attitude toward life is supported by who carried a parma, or small, round, iron-framed shield (the
the idea that individuals, rather than Fate, are responsible for edge of which could be used to strike a blow) that protected
their own actions and the consequences resulting from them. the torso. A scutarius gladiator carried a much larger and
heavier rectangular shield that protected the upper body as
Diognetus was possibly Greek and one of the tutors Aurelius
well. Combats between these two classes of gladiators
praised for having provided him with a good sense of
emphasized speed and agility to oppose the blocking of
skepticism regarding superstitions and miracle workers.
gladius (small sword). Many more gladiators preferred the

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Meditations Study Guide Book Summaries 14

scutarius to the parma, reflecting changes in military

equipment. Early Roman foot soldiers used the parma, but later
Analysis
switched to the larger rectangular shield that could be used in
Aurelius's struggle with having to deal with difficult people is
closed-ranks to withstand volleys of arrows. Equestrian
evident. He works on it by reminding himself of two points that
warriors ("knights") mounted on horseback continued to use
will underpin his Meditations. First, having observed both "the
the less-cumbersome parma.
good that is beautiful" and the "bad that is ugly," Aurelius finds
Aurelius closes this book with the sentence "Among the Quadi himself neither benefitted nor injured by these opposites. They
at the Granua," which suggests a date for the recording of this are but expressions of the divine, and it isn't up to him to judge
book. The Quadi were a small, fiercely combative Germanic one better, or more desirable, than the other. Second, by
tribe encountered by the Romans in the early centuries CE. focusing on the tasks at hand, and by dealing only with that
Their defeat is represented on the commemorative column of specific portion of the task and duty given to him by
Marcus Aurelius in Rome, which—according to Providence, Aurelius is ruled by neither pleasure nor pain, but
legend—occurred when the Roman legions were much only by himself. Finally, he reminds himself of the temporary
refreshed by rainwater, while the Quadi forces against them nature of his condition as a living human being. This would
were struck by lightning. The event is recorded as having taken certainly be obvious to him on a daily basis on the battlefield.
place on June 11, 172 CE, in modern-day Slovakia, as the river
As will be seen throughout the rest of the books, Aurelius
Granula refers to a tributary of the Danube in that area.
interchangeably cites Providence, the universe, Fate, and
God—or gods—as that inscrutable agency to which human
beings are subject, and over which they have no control.
Book 2 Determining whether or not the "universe" is ordered and
systematic (as would be consistent with the Stoic point of
view), or random and chaotic (Epicurean world view), it is more
Summary important to Aurelius's philosophy that he not complain about
the nature of his own lot in life, nor blame others who have very
Aurelius starts off with a fairly pessimistic statement that likely different allotments and duties.
reflects the bulk of his interactions with military personnel in
the field. That is, each day is filled with unavoidable vexations Theophrastus continued as the leader of the Peripatetic school
caused by the ignorance of other people. He will meet with "the of thought after Aristotle. This school of thought was named
busy-body, the ungrateful, arrogant, deceitful, envious, for the peripatos, or the cloister in which the philosophers
unsocial." He reminds himself not to worry about them, for they walked as they discussed their ideas. They taught free of
are made as nature intended them to be. charge, and lectures were open to the public. Theophrastus is
credited with having expanded Aristotle's views to include
The author presents the important principles by which he can natural sciences. Aurelius most likely looks to him when he
guide himself through these kinds of frustrations. As he will speaks of "fidelity to nature" as an anecdote to the corruptions
remind himself throughout Meditations in different ways, his life of arrogance and ostentation.
is brief and made up of "a little flesh and breath and the ruling
part [intelligence]." Instead of worrying about what other
people think or do, it is up to him to see to his own duty and to Book 3
discipline his thoughts accordingly.

In this book Aurelius includes a debate about which is worse:

desire or anger. He cites the philosopher Theophrastus's Summary
beliefs that offenses committed through desire "are more
blameable" than those committed through anger. While anger Never one to waste time, Aurelius advises making the most of
colors one's reason, desire overpowers it. Regulation of "every what is to be had in physical health and strength of mind in the
act and thought" helps a man avoid falling under the influence present moment, for time eventually corrodes these elements
of either emotion. either by death or old age. Such change is inevitable, and

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Meditations Study Guide Book Summaries 15

Aurelius mentions the physical degradation and death of powerful these men were, because nothing is now left of them.
several esteemed philosophers and emperors, including Being a "slave to the vessel" means being a slave to the body,
Alexander the Great. At the same time, he says, things derived which is only a temporary container for the superior "contents"
from nature hold at least a temporary beauty and essence of of intelligence and deity (daimon).
their own. He gives the example of a loaf of bread which, when
baked, has a split in the top of it. While this "disfigurement" is
not "ideal" in beauty, it carries the implication of something Book 4
good and wholesome to eat.

It is useless to look after what other people are doing or

saying. Instead, Aurelius advises to stick to good principles that
Summary
mutually and interchangeably serve the individual man, society
In Book 4 Aurelius speculates on the type of sanctuary that
as a whole, and the divine. The concept of the divine includes
best supports the individual self. He advocates against vainly
the "deity which is in thee," which is detached from the senses
amassing an outward show of material wealth. Instead, he
and answerable to the gods. Take the lessons of history to
suggests practicing self-discipline by creating personal order
heart, and then discard the history books, he says, because it
and tranquility from within. The practice provides insulation
does no good to brood on the accomplishments of others. As
from jealousy and discontent on the part of others, and
for the self, all accomplishments are their own reward, and the
reminds the individual to curb appetites for fame, fortune, and
praises or condemnations of others are irrelevant.
praise.

Aurelius also brings up the topic of political community as

Analysis supported and sustained by the same rational principles as
those sustaining a good man. What is good for the whole in the
Book 3 is one of the darker segments of Meditations, and the
ordering of the universe is good for society and is also good
transience of life in the face of the inevitability of death seems
for the individual. One cannot be a stranger to the universe and
uppermost in the author's mind—especially as he lists famous
what is going on there; to act this way is to be like a
and powerful men of the past. His discussion of ordinary things
philosopher without clothes.
like olives and bread resonates with the practical observation
that perfection of beauty is on par with perfection of Not only is life brief for both "beggar and king," Aurelius says,
happiness. In other words, it is unattainable. Nevertheless, it is but its events and activities (birth, sickness, heath, marriage,
entirely possible to achieve contentment and take pleasure in warring, feasting, etc.) are repeating and cyclical. The same
the simple things, knowing that they—as well as the person things happen to all people in their lives. The difference is in
enjoying them—are transient. how the continual changes from one state to the other
(exemplified by the exchanges of transformation between the
The "deity within" likely refers to a person's "daimon." Socrates
elements of earth, air, fire, and water) are perceived. One
referred to this concept as his "little voice inside," or a
person buries another, just as whole cities, such as Pompeii
conscience, which may (or may not) be directly connected to
and Herculaneum, were once buried. It therefore makes no
the conscience of everyone. If a man will follow his own
sense to let a fear of death guide one's life.
daimon, it won't matter how short or long his life is—he is
always ready to die without anticipating or fearing it. Book 4 contains a series of short aphorisms. For instance,
Aurelius says, "Be like the promontory (a high point of land
Alexander the Great conquered most of the known world in his
projecting into the sea) against which waves continually break,
time. He is often cited by Aurelius in Meditations as an example
but it stands firm and tames the fury of the water around it."
of a "man on top of the world"—someone with an inestimable
amount of wealth and power. Other powerful men mentioned in
the same section include the Roman rulers Pompeius and
Gaius Caesar, but, as Aurelius reminds himself several times
throughout Meditations, it doesn't matter how rich and

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Meditations Study Guide Book Summaries 16

overly concerned with eating and drinking to the exclusion of

Analysis other activities. In a similar fashion, placing either body or soul
as more important than the other makes it difficult to recognize
The philosopher without clothes mentioned in Book 4 could
the dichotomy of body and soul without undue attachment to
easily have been a Cynic like Diogenes, or any other
either. To that end, Aurelius suggests that if prayers are
philosopher "world-dweller" who cared nothing for
offered to a divinity, such prayers should be simple,
possessions. This view of the philosopher as a solitary ascetic
straightforward, and with an acknowledgement that nature
with no concern for appearances also applies to Aurelius's
dictates both.
mention in Book 11 of Socrates's lack of concern that his wife
took his cloak.

In citing Herculaneum and Pompeii, Aurelius supports his Analysis

comparison of human and natural cycles of transformation.
Herculaneum was the site of the Villa of the Papyri, a large The leading principle of a person's own nature is brought

library containing philosophical texts in Greek and Latin. Both forward in this book as a means to explore the interconnection

Herculaneum and the city of Pompeii were destroyed by the between a man's own interests that serve, and are served by,

eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE. the common good. To this end, Aurelius presents animals and
plants that are the perfection of nature simply because they
It is possible that the aphorisms in Book 4 were modeled after follow the nature of their own being. He advises himself to
those for which Heraclitus was famous. The epigrams of continually observe the behavior of other people in the same
Heraclitus were often cited during the course of philosophical light, that is, without judgment. Aurelius reminds himself that no
discussions in which Aurelius probably took part as a student one can compel another to forget the nature of the universe, or
and young man in Rome. They include, "We cannot step twice to act against "my god and daimon." In this way he is reassured
into the same river." Aurelius has his own river analogy: "Time is that all is to the ultimate good, and he need not be distressed
like a river made up of the events that happen." In Walden by any adverse condition.
(1854), a much later philosopher, Henry David Thoreau, would
adapt this concept in his famous quote "Time is but the stream In this argument, Aurelius seems to be arguing more

I go a-fishing in." The metaphor emphasizes the fleeting nature prominently on the side of the Stoics, who generally affirmed

of life. an orderly and systematic cosmos. The idea of order tended to

support the notion of a god (Zeus) in command of the universe.
To act on that assertion was to produce "right acts" or

Book 5 catorthoseis. By allowing right thought to guide rightness of

action, a man naturally performs the duty for which he has
been designed to carry out—every bit as much as a dog, a
horse, a bee, or a fig tree.
Summary
This section begins with outlining the relationship between
labor and rest. Just as it is necessary to allocate sufficient time
Book 6
in the day for eating and drinking, so is it necessary to set
aside appropriate periods for work and leisure in such a way
that these daily routines follow the principles of a person's Summary
individual nature. Aurelius explains that attachment to one part
of it over another is on par with doing service to another The opening statement in Book 6 suggests that the perfection

person and then expecting to be thanked for it. of the universe unfolds over time and holds no evil or malice
whatsoever. Aurelius augments this perspective by giving a
The problem with being disappointed or setting up an number of examples that explore the passing nature of
expectation of reward is parallel to the problem of being sensation. He draws these examples from nature, occupations
attached to rest more than to work, or vice versa, or to being from emperors to laborers, and daily activities, such as eating.

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Meditations Study Guide Book Summaries 17

Ordinary people are distracted by the appearances of things, reminder that regardless of esteem, wealth, or
and allow themselves to be influenced by superficial attributes accomplishments of any kind, everyone dies and is forgotten. It
that cause them to either praise or condemn others. Aurelius is immaterial whether "the nature of All" moves in continuity or
finds it curious that these people spend so much time and whether there is no ultimate rationality of action. A person
energy trying to figure out what others think of them, when it is must attend to duty with an attitude of love and forgiveness for
insignificant. All that matters is what the individual thinks of its own sake, and not because a reward of praise or gratitude
himself. This perspective touches on skepticism, since the is expected.
ultimate nature of the universe cannot be determined.

"We are all working together to one end," Aurelius says, and Analysis
each man does his own part. Furthermore, what is good for
one man is also good for others. Ultimately Aurelius returns to Aurelius presents here three disciplines he finds essential to
the idea that even the greatest of men die; what is important is maintaining peace of mind; discipline of the will, discipline of
to live in truth and justice and to consider the virtues of the action, and discipline of perception. These are emphasized in
living. this book and are drawn forward to play out under most of the
other ideas and concepts in Meditations.

Analysis Discipline of the will makes it possible to maintain a steady and

consistent focus on what is, and what is not, important in the
The Stoics' attitude toward fate versus free will is that certain moment. For example, while the opinions of others are
conditions are irrevocably placed upon all human beings by unimportant, what one thinks of the self from within is the only
their fate. The only choice of the will is either to accept those important perspective to keep in mind. Then, guided by
conditions and make the best of them, or to reject them, discipline of the will, the person with discipline of action can go
resulting in damage to both the individual and society as a forward in the moment of each day with focused attention.
whole. The principle guiding this choice is logic and reason. While duty is served to the best of one's ability, there is no
Aurelius's goal in Book 6 is to remember that distractions keep need to worry about situations over which one has no control.
one from fulfilling one's role as dictated by fate.
To discuss discipline of perception—which can also be thought
Aurelius specifies that even "Philistion, Phoebus and Origanion" of as a discipline of the senses—Aurelius mentions qualities
are dead. It isn't known exactly who or what these people such as sweetness and bitterness. It is easily observable, he
were. The point Aurelius wishes to remind himself of is that says, that the sense of taste by which what is sweet is
despite all their earthly might, all their accomplishments and distinguished from what is bitter differs from one person to
fame have vanished. It is the present that matters: living a another, so there is no "absolute" state of sweet or bitter taste.
virtuous life himself while considering the good qualities in Furthermore, for anyone, something tastes more sweet if it
those around him. follows something bitter than if it follows something that is also
sweet. These observations lead Aurelius to conclude that there
is no absolute reality of the senses, and, therefore, there is no
Book 7 absolute reality to the will or actions a person may take. So,
instead of adhering to a rule to be followed in any and all
situations, Aurelius describes these as "disciplines" that guide

Summary him toward his own relative reality. Reality is thus generated by
the individual person, instead of handed from a superior
authority. The idea is taken from one of Democritus's
In this book Aurelius gets down to the "brass tacks" of
discussions about how the senses present relative instead of
philosophical discussion and its application to the struggles of
absolute conditions of reality.
daily life. He outlines three critical disciplines: that of the will,
action, and perception. He proposes a series of questions with
statements of insight from pertinent philosophers specific to
his understanding. Beneath the discussion, however, is another

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Meditations Study Guide Book Summaries 18

The mystic concept of the self-contained soul as a sphere has

Book 8 played in and out of philosophy across the centuries. The idea
adheres to the Greek concept of "perfect geometry," of which
a sphere is considered to be the best example. The quote "A
Summary sphere once formed remains round and true" is attributed to
the poet and pre-Socratic philosopher Empledocles, who
Book 8 begins with Aurelius attempting to identify his reasons viewed the cosmos as one of never-ending change and
for feeling disturbed by external impressions, and finding a transmutation (including the soul), growth, and decay. The
degree of resolution by discovering "what is fit and useful." The ideas of Empledocles certainly come forward in this book in its
idea is that this exercise helps put aside the desire for fame discussion of shifting change and cycle.
and wealth that is impressive to the masses for only a brief
period of time. While only a few men have the destiny to
become a Caesar or an Alexander and rule the world, all men, Book 9
regardless of their station in life, have access to the disciplines
of philosophical perspective of the most noted philosophers.
Aurelius speculates on the control power and influence have
over those who appear to wield it. In contrast, a simplicity of
Summary
life and contentment with what is needed to sustain life while it
lasts places a person in perfect control of himself. Within its
own domain, he says, nobody can frustrate the mind. He
Book 9
quotes the philosopher Empledocles to support this thought:
Aurelius says the wise adopt a policy of neutrality that can
"The globe, once orbed and true, remains a sphere."
exist only between the opposites of pain and pleasure. The
discipline is one of perception. To exercise it conscientiously
The interconnected concerns of individual and social life are
requires neither desiring nor avoiding these opposites. The
one and the same. Be willing to show others the error of their
same relationship exists between other kinds of opposites, and
ways with humility, Aurelius says; and at the same time, take
an understanding of how this works leads to a sustainable
what is valuable from the advice of others. Do not blame
state of tranquility based on reason. Failing to exercise this
others.
discernment is a sin: "It is a sin to pursue pleasure as a good
An attachment to all that is temporary and subject to change and to avoid pain as an evil." Continuing his discussion of sin,
means there is no way to avoid what is not wanted, just as he states that the sinner sins against himself through the
there is no way to keep what is wanted. Knowing one's own things he does and those he fails to do.
nature and how to act on it is crucial to maintaining an even
In this book Aurelius also touches on the cyclical nature of the
balance. Since everything exists for a reason, reason sustains
universe; the idea that all that has happened will happen again,
the oppositions of certainty and uncertainty by establishing a
or that all living beings experience a kind of constant flow of
middle ground.
change which, is ultimately unchangeable.

Analysis
Analysis
Underlying Aurelius's Meditations in Book 8 is his main theme
Of all the books in Meditations, it is in this one that Aurelius
of the transience of life. He writes that by turning away from
most clearly presents his understanding of Epicurus. The
wondering over the "why" of things and their conditions, people
philosopher's mind was not on his own suffering or pain, but
should simply adhere to what is, because there is no answer
rather on those reasoned actions that can be taken to endure
available. In this kind of thinking Aurelius appears to be taking
and survive. The attitude is an admirable one for a
more the side of a random universe than the side of the Stoics
warrior/emperor to embrace during long campaigns. The
and a systematic one.
exercise of this approach is designed to hone an

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Meditations Study Guide Book Summaries 19

understanding of what is transient (subject to change and

decay) and what is eternal (the soul).
Analysis
Aurelius suggests it is only by looking inward that a person can Book 10 begins with a contradiction. Aurelius seems to be
make this distinction. The sentiment is less connected to asking if the needs of his own soul will ever surpass the wants
Stoicism than it is to an Epicurean attitude toward an of the body. However, this tension reflects specifically upon
unfathomable and random lack of patterns in the world. The the nature of soul and body. That is, while the body is material
discipline of enduring pain without complaint may refer to an and temporary, the soul is eternal and imperishable, and the
account Epicurus made of his illness, which he struggled to only possession a man is able to keep. It is not that one is
endure with patience. "better" or more important than the other. Rather, it is a matter
of natural order to look to the source instead of looking to the
manifestation of what the source produces. In other words,

Book 10 Aurelius reminds himself not to be fooled by appearances the

way children might be fooled into believing that the characters
of a puppet show are acting of their own volition.

Summary Aurelius draws upon several examples—both positive and

negative—to make his point. One example is a pig that "is
In Book 10 Aurelius first reminds himself to be attentively sacrificed and kicks and screams." This likely refers to the
aware of the distinctions between the needs of his soul, which Greek story of Odysseus, in which his men were turned into a
are simple, direct, and good, and the wants of an ever-restless herd of pigs by the sorceress Circe because of their physical
and discontented body. To this end, he appeals to a sense of greed. In a sense, what Circe did was merely reveal the men as
his own nature in a "whatever doesn't kill you only makes you they were, centered more in body than in soul.
stronger" approach. He expands on the issue of nature and its
inevitable unfolding through his life. Nature affects him as an
individual, and also acts upon the "community with gods and Book 11
men." This line of discussion provides him with a neutrality that
does not waste energy in finding fault and condemnation on a
personal or social level.
Summary
Much of Aurelius's thought in this book is centered on the
intertwined relationships between the part and the whole. He Aurelius continues his discussion on the relativity of body and
refers to the incorporation of body and soul as similar to the soul in Book 11, but shifts his perspective toward reality and
relationship between the individual and the community to illusion to make his point. To this end, he proceeds to examine
which he belongs, and of which he is an indelible part. He also the properties of "the rational soul," by which it recognizes,
draws upon concrete examples of people, places, and things understands, and thereby "owns" itself as its only true and
to illustrate the principles of sensations. The emphasis here is enduring property. This ownership makes it possible to
on a duality of condition resolved by the conclusion of life. The perceive the universe as not only orderly and systematic but
final paragraph of Book 10 reflects on his opening statements also cyclic. The idea brings forward an understanding that
about body and soul, observing that although the body nothing new ever happens in the universe, and that, although
contains the soul, it is the hidden soul within that "pulls the one's own experiences are new to oneself, they are not unique.
strings," using the tool of the body to express itself. The Aurelius says, "Happy [is] the soul" that accepts death as
implication is that it is more important to understand the soul inevitable. However, unlike the Christians, a person must
than to be concerned with the functions of the body. accept death "without heroics."

Having opened the discussion in this way, Aurelius continues to

examine the art of the self. He discusses why one man may
have a false sense of separation from the community of which
he is an integral part. Just as art mimics life, he reasons, so too

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Meditations Study Guide Book Summaries 20

does the artifice of appearances mimic the true nature of a

person. He goes on to assert that words are one thing, but the Book 12
genuine scale of a person's worth is balanced in actions.

Aurelius also outlines the nine considerations to bring into play Summary
when someone offends another person. They are:
In Book 12 Aurelius returns to the idea that the best course of
1. to remember the common bond among all people
action in time and space is to remember death can come at
2. to consider reputation, the kind of person the offender is
any time. He urges himself to shake free of both past regrets
3. to remember that wrong-doing is often a matter of
or nostalgia and the fearful anticipation of an uncertain future.
ignorance
He seems hopeful that the universe is ordered and reasoned
4. to remember that one's own self also offends
according to divine plan, and whether or not that plan is in part
5. to be aware that all the circumstances leading to the
or whole understood is beside the point—the perspective of
offense may not be known
humans is necessarily limited. The left hand is practiced in
6. to remember how brief life is
holding the bridle of a horse, even though it does not do well in
7. to know that a discipline of perception makes one realize
other tasks. And in management of principles, Aurelius says,
that it is not the person who has offended one, but only
follow the example of the boxer and not the swordsman. One
one's perception of the offense
can put down a sword but always has one's hands.
8. to remember that being angry does harm to a person
9. to rest assured that a genuinely good disposition is an Whether ordered or disordered, Providence can take away
invincible shield from any harm only the poor flesh and the poor breath—never a person's
intelligence. If he practices using his intelligence every day of
The implication is that no one can harm a person's soul unless
his life, it will strengthen beyond life itself. The conclusion of
the person allows it to happen, even though harm to the body
this last book presents the idea that death comes at the right
may occur.
time regardless of the length of one's life, and when it does
come, a satisfied God releases a person's very essence from
those appearances.
Analysis
Underlying the insights in Book 11 is the reminder that if the
soul is understood as distinct from the body, then all things
Analysis
that render the body temporary and perishable cannot affect
It is unclear whether Aurelius meant this book as a summary of
the soul.
the previous 11 books. However, he does return to specific
Although Aurelius never specifically names Aristotle directly ideas regarding the brevity of life and the responsibility of a
here, he expresses a thorough understanding of the nature of person to depend confidently on his own ideas.
art/artifice as detailed by the philosopher. Playing roles,
While it is the duty of a person to take reasonable care of the
however, does not mean that a person should attach himself to
body and breath, it is intelligence that must be carefully
any one of them to the exclusion of others. It is the balance
guarded. The advice here is to protect it well and hold it above
between them that sustains society and thereby also sustains
all various opinions, praise, or condemnation that others would
the individual.
apply. If a person adheres to confidence in his own opinion
Book 11 is the only one in which Aurelius mentions the instead of seeking outside himself for evaluation, then there is
Christians, and he does so rather dismissively, commenting on nothing to fear from any condition of life and death.
their obsession with death. Although he did not seem to go out
Aurelius makes the point that a boxer uses his own hands to
of his way to persecute this sect, he also didn't do much to
fight, while a gladiator wields a gladius, or short sword, as an
curb the efforts of officials and governors in outlying territories
extension of his own hand. What Aurelius seems to be putting
to provide the bloody entertainment of their martyrdom in the
forward here is a preference of immediate self-reliance on
arenas.

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Meditations Study Guide Quotes 21

one's own faculties, instead of using an extension that is

"Failure to observe ... the mind of
eventually removed from the unadorned body.
another has seldom made a man
unhappy; but those who do not
g Quotes
observe ... their own minds must ...
be unhappy."
"I did not fall into the hands of any
sophist ... or occupy myself about — Marcus Aurelius, Book 2

the investigations of ... the

This statement recurs often throughout Meditations, as
heavens ... these things require ... Aurelius catches himself wondering what others think of him,
gods and fortune." or concerns himself with their opinions. Being pulled about by
these thoughts has been identified as a constant source of
distress that Aurelius decides he can certainly do without,
— Marcus Aurelius, Book 1
especially when it comes to the self-confidence of decision-
making a warrior emperor must practice.
Here Aurelius reminds himself of the fact that he received
good instruction from people who helped him discern the Instead, he resolves to study carefully his own motivations and
differences between empty or hollow activities, and those thinking to attain at least a measure of satisfaction.
which actually improve a person's life. A sophist argued pretty
much for the sake of winning an argument rather than seeking
the truth of the matter. "For the lot that is assigned to
Similarly, Aurelius considers astrology something of a con job, each man is carried along with him
because a person's fate is determined by forces beyond
and carries him along with it."
human understanding.

— Marcus Aurelius, Book 3

"Whatever this is that I am, it is a

This statement can be considered in a linear relationship of
little flesh and breath, and the reasoning with Aurelius's ideas on mutually defining and
ruling part." supporting conditions. If a man will attend to what he has been
given to do with a sincere sense of duty toward his community,
the process of carrying out that duty will also serve him every
— Marcus Aurelius, Book 2
bit as much as the community.

This statement is something of a recurring reduction of the self

to basic essence. The flesh—or the corporeal body and the
"Every man lives only in the
breath that supports it—are transient, changeable, and
therefore subject to ultimate decay and death. However, the present, which is an invisible point,
"ruling part," or intelligence, is seated in the eternal soul.
and ... all the rest of his life is
Aurelius goes back and forth a bit on whether or not the soul either past or ... uncertain."
has an existence after death, much as he wavers between
arguments of the Stoic order of the cosmos versus random
— Marcus Aurelius, Book 3
occurrences as explained by Epicurean philosophy.

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Meditations Study Guide Quotes 22

Living only in the present is the main defense Aurelius

not even a name."
identifies as a balanced state of tranquility undisturbed by
extremes of pleasure or pain. The present is essentially all a
— Marcus Aurelius, Book 5
person has, and it does not benefit him to dwell on past
mistakes or accomplishments, or to fret over fears of what
may come in the future. In this instance, Aurelius comes As a soldier and emperor on the battlefield, Aurelius
closest to an Epicurean point of view. encountered more than his share of images of death, decay,
and corruption of the perishable and limited human body. By
extension, a person's name also fades away over time—even
"Tranquility is nothing else than the names of emperors. Aurelius reminds himself that he is
ultimately accountable to no one but himself—the "you"
the good ordering of the mind." throughout Meditations is Aurelius addressing himself.

— Marcus Aurelius, Book 4

"Let ... court and philosophy ... be
The author here specifically makes a distinction between
stepmother and mother to you ...
"tranquility," or peace of mind, as a continuously sustainable
state in opposition to "happiness," which is not sustainable whom ... you meet ... in ... court
because pain and suffering define it.
appears tolerable to you, and you
appear tolerable in ... court."
"The universe is transformation:
— Marcus Aurelius, Book 6
life is opinion."

— Marcus Aurelius, Book 4 While the public and private lives of the emperor appear to be
different, they are related in the same way as a mother and a
stepmother might be.
This comment is one way Aurelius has of "running around to
the other side of the table" from his Stoic base to take a Aurelius loved philosophy, but here he reminds himself that he
distinctly opposing and refreshing view supported by also has to act effectively in public to the good of his empire,
Epicureans. While Stoics employed skepticism (an element of even if it doesn't hold his heart. By putting on a good face, he is
doubt that spurs investigation and inquiry) and cynicism (to live able to fulfill his duties both to his private and his public self.
by the bare necessities of life only in pursuit of virtue),
Epicureans would ask, "What for? It's all in your own head;
nothing is permanent, not even the random disorganized "Remember that to change your
universe."
opinion and to follow him who
It expresses the possibility that maybe it isn't all an organized
system after all, in which case, Aurelius reminds himself the
corrects your error is as
ultimate answer is not his to know. Only by doing his best will consistent with freedom as it is to
he live nobly and meaningfully.
persist in your error."

"Soon, very soon, you will be ashes — Marcus Aurelius, Book 8

or a skeleton, and either a name or

A note of humility sets in here. Aurelius is reminding himself

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Meditations Study Guide Quotes 23

that nobody is right all the time. He accepts the notion that
wills."
someone else, regardless of status (even a laborer or slave),
might have something useful to offer. All people are on the
— Marcus Aurelius, Book 9
journey of life together, and not every encounter is designed to
derail efforts to improve.
There are many constant reminders of the presence of death
implicit in every moment of a person's life. Aurelius gives many
"Speak both in the senate and to examples of how death eventually brings down the mightiest of
men, and even those who remember and mourn them also turn
every man, whoever he may be, to ashes in the end. Since death comes to all who live, Aurelius
appropriately, without affectation: tells himself to neither look forward to it, nor attempt to avoid
its natural progression.
use plain discourse."

— Marcus Aurelius, Book 8 "For this is something like what

gardeners mean when they say it
Aurelius counted himself fortunate to have avoided the
elaborations of speech for its own sake to the awe and grows with the rest of the tree but
admiration of others. He considered such practice vain,
that it is not of one mind with it."
because to do so was to look down on listeners as lesser
beings who couldn't possibly understand. As commander of
— Marcus Aurelius, Book 11
military forces during long foreign campaigns, his success
depended upon quick and concise communication.
This comment suggests a discernment of the difference
between appearances and reality. A branch grafted onto a tree
"If you are pained by any external may look like it belongs there, but it is not the same as a
branch that has grown naturally from that tree. In a similar
thing, it is not this thing that manner, men may act with the appearance of virtue while
disturbs you, but your own actually working for their own benefit—a common enough
occurrence in political life.
judgment about it."

— Marcus Aurelius, Book 8 "Practice that also wherein you

have no expectation of success."
The idea here is on par with, "as a man thinks, so it is true." The
reminder is that pain and its opposite, pleasure, have nothing to
— Marcus Aurelius, Book 12
do with a particular condition, but rather how an individual
responds to it. His references to many of the philosophers he
admired are examples of utter indifference to both luxuries and This idea also reflects upon the habit of remaining untroubled
want, so long as possession of one's own self is firmly in hand. by either praise or condemnation. The point is to have
confidence in actions taken in order to be faithful to the self.

Aurelius reminds himself here that any expectation of good or

"Do not despise death, but be well ill stemming from his efforts sets him up for being attached to
content with it, since this, too, is the gratification of his own accomplishments (arrogance), and
a corresponding lack of self-confidence attached to failure. As
one of those things that nature

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Meditations Study Guide Symbols 24

with pleasure and pain, the effort is to neither avoid nor seek
out, but remain constantly balanced between extremes. m Glossary
catorthoseis (n) Greek term meaning the implementation of
right actions based upon reason that follows a logical
l Symbols alignment

daimon (n) Greek word for the little voice of conscience

dwelling in each person and in concord with ultimate reality
Bee and Fig
gladius (n) Latin word for a short, double-bladed sword used
by the Roman military, and in gladiator combat in the arenas

Recurring images of bees and fig trees are found throughout gravitas (n) Latin word meaning serious intent; not frivolous or
Meditations, and serve the purpose of reminding the author of imaginative, but practical and focused on duty
his own resolve to remain steadfast in the action of the duty
that his lot in life has assigned to him. Just as a bee benefits pater familias (n) Latin word for a collection of forefathers and
from, and acts as beneficiary to, the colony to which it belongs, ancestors recognized by a Roman citizen. The pater familias
so too is man inextricably connected to his society. were often represented by marble busts.

The fig tree has no other option than to bear fruit, a condition patrician (n) member of an aristocratic Roman family
mandated to it by Providence. By extension, then, the words
pietas (n) Latin word for an attitude of reverence and respect
and actions of other men are not subject to any expression of
toward the gods and forefathers of a Roman citizen
anger or judgement by Aurelius. No matter how obnoxious
these people might be, they are acting as nature has directed Providence (n) Aurelius's term for a divine presence
them.
sphere (n) a round object

transcience (n) the state of being transient, or short-lived

Branch and Tree
e Suggested Reading
Horticulture as practiced by the Greeks and Romans included
grafting branches of one variety of grape onto a "parent," or Aurelius, Marcus. Meditations. Edited by Paul Negri, Dover
host plant. With care, the branch would successfully bond and Thrift Editions, 1997.
grow to bear its own characteristic fruit supported by a sturdy
Cumow, Trevor. The Philosophers of the Ancient World: An A–Z
host. Aurelius uses the practice of grafting as a way to explain
Guide. Bristol Classical, 2006.
that corrupt men placed in positions of power may believe in
moral principles of community service, but in truth serve only
Hays, Gregory. Meditations: A New Translation, with an
their own fundamental purposes. They can be "grafted" onto a
Introduction. The Modern Library, 2003.
position of trust, but like any grafted branch, can bear fruit only
according to their true nature, and not that of the host plant. Sellars, John, "Marcus Aurelius (121–180 C.E.)." Internet
Encyclopedia of Philosophy,2002.

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