Origin of Natyasastra

The classical Indian dance form originated when ‘Atreya’ and other ancient sages put five questions to ‘Bharata
Muni’ about ‘Bharata’.
1] How the Natyaveda came into existence.
2] For Whose benefit.
3] What are its Angas.
4] What are the means for arriving at definite conclusions.
5] How is it to be represented on the stage.

To begin with, Baharata introduced the ‘Natya’ incorporating only the three Vrttis, viz Bharati, Sattvati & Arabhati and
presented it before God Brahma. The God told him to make use of Kaisikivrtti also which needs the assistance of
women. For this the celestial nymphs called ‘Apsaras’ were created.

The first performance was slated for the occasion of the Dhvajatsava, the festival honouring God Indiara. The theme
of the show was the victory of good over the evils. Brahma set forth new ideas which should be acceptable to all and
theme provide Virtue, fame, longevity and good advice to the world. But the first item in the agenda should be
worship of the stage, without which no performance should be initiated.

Construction of Theatre.

Theatres are of three kinds. 1] Vikrsta [rectangular], 2] Caturassa [Square], 3] Tryasra [Triangular]. The laying of the
foundation stone should be to the accompaniment of musical instruments. Erection of walls and columns should be
according to the measurements. The theater should have the appearance of a mountain cave; pictures should be
drawn on the walls and seats should be made of bricks or wood to accommodate the Spectators or audiences.

Worship of Deities

Once the theatre is got up almost all major and minors deities are to be worshipped. Since they are supposed to be
present on the stage protecting different sections.  The Sutradhare[Programmer] is to pray to these deities to afford
protection during the night in which the performance is made.

Characteristics of Dance.

‘Brahma’ ordained to Bharata to produce the type of play called Samavakara [in which there are twelve heroes and
the sentiment of heroic as the predominant one]. Brahma had already composed Amrtamathana dealing with the
churning of the milky ocean in which both Gods [are on good side] and Asuras [are on the evil side] took part.
Naturally all of them were pleased and they forgot their enmity for a while.

In these performances the elements of representation like Angaharas [movements of limbs], Karanas [Postures]

and Recakas[Gestures] were made use of. There are thirty-two Angaharas, Hundred- eight Karanas and four
Recakas.

Angahara-: Derived from two [Link]+Hara.’ Anga’ means the movement of limbs from one place to another
and ‘hara’ Significant the God ‘Siva’. In short the movement involving the Anga-means the movements of limbs form
one place to another is called Anghara.
  
Karana-: The word Karana originated from the Sanskrit word’Krn’ means to act. According to Bharata a Karana
consist of a combination of three elements viz-: Sthana- a posture of the body, Nrttahasta-: A hand pose and a
‘Kara’-: the movement of the feet.  Hence karana is a movement and unit form of dance. In ‘Natyasastra’ there are
108 such karanas are describe. The Nrtta or dance based on Karanas can be classified as Laghu- Flowing
gracefully,Visama- complicated and acrobatic and Vikata- hilarious. The Karanas are used according to the
characterization taking into account the in-evitable psych- physic relationship. The Karanas are meant for Vakyartha-
Bhinaya via to bring out the mood or meaning of the whole sentence through physical action.

Recakas_:   Recakas are four involving Pada[Feet], Kati[Hip], Kara[Hands] and Kantha[Neck]. It stands for

separation turning and lifting up.

Purarangavidhana

It deals with the preliminary rites that are to be performed before the staging of a play. Some of these are to be
carried out behind the curtain, while other is to be initiated after raising the curtain and in front of the audience.
Seating arrangement of the artists, tuning of instruments and sounding of drums and items to be carried out behind
the curtain without the accompaniment of audible songs.

Sentiments:

By the term Natyasangraha thirteen items are comprehended. They according to Bharata are 1]Rasas, 2] Bhavas ,
3] Abhinayas,
4] Dharmis, 5] Vrttis, 6] Pravrttis ,7] Siddhi, 8] Dvaras, 9] Atadya, 10] Gana, 11] Prakrti, 12]Upacara, 13]
Mandapas.

 Movements :

After describing the gaits of the various human characters those of various birds, animals like lions etc are dealt with
the movements of different vehicles like chariots, ascending of palaces and mounts, descents into rivers and lower
places, riding of horses, movements of serpents etc are describe here.

Language:

In addition to Sanskrit, Various dialects of prakrits are to be used according to the nature of character. This is
followed by the different langaugae groups, which are of four kinds. 1]Atibhasa[For the Gods], 2] Aryabhasa[ Kings
and nobles], 3] Jatibhasa[Different communities],4] Yonyantaribhasa[ Sound of birds and animals].

Instruments:

An instrument is of four kinds. 1] Tata[Stringed ones like lute], 2] Avanaddha [on which a hide is spread as in the
case of a drum] 3]Ghan[Salid like cymbals] 4] Susira[Hollow like a flute]. Since the music is generally pleasing in
which Svaras and Talas combines.

Conclusion :
Natyasastra is the mother of all classical Indian art form and lays down the foundations of a theory and practice of
Indian arts, which was adhered, by all theoreticians and practitioners for a period of approximately two thousand
years. Based on the Natyasastra of Bharata Muni, India has produced numerous art forms, such as Bharatanatyam,
Kattakali, Kathak, Kuchipudi, Manipuri, Mohiniattam , Krisshnanattam etc.  

1. NATYA SASTRA'S AUTHOR AND NATYA SASTRA'S RELEVANCE

Natya Sastra is a classical work in Sanskrit on dramaturgy. Indian traditions claim that the sage
Bharata composed Natya Sastra. Some have questioned the traditional belief that it was written
by the sage Bharata. Haraprasad Sastri and other scholars suggested that this work belonged to
200 B.C. Manomohan Ghosh who made an excellent translation of this work (Ghosh 1961) says
"it may be reasonable to assume the existence of the Natyasastra in the 2nd century A.C."
(Ghosh 1961:23). Adya Rangacharya, on the other hand, suggested, "the book of 36 (or 37)
chapters available now, is not an early one, but may be as late as the seventh or eighth century
AD" (Rangacharya 1996:xv). We shall not enter into any discussion of the work in terms of its
age. But we should remember that even if we assume that it was written in the seventh or eighth
century this work is of great significance for Indian poetics, drama, and fine arts. Generations of
Indians have been influenced by the thoughts adumbrated in this treatise. Even our movies
follow the same aesthetics suggested as appropriate to the Indian nation in this excellent treatise!
Certain stereotype notions that an average Indian now has about his and other ethnolinguistic
communities are found discussed and used in this interesting work on drama. The work is a mine
of sociolinguistic information of the past and the present.

2. WHY NATYA SASTRA?

As already indicated, the work consists of 36 or 37 chapters. The first chapter describes how
drama came to be introduced. It is claimed that although the Vedas are good and pleasing, these
are pleasing only to the ear. Could we not have something that pleases the eyes as well?
Moreover, the Sudras are prohibited from learning the Vedas or listening to them. So, we should
have something that even the Sudras could see, listen, and enjoy. So went the argument. The
request was made to Brahma to create a fifth Veda that would fulfill this desire.

The purpose of this work (on drama) according to Brahma was "to show good and bad actions
and feelings of both the gods and yourselves (rakshasas, etc.). It is the representation of (the
ways of) the entire three worlds and not only of the gods or of yourselves. Now dharma, now
artha, now ka:ma, humour or fights, greed or killing; right for the people going wrong;
enjoyment for those who are pleasure-seekers; restraint of the ill-behaved or tolerance of the
well-behaved; putting courage into cowards or the exploits of the brave; knowledge for the un-
knowing or the wisdom of the wise; enjoyments of the rich or fortitude of the grief-stricken;
money for those who want to make a living and stability to disturbed minds; na:tya is the
representation of the ways of the world involving these various emotions and differing
circumstances. It gives you peace, entertainment and happiness, as well as beneficial advice
based on the actions of high, low and middle people. It brings rest and peace to persons afflicted
by sorrow or fatigue or grief or helplessness. There is no art, no knowledge, no yoga, no action
that is not found in na:tya" (Rangacharya 1996:4).
3. MEANINGFUL GESTURE AND MEANINGLESS MOVEMENT

One of the questions raised in the early chapters (chapter four on ta:NDava nritya) is the
relationship between gesture that carries meaning and movements that are introduced in the
performance with no explicit meaning. Why should there be this movement without specific
meaning unlike the abhinaya (gesture) with specific meaning? The nrtta introduced in a song
does not convey any specific meaning. The answer given is that the function of this movement is
not conveying any specific meaning, but to create beauty and attraction to the performance.

4. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE VERBAL AND NONVERBAL

Thirumalai (1987) identifies six ways in which the relationship between verbal and nonverbal
communication can be understood.

1. The relationship between verbal and nonverbal communication is

one of the latter playing a supplementary role to the former.
2. The relationship between verbal and nonverbal communication is
also one in which the former plays a supplementary role to the latter.
3. The relationship between verbal and nonverbal communication is
one of equal correspondence between the two. That is, an expression
in one level can be translated into an expression at the other level.
4. Yet another relationship between a verbal act and a nonverbal act is
one of dependence.
5. Verbal and nonverbal acts can function independent of one another.
In a single communicative act, part of the message may be in verbal
form, and the rest in nonverbal form, in an alternating way. Each
part is independent of the other.
6. Another relationship between verbal and nonverbal acts is one of
non-relevance.

5. ABHINAYA AND NRITTA

The relationship between abhinaya and nritta is not a relationship of irrelevance or non-

relevance, although the latter does not convey any specific meaning. There is a function
identified and this function is drawn from the effect nritta has on the audience. What is most
interesting to me is the understanding that just as we have several relationships posited between
the verbal and nonverbal communicative acts, the nonverbal communicative acts themselves may
have several interesting relationships between them. It is not necessary that a gesture-like act
may always have some meaning attached to it. Such an act could become an identity marker of
the character or the event.

In chapter five, the sage Bharata warns us that dance and music should not be overdone. If
overdone the performers as well as the spectators would feel exhausted, and not enjoy the work.
We all know that too much nonverbal activity does indeed hamper the progress of
communication. Some teachers think that, by doing things nonverbally, students learn the
material better. Verbal explanations and activities do have an important place even in a technical
shop.

6. CERTAIN LINGUISTIC NOTIONS

Jarjara sloka consists of words that have no meaning. The sloka is sung in praise of the flag-pole
Brahma used to drive away the demons who started disturbing the performance of the first play.
Vidu:saka is characterized by his irrelevant talk.

In chapter six, two important notions relating to language use are discussed or defined: ka:ri:ka:
is in sutra style. It briefly explains a subject using fewer words. Scientific definitions may be
considered ka:ri:ka:. Nirukta is a process using which we may explain the connotation of a word
based on its root-meaning.

While an understanding of rasa and bhava is important for an appreciation of literary works,

chapter 8 (Acting of the subordinate parts of the body), chapters 9 and 10 (abhinaya of the hands
and of the major limbs), chapter 13 on the stage walk of the characters, chapter 14 on the
regional styles and nature of plays, and chapter on verbal representation help us understand the
language use of the bygone days in India. The entire work is a valuable contribution to an
understanding of both nonverbal and verbal communication.

Chapters 18 and 19 deal with sociolinguistic usage. Take for example, the dictum as to when and
who should use Sanskrit and Prakrit. The heroes of dhi:ra should use Samskrita, whereas a
person intoxicated or broken by poverty should speak in Prakrit. Children, persons possessed by
evil spirits, mendicants, ascetics, persons in disguise, et al should speak in Prakrit. The sages,
brahmins, and Buddhists should speak in Samskrita. Persons from the linguistic communities
such as Kirata, Dravida, and Andhra should be given the dialects of Saurasena, or the dialect of
the area in which the play is enacted. Sellers of spirits, guards of prisons, and diggers of
underground constructions are given the speech of the Odri:, etc., etc. We are given an amazing
list of speech identities and the occasions and characters that should use such speech identities.
Then on chapter 19, we are given the modes of address suitable for different characters. This list
also reveals the sociolinguistic assumptions of the period of Natya Sastra.

7. INDIAN STUDIES OF NONVERBAL BEHAVIOR

Traditional Indian studies of nonverbal behavior link the nonverbal behavior of everyday life
with those of performing and other aesthetic arts and see these behaviors in terms of their
exploitation and function in these arts. In other words, nonverbal behaviors are seen as
something that occurs in nature, in normal communication and as something not fully at the
conscious level. These unconscious acts are studied to reveal their communicative nature and to
bring out their functions and patterns. In this process, the roots of nonverbal behavior in
language, social acts, and biology are emphasized. While every act of nonverbal behavior has its
basis in language, society, and biology, their exploitation, use, and the manner of their use is
based on the psychological need and state of the individual. The ultimate goal of the study of
nonverbal behavior is their exploitation for effective communication in aesthetic arts, for
enhancing the aesthetic value of the communication.

Because the study of nonverbal behavior is tied to the performance in drama and dance, the
physical manifestation of the nonverbal behavior in the body and the intent of these
manifestations to represent underlying psychological needs and states are emphasized. Since
Indian studies see a unity of purpose between poetry and drama, indeed, between all arts,
physical manifestation of nonverbal behavior as representations of underlying psychological
needs and states is included in every art, in poetry through appropriate description and metaphor
using language, in sculpture through direct, indirect and oblique representation of nonverbal acts,
and in dance combining both poetry and sculpture, adding to the combination the dimension of
movement and symbol.

8. NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION AND TRADITIONAL INDIAN GRAMMARS

Indian studies include the nonverbal behavior in the study of grammar. For example, Indian
traditional grammars include not only the description of intonation patterns and their functions
within their scope but also other paralanguage features meant for sarcasm, doubt, emphasis,
contradiction, and specific identities of registers. This is sought to be achieved in two ways - one,
by a direct description and analysis of utterances in terms of their functions in communicative
contexts just as in linguistic description which present how segmental sounds and sentence
intonations get elliptical in the speech of certain professional groups; secondly, by identifying
linguistic mechanisms that carry these nonverbal acts, as in the case of prolonging the
pronunciation of consonants for certain effects. Also, Indian traditional grammars have
developed so as to include separate chapters on nonverbal behaviors, and their import for poetry
and other aesthetic arts. The incorporation here with linguistic facts is sometimes peripheral, at
times not relevant, but many a time highly relevant for effective communication, choice of
diction, and standard speech.

Thus, by incorporating chapters on nonverbal manifestations, the grammars focus on the

performative factors of speech as well, apart from forming a bridge between the language of
everyday discourse and the language of poetry and aesthetic arts. Then, by the mere inclusion of
the study of nonverbal acts, the overall goal of grammar and its learning is changed. History has
not, however, seen to it that what began originally as a descriptive-cum-prescriptive approach to
account for the then prevailing practices grew wide and dynamic enough to develop the system
further. We could have certainly developed an Indian sign system for use by the hearing
impaired people.

9. RASA AND DHVANI

In the Sanskrit school of grammar, nonverbal behavior is prominently discussed within

the rasa theory. The theory of rasa is intimately connected with the theory of dhvani. It forms the
most important foundation of Sanskrit poetics. It first appears in the dramatic theory of Bharata;
originally in connection with drama (explicit nonverbal behavior), then as one of the essential
factors of poetic theory (description of the nonverbal as suggestive of the underlying intent).
While the theory of rasa itself is older than Bharata, the general conditions of the theory as fixed
by Bharata continue to be accepted as the basis.

10. ABHINAYA

The exploitation of the modes of nonverbal communication for aesthetic purposes is clearly seen
in the concept of abhinaya in the treatises on drama and dance. Theatrical performance helped
investigate the role and function of abhinaya.

Abhinaya, according to the sage Bharata, has four kinds of histrionic representation, or shall we
say, that communication is carried on through four kinds or means in dance and drama. These are
a:ngika, which deals with bodily movements in their subtle intricacies, va:cika which refers to
vocal delivery, a:ha:rya that is communication via costume and make up, and sa:ttvika that is
communication via the accurate representation of the mental and emotional feelings. All these
are physical manifestations. The a:ngika:bhinaya is the visible form of communication through
bodily gestures and facial expressions. It is primarily a nonverbal communication mode. The
author insists upon the need for the gestures and facial expressions to be in consonance with one
another.

Communication through perceptual factors such as costume and make up, and the physical
manifestation of mental states and emotional feelings are also emphasized for the successful
performance in drama and dance. The role of vocal delivery is not minimized either in the
process of communication.

11. NATURAL AND CONVENTIONAL REPRESENTATION

Natya Sastra recognizes two different types of representation: realistic, natural and popular
representation called lo:kadharmi, and the conventional, theatrical innovation that is used
conventionally called na:tyadharmi. In other words, the communication in aesthetic arts is
carried on both by natural (realistic) and conventional signs.

12. ELITIST AND FOLK DANCES

The dances performed in the literate Indian communities may be broadly classified into folk and
elitist dances.

1. The occurrence of gesture is more frequent and varied in elitist

dances than in folk dances.
2. Conventionality and arbitrariness mark the elitist dances.
3. Most gestures in the folk dances are an accompaniment tot he
rhythmic recurrence of sounds whereas the gestures in the elitist
dances generally accompany the 'sense' and/or is an illustration of
the sense conveyed.
 4. The gestures in the elitist dances require conscious learning, in
addition to unconscious imitation, whereas gestures in the folk
dances are acquired more or less in an unconscious, natural manner.
5. The learning of the elitist dances is thus more institutionalized than
the learning of the folk dances. 6. Although the elitist dances may be
performed in consonance with the seasons and occasions, they are
not really tied to any one particular space and time. On the other
hand, the folk dances are usually tied to the seasons, geographical
contexts, professions, and occasions, etc.
6. Elitist dances may function as pure entertainment.
7. Gestural communication is less conventional and less arbitrary and
more iconic and indexical in folk dances.
8. Elitist dances function more as a code in the sense that they lend
themselves for manipulation through addition, deletion, change, etc.,
in deliberately contrived processes initiated by the individuals,
whereas the folk dances generally focus more on preservation.
9. Gestural communication in elitist dances is more advanced in the
sense that the gestures employed in them are more numerous than
the gestures employed in folk dances.
[Link] the upper limbs play a more crucial role in elitist dances to
further accentuate the gestural communication processes, it is the
whole body and the movement of the whole that dominate the
performances in folk dances.
[Link] who perform the elitist dances are almost always aware of
their use of the gestures. The learning processes give them the
meaning and rationale of the gestures they use. These people know
the meaning of the gesture, as conveyed to them by their teachers
and the text and/or interpreted by them. They can repeat the gestures
when asked to do.
[Link] use of gestures in elitist dances is an intentional, deliberate
effort to communicate, but the focus in folk dances appears to be
more of self-expression and participation.
[Link] Indian elitist dances are religion-based in the sense that music
and dance have been traditionally seen as a medium to please gods.
In other words, the ultimate goal of dances in the elitist tradition is
to worship gods. This may not be case with folk dances.

13. NATURAL AND CONVENTIONAL GESTURES

The gestures used in dance and drama form more or less a closed system. Both natural and
conventional gestures are used. Since the gestures form a closed system, most gestures are
polysemous. The gestures are mostly an accompaniment to either a poetic composition sung or a
pantomime of a well known story, and thus the polysemous ambiguity is resolved.

The distinction between the natural (lo:kadharmi) and conventional (natyadharmi) is recognized
by Bharata in several contexts. For example, while discussing the different kinds of head
gestures (which are considered conventional), Natyasastra reports that there are other gestures of
the head that are based on popular/natural practice. Conventional and natural gestures are
distinguished in this statement. Conventional gestures are used to create an ornamental effect.
Bharata is not against mixing the conventional and natural gestures in drama and dance.

14. SOCIAL FUNCTION OF GESTURES

The movements of gestures are governed, among other things, by the social status of the
individuals. In histrionic representation of gestures, the social status of the individuals
determines the quantum as well as the placement of the gestures, according to Bharata. The hand
gestures of the individuals of the superior rank move near their forehead, whereas the gestures of
the individuals occupying a middle social status move around or at about their breasts. The
individuals of inferior social rank move their hand gestures in regions below the breasts. Further
it is stated that the persons of superior social rank will have very little movement in their hand
gestures, whereas the individuals of inferior social rank should be portrayed as having profuse
movements of hand gestures. In the case of individuals occupying a middle social rank, the
movement of hand gestures should be of a medium frequency.

In addition, Natyasastra prescribes that the hand gestures of persons of superior and middle
levels of social rank should conform to the characterization of gestures as given in the Sastra
(thus ascribing elitist status along with a dose of conventionality) in contrast to the hand gestures
of persons of inferior rank which follow popular practice and the individuals' own natural habit
(Ghosh, 1967, IX:61-66). However, when occasions demand, wise people would make contrary
uses of hand gestures to suit the occasions (Ghosh, 1967, IX:167). There are also certain
restrictions as to the use of hand gestures for the expression of certain emotions. That is, for
representation of certain emotions hand gestures are not seen proper and thus other means are to
be used (Ghosh, 1967, IX:168-171). This, indeed, is a very significant allocation of functions. In
it we find an implicit recognition that the parts of a the body are generally allotted differential
functions in the conduct of nonverbal communication involving the use of gestures. This
provision makes the use of gesture in aesthetic arts as well as in natural, realistic world different
from the use of gesture as an independent mode as found in the sign languages such as American
Sign Language, or in the language of deaf-mutes. Finally, hand gestures in the acting are
dependent on the expression of the face, the eyebrows and the eyes. There should be a proper
coordination between hand gestures and the look of the gesturer in the sense the gesturer's eyes
and the look should be directed towards the points at which the hand gestures are moving, and
there should be proper stops so that the meaning may be clearly expressed (seen) (Ghosh, 1967,
IX:207, 172).

Natyasastra is, indeed, an interesting work on aesthetic arts and communication.