EARTH WORKS

[CALCULATION OF AREAS AND VOLUMES]

CALCULATION OF PLAN AREAS.
The area may be either straight sided, irregular sided or a combination of both. Area is usually
calculated in square meters.
Note:
10,000m2 == 1 hectare
100 hectares = 1sq. km.

AREAS ENCLOSED BY STRAIGHT LINES:

These are areas enclosed by traverse or chain survey lines, and the area obtained will always be
exact.
Area from triangles
Any straight sided figure can be divided into well conditioned triangles. The areas of triangles
can then be calculated using any of the following formulae-
(i) Area = √[ S(S-a)(S-b)(S-C)] ,
Where: a, b & c are the sides of the triangle
S = 1/2 (a+b+c)

(ii) Area = 1/2 ( base x height)

(iii) Area = 1/2 abSinC, where C is the angle contained between the sides a and b.

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Calculation of areas from coordinates
The coordinates of traverse stations are always determined. The area of a figure enclosed
by the traverse line can then be calculated from these coordinates. This is achieved using
the cross coordinate method, (fig 1below)

Fig.1shows a three sided clockwise traverse ABC, and the required area is AreaABC.
Area ABC = ABQP + BCRQ – ACRP ………………… (i)

Figures ABQP, BCRQ and ACRP are trapezia. The area of a trapezium is given by :
Area = (mean height x width)
Equation (i) above becomes;
Area ABC = 1/2(N1+N2)(E2-E1) + I/2(N2+N3)(E3-E2) - 1/2(N1+N3)( E3-E1.)
Area ABC = l/2[N1E2 - NlE1+ N2E2 - N2E1+ N2E3 -N2E2+ N3E3 - N3E2 – N1E3+ N1E1-
N3E3+N3E1]

Area ABC = 1/2[(N1E2 + N2E3+N3E1)-(E1N2 + E2N3 + E3N1)].....................(ii)

Eqn (ii) is for a three sided figure, and for a n sided figure, the general formula is
Area = l/2[( N1E2 + N2E3+........+ Nn-1En + NnE1) - (E1N2 + E2N3+.......+ En-1Nn +
EnN1)]...............................(iii)
NB. The vertices should be numbered in a clockwise direction, if not then eqn (iii) will
give a negative result and the sign of the two brackets are reversed.

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 Example: 1
A loop traverse ABCDA was run and the table below gave the result:
N (m) E (m).
A 247692.48 487724.84
B 247711.95 487755.70
C 247698.40 487764.23
D 247678.98 487733.38
Calculate the area of the plot ABCD in hectares.
Solution
N (m) E (m).
A 247692.48 487724.84
B 247711.95 487755.70
C 247698.40 487764.23
D 247678.98 487733.38
A 247692.48 487724.84

Area = 1/2[∑ (i) - ∑ (ii)], where ∑ = summation of cross products.

A = 1/2[l 166.55] m2
=583.28m2
= 0.058 Ha
AREAS ENCLOSED BY IRREGULAR LINES
In cases where, there some natural boundaries, such as rivers, lakes etc only approximate results
can be achieved. The methods adopted will always give the best approximations. The methods
involved are as follows:
(i) Give and take lines:
Here the irregular boundaries are replaced by straight lines such that any small areas included in
the survey, are balanced by other small areas excluded in the survey.
The positions of such lines are always estimated by eye on the survey plan. The area is then
calculated using any of the straight sided method (fig. 2 below).

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(ii) Mathematical methods:
There two mathematical methods used for an irregular sided figure.
(a) the trapezoidal rule
(b) The Simpsons rule

(a). The trapezoidal rule

Consider fig 4 above whose area is to be determined.

The fig is divided into triangles ABD and BCD, whose area can be exactly determined. The
remaining dotted area boarded by lines AB, BC, CD and DA must be well approximated and
added to areas ABD&BCD. Let us consider the dotted area enclosed by line AB fig 5 below.

01, 02…….08 are the offsets at regular intervals, L. The offsets are either measured
directly in the field or mostly scaled from the plan.
The trapezoidal rule assumes that, if the interval, L, is small, then the boundary between
the intervals can be approximated to a straight line between the offsets. Fig. 5 above can
therefore be assumed to be a series of trapezium, see fig 6 below.

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 Let A1,A2,................A7 be the area of each trapezium at a regular intervals L.
Thus we have:
A1 = 1/2(01 + O2) L, A2 =1 /2(02 + O3) L, etc.
For N offsets, the total area A is given by:
A = 1/2(01 + 02) L + 1/2(02 + 03) L +..........+ 1/2(ON.1 + ON)
A = L/2[O1 + O2 + O2 + O3 + ON-1 + ON]
A =L/2[01+ 202+ 203 + 204 +......+ 2ON-1 + ON]

A = L/2[01, + ON+ 2(02 + O3 + O4 +......+ ON-1)].......................... (i)

Eq. (i) above is the general trapezoidal rule. The rule applies to any number of
offsets.

Example: 2
The following, offsets 8m apart, were measured at right angles from a traverse line to the an
irregular Boundary. Om, 2.3m, 5.5m, 7.9m, 8.6m, 6.9m, 7.3m , 6.2m , 3.1m , and Om.
Calculate the area between the traverse line and the irregular boundary.
Solution:

From the general trapezoidal rule, area is given by;

A = L/2[01 + O10+ 2(02 + O3 + O4 +05 +06 +07 +08+ O9)]
In this case L = 8m.
Thus: A = 8/2[0 + 0 + 2(2.3 + 5.5 + 7.9 + 8.6 + 6.9 + 7.3+ 6.2 + 3.1)]
= 4[2(47.8)] = 382.4m2

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Natukunda Nathan,[0772-883239,0704-983239,[email protected] ]
 (b) Simpson’s rule;
This rule assumes that instead of the boundary being made up of straight lines, the boundary
consists of series of parabolic arcs. A better approximation is made as the curve is more nearer to
the irregular boundary [fig.7 below].

Simpson's rule considers offsets in sets of three. E.g. 01 02 and 03, that contains A1. and A2.
The area between the traverse line AD and the curve may be considered as composed of the
trapezoid ABCD + area of the segment between the parabolic arc BGC and corresponding chord
BC.
2
One property of a parabola is that, the area of a segment is equal to 3 rds the area of the
enclosing parallelogram.
The area is given by the expressions:
Area A = ABGCDA
= Trapezoidal ABFCDA + Area BGCFB
A1 + A2 = 1/2 (01 + 03).2L + 2/3 (area of enclosing parallelogram) ……… *
= 1/2 (01 + 03).2L + 2/3 [02 – (01 +03)/2].2L …………………………**
= L [01 + 03 + 2/3 ( 202 – 01-03)]
= L/3 [301 + 303 + 402 - 201 – 203]
= L/3 [01 + 03 + 402 ] …………………………………………………***
A1 + A2 = L/3(O1 +4O2 + O3)............................................................................... (i)
Similarly: A3 + A4 = L/3(O3 + 4O4 + O5).......................................................... (ii)
A5+A6 = L/3(O5 + 4O6 + O7)........................................................................... (iii)
(i) + (ii) + (iii) = L/3(O1 + 4O2 + O3 + O3 + 4O4 + O5+ 05+ 4O6 + O7)
= L/3[O1 + O7 + 4(O2+ O4 + O6) + 2(O3 + Os)]
Hence in general, total area A is given by:

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Natukunda Nathan,[0772-883239,0704-983239,[email protected] ]
 A = L/3[O1 + ON+ 4∑even offsets + 2∑remaining odd offsets]
NB. N is the total number of the offsets in the set of three offsets and must always be odd
*For an even number of offsets in fig. 7 above, the last offset (O8) must be omitted and the final
area (A7) IS calculated as the trapezium.

Example3.
Consider the offsets measured from line AB to irregular boundary are as given in table below
respectively. Calculate the area contained between line AB and irregular boundary using
Simpsons rule, with an even number of offsets.
Length(m) 0(A) 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72(B)
Offsets(m) 0 2.3 5.5 7.9 8.6 6.9 7.3 6.2 3.1 0

Solution:
Here, we calculate the area between offset 1 to 9 by Simpson's rule and the area between offset 9
to10 by trapezoidal rule.

Area = L/3[O1 + ON+ 4∑even offsets + 2∑remaining odd offsets]

Thus: A1-9= 8/3[0 + 3.1 + 4(2.3 + 7.9 + 6.9 + 6.2) + 2(5.5 + 8.6 + 7.3)] = 370.9m2
A9-10 = 8/2[3.1 +0] = 12.4m2
Therefore: Total area, A, is given by:
A = A1-9 + A9-10=370.9+ 12.4 = 383.3m2
Note: Simpson's rule gives a better result for a boundary that is genuinely irregular, while the
Trapezoidal rule is more appropriate if the boundary is almost a series of straight lines.

THE PLANIMETER
This is a mechanical devise for determining the area of any irregular plane figure.
The area is obtained from the measuring unit, consisting of an integrating disc which revolves
and alters the reading as the tracing point is moved around the parameter of the figure.
*On a fixed tracing arm instrument the readings are obtained directly in mm2 and converted
according to the plan scales to obtain the ground area.
*On a movable arm instrument, the tracing arm length can be set to particular values depending
on the plan scale so that the readings obtained give the ground area directly.
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Example 4.A, B, C and D are the four clockwise-considered boundary points of a plot. Sides
AB and BC are straight, while sides CD and DA are irregular, with < CBA = 900 ,
A straight line CD does not cross the plot, while a straight line DA passes inside the plot.
Other measurements along the straights are as follows: AB = 114m, BC = 99m, with line AC not
crossing any boundary.
The offsets measured from lines CD and DA to irregular boundaries are as given in table I & II
respectively.
Chainages(m) 0 (C) 15 30 45 60 75(D)
Offsets (m) 0 1.8 2.80 3.88 1.95 0
Table I
Chainage(m) 0(D) 20 40 60 80 (A)
Offsets(m) 0 1.02 3.05 1.22 0
Table II
Calculate the area of the plot in hectares, applying Simpsons and Trapezoidal rules in table I & II
respectively.
Solution:

Area of plot = area of ∆1 + area of ∆2 - Offset area1 + Offset area2

Area of ∆1 = ½ bh = ½ x 114 x99 = 5643m2

Area of ∆2 = √S (S-a)(S-c) (S-d)

AC = √( AB2 + BC2) = √( 1142 + 992) = 150.99m

Where: S = (a + c + d)/2

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S = (75 + 80 + 150 .99)/2 = 152.99m

Area of ∆2 = √152.99(152.99- 75)(152.99-80) (152.99- 150.99) = 1319.77m2

Offset Area1 i.e. Tables 1 by Simpsons rule but offsets are even.

So we shall use Simpsons rule for A1-5 & then Trapezoidal for A5-6

A = L/3 [01 + 0N + 4∑even offset + 2∑odd offsets]

A1-5 = L/3 [(01 + 05 + 4 (02 + 04) + 2 ( 03)]

A1-5 = 15/3 [0 + 1.95 + 4 (1.8 +3.88) + 2(2.8)] = 151.35m2

Using trapezoidal rule.

A5-6 = L/2 (06 + 05) = ½ (0 + 1.95)x15 = 14.63m2

Offset area 1 = 151.35 +14.6 3 = 165.98m2

Offset area 2 i.e. table II by Trapezoidal rule.

A = L/2 [( 01 + 0N + 2 ( 02 + 03 + ……..+ 0N-1)]

= 20/2 [0 + 0 + 2 (1.02 + 3.05 + 1.22)] = 105.8m2

Total Area of the plot = 5643 + 1319.77 – 165.98 + 105.80 = 6902.59m2 = 0.6902hect.

Example 5:
The figure below is a plot of land , composed of irregular boundaries as shown A, B and
C are the three clockwise-considered boundary points of a plot. The area between the
survey line and stream is composed of a series of trapezoids and triangles.
Calculate the area of the plot in Hectares using:
i) Trapezium rule
ii) Simpsons rule
iii) Compare the accuracies between areas obtained in (i) and (ii)

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SOLUTION:
𝑎+𝑏+𝐶
By considering triangle ABC, Area1 = √[s(s-a)(s-b)(s-c)] where s=
2
S = (70 + 80 + 104.5)/2 = 127.25m
Area1 = √[127.25(127.25-80)(127.25-104.5)(127.25-70)] = 2798.39m2
Using trapezium rule.
By considering offsets line AB
Area2 = L/2[ 00 + 070 + 2 (010 +020 + 030 + 040 + 050 +060)] + ½[bh]
= 10/2[3.0 + 2.5 + 2 (8.0 + 10.0 + 9.5 + 9.2 + 7.1 + 4.5)] + ½[4.0 x2.5]
= 510.5 + 5.0 = 515.5m2
By considering offsets line BC
Area3 = L/2[ 00 + 040 + 2 (010 +020 + 030)]
= 10/2[ 4 + 6.3 + 2 (4.5 + 5.1 + 6.5)]
= 212.5m2
= L/2[ 040 + 080 + 2 (060)]
= 20/2[6.3 + 4.0 + 2 (5.1)]
= 205m2
Area 3 = 212.5 + 205 = 417.5m2
By considering offsets line AC
Area4 = Area of triangle 1 = ½[ 19x4] = 38.0
Area of trapezoid 2 = ½[4 + 8]x(38-19) = 114.0
Area of trapezoid 3 = ½[8 + 4.5]x(55-38) = 106.25
Area of rectangle 4 = 4.5x(72-55) = 76.5
Area of trapezoid 5 = ½[4.5 + 7]x(87-72) = 86.25
Area of triangle 6 = ½[ (104.6 - 87)x7] = 61.6
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Natukunda Nathan,[0772-883239,0704-983239,[email protected] ]
 = 482.6m2
Total area =2798.39 + 515.5 + 417.5 + 482.6 = 4213.99m2
Using Simpsons rule.
By considering offsets line AB
Area2 = L/3[O1 + ON+ 4∑even offsets + 2∑remaining odd offsets] +Trapezium + Triangle
= L/3[ 00 + 060 + 4 (010 +030 + 050) +2( 020 + 040 )] +1/2h(a +b) + ½[bh]
= 10/3[3.0 + 4.5 + 4 (8.0 + 9.5 + 7.1) +2(10.0 + 9.2)] + 1/2x10 (4.5+2.5) + ½[4.0 x2.5]
= 521m2
By considering offsets line BC
Area3 = L/3[ 00 + 040 + 4 (010 + 030) + 2(020)] +L/3[040+080 +4(060)]
= 10/3[4.0 + 6.3 + 4 (4.5 + 6.5) + 2(5.1)] +20/3[6.3+ 4.0 +4(5.1) = 419.67m2
Total area =2798.39 + 521 + 419.67 + 482.60 = 4221.66m2
Assignment: 1
Qn1. The following offsets in table below were taken from a chain line to a hedge.
Chainage(m) 0 5 10 15 20 30 40 60 80
Offsets(m) 2.50 3.80 4.90 5.7 6.50 4.80 5.80 3.90 2.30
Using Simpson’s rule, calculate the area between the chain lines, hedge and the end offsets.
Qn2. A piece of land has three straight boundaries AB, BC, and CD. The fourth boundary DA is
irregular. The measured lengths are as under: AB = 135m, BC = 191m, CD = 126m, BD = 255m.
The offsets measured outside the boundary DA to the irregular boundary at a regular interval of
30 m from D, are as below: Determine the area of the piece land.

Distance from D 0.0 30 60 90 120 150 180

(M)
Offsets (M) 0.0 3.7 4.9 4.2 2.8 3.6 0.0
. Answer (Area = 23789.18 m2 = 2.4 hectares)

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 CALCULATION OF CROSS SECTIONAL AREAS
This involves calculating the area between the existing and the proposed formation level, at each
cross section drawn. This information is useful in calculating the volume of cut or fill between
consecutive cross sections.
Types of Cross –sections are:

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 (1). Existing ground level horizontal (Level section)
Fig 8 below shows a sectional drawing of a cut in an area with horizontal existing ground.

h = depth at centre line

Side slopes = 1 in n
2b = formation width
w = side width.
2w-plan width
Area of cross section = 1/2h (2b +2w) = h (2b + nh)...................... (i)
Plan width = 2w = 2(b + nh)........................................... (ii)
For an embankment, the diagram is just inverted and the same formulae apply

Example:
At a certain station of an embankment formed on level ground, has a height at its centre
line of 3.10m.if the breadth of formation is 12.50m.
Find:
(a) The side widths
(b) Plan width
(c) The area of cross- section, given that the side slope is 1 in 2.5
Solution:
Where b = 6.25m, h= 3.1m, n = 2.5
(a) Side width W = b + nh = 6.25 + 2.5 x 3.1 = 14.0m
(b) Plan width = 2w = 2 x 14 = 28m
(c) Area = h(2b + nh) = 3.1x(2 x 6.25 + 2.5 x 3.1) = 62.775m2

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Natukunda Nathan,[0772-883239,0704-983239,[email protected] ]
(2).Existing ground surface sloping.
Fig. 9 above shows a cutting with a transverse slope,

Where
WG = greater side width
WL = lesser side width
h = depth of cut on the centre line from existing ground to proposed level.
2b = formation width.
1 in s = ground or transverse slope.
1 in n = side slope.
wL + WG = plan width.
Consider the vertical distances at the centre line;
b/n + h = WL/n + WL/S..............................(i)
and also,
b/n + h = wG/n - WG/S.............................(ii)
Multiply both (i) and (ii) by sn gives: (i) x sn :
sn. b/n + hsn = sn.WL/Ո+ sn. WL/S
WL(S + n) = s(b + nh)

WL= s (b+ nh)/(s + n)..............................*

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Natukunda Nathan,[0772-883239,0704-983239,[email protected] ]
 (ii) x sn: sn. b/n + hsn = sn.WG/S - sn.wG/n
WG(S - n) = s (b+ nh)

WG= s (b+ nh)/ (s-n) .............................**

The plan width is then (WL + WG) as given by the expressions * and **
The cross sectional area (A) of the cutting is given by: A = area ABF + area BCF - area EOF
A = 1/2(h + b/n)wL + 1/2(h+ b/n)wG - 1/2(2b)b/n

A = 1/2(h+ b/n) (wL + WG) - b2/n

* For embankments the figure is inverted and the same formulae apply.

Example:
Calculate the side widths and cross-sectional area of an embankment to a road with formation
width of 12.5 and side slopes of 1 in 2, when the centre height is 3.10m and the existing ground
has a cross fall of 1 in 12 at right angles to the centreline of the embankment.
SOLUTION:

Side width WL
Where b = 6.25m, h = 3.1m s = 12, n = 2

WL= s (b+ nh)/(s + n)

WL = 12 (6.25 +2 x 3.1)/(12 + 2)
= 10.67m

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Natukunda Nathan,[0772-883239,0704-983239,[email protected] ]
 Side width WG
WG= s (b+ nh)/ (s-n)
WG = 12 (6.25 +2 x 3.1)/(12 - 2)
= 14.94m
Cross-sectional area of an embankment
Area = 1/2(h+ b/n)(wL + WG) - b2/n
=1/2(3.1+ 6.25/2)(10.67 + 14.94) – 6.252/2 = 60.18m2

(3). Cross sections involving both cut and fill.

Fig. 10 above shows a section where the depth of cut, h, on the centreline is not great enough to
give a full cutting for the formation width, 2b. This leads to a section consisting partly of a cut
and partly of a fill. Such sections occur when a road is being built around the side of a slopping
hill and it is used for economic reasons, since the cut sections can be used in the fill section.
*Considering the vertical distances, we can arrive at the following derivations:
WL/n = b/n + hL................... ……………………………..(i)

WG/n = b/n + hG................... ……………………………..(ii)

hL = WL/s - h.......................................................................*,
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Natukunda Nathan,[0772-883239,0704-983239,[email protected] ]
hG = WG/S + h........................................................................**
Substitute * and ** in (i) and (ii) respectively:
WL/n = b/n + WL/S - h .,.......................................................(iii)

wG/n = b/n + WG/S + h..........................................................(iv)

Multiply (iii) and (iv) by sn and rearrange: (iii) x sn:
Sn.WL/n = sn.b/n + sn.WL/S – sn.h.
WL(S - n) = s(b - nh)

wL = s(b-nh) /(s-n) .......................................(v)

(iv)x sn:
Sn.wG/n = sn.b/n + sn.WG/S + sn. h
WG (S - n) = s(b + nh)

WG = s(b + nh)/ (s-n) ....................................(vi)

The plan width is given by ( WL+ WG) as in the expressions (v) and (vi).
*The cross sectional areas are obtained as follows.

AL= 1/2hL(b-sh).............................................(vii)
AG=1/2 hG (b + sh).......................................... (viii)
Where AL = lesser area and AG = greater area.
But hL = WL/s – h and hG = WG/S + h

If the fill area is greater than the cut area, the fill area is calculated using the greater area
formula and the cut using the lesser area formula.
*Where the side slopes are the same is cut and fill as in fig. 10 a cut at the centre line
implies a greater cut area, and a fill at the centre line implies a greater fill area.

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Natukunda Nathan,[0772-883239,0704-983239,[email protected] ]
*If, however, the side slopes are different in the cut and fill, it will be important to inspect
the cross sectional drawings in order to determine what the greater and lesser area is,
irrespective of where the central line is. The area is then calculated by using the different
n values for the two formulae in their correct places.

Example:
A road has a formation width of 9.5m and side slopes of 1 in 1 in cut and 1 in 3 in fill.
The original ground had a cross- fall of 1 in 5. If the depth of excavation at the centre line
is 0.5m. Calculate the side widths and the areas of cut and fill.
Solution:

Where:
b = 4.75m, side slope in cut =1 in 1, side slope in fill = 1 in 3,
Original ground slope = 1in 5, h= 0.5m
Cut side width:
WG = s(b + nh)/ (s-n)
= 5(4.75 +1x0.5)/(5-1) = 6.56m
Fill side width:
wL = s (b-nh) /(s-n)
= 5(4.75 - 3x0.5)/(5-3) = 8.125m

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Natukunda Nathan,[0772-883239,0704-983239,[email protected] ]
Area of Fill
AL= 1/2hL(b-sh)
But hL = WL/s – h where WL = 8.125m
hL = (8.125/5) - (0.5) = 1.125m
AL= ½ x1.125(4.75-5x0.5) = 1.27m2
Area of Cut
AG=1/2 hG (b + sh)
But hG = WG/S + h , where WG = 6.56m
hG = WG/S + h = (6.56/5) + (0.5) = 1.812m
AG=1/2 1.812 (4.75 + 5x0.5) = 6.57m2

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Natukunda Nathan,[0772-883239,0704-983239,[email protected] ]
 CALCULATION OF VOLUMES.
Volumes of earthworks can be calculated from cross sections, sport heights or contours.
1. Volumes from cross sections.
Two methods are considered, both comparable to the Trapezoidal and Simpson's rule for area

calculation.
(a).End areas method:
This is comparable to the trapezoidal rule for areas.
If two cross sectional areas A1 and A2 are at horizontal distance d apart, the volume contained
between them (V1) js given by:

V1 = d (A1+A2)/2.
For a series of N cross sections, the total volume Vtotal is expressed as below.
Vtotal = Vl + V2 + V3+.......+ VN-1
= d (A1 + A2)/2 + d2(A2 + A3)/2 + d3(A3 + A4)/2 +.....+ dN-1(AN-1 + AN)/2
If d1 = d2 = d3 =.........= dN-1= d, then:
Vtotal = d/2(A1 + A2 + A2 + A3 + A3 + A4 + A4+ A5 +.....+ AN-1 + AN)
Vtotal = d/2[A1 + AN + 2(A2 + A3 + A4+A5 +.....+ AN-1)]..................... (i)
Eq (i) above is the general formula for a series of N cross sections.

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Natukunda Nathan,[0772-883239,0704-983239,[email protected] ]
Example:
A proposed road is to run on an embankment between chainages 500m and 590m. Cross
sectional areas have been determined at regular intervals using a planimeter. And both measured
chainages and areas were recorded as follows in the table below.
Chainages(m) 500 510 520 530 540 550 560 570 580 590
Areas(m2) 20.50 32.3 49.5 89.6 157.2 283.4 38.7 16.6 10.5 8.6
Calculate the volume of earth work required for the road construction of an embankment, using
end areas method.
Solution:
Vtotal = d/2[A1 + A10 + 2(A2 + A3 + A4+A5 + A6+ A7 + A8 + A9)]
= 10/2[20.5 + 8.6 + 2(32.2 +49.5 +89.6 +157.2 + 283.4 +38.7 + 16.6 + 10.5)]
= 6922.5m3

Assignment:2
Qn. A proposed road is to run on an embankment between chainages 100m and 240m. Cross
sectional areas have been determined at regular intervals using a planimeter. And both measured
chainages and areas were recorded as follows in the table below.
Chainages(m) 100 110 120 130 140 160 180 200 220 240
Areas(m2) 25.50 30.3 50.5 90.6 150.2 280.4 38.7 16.6 12.5 18.6
Calculate the volume of earth work required for the road construction of an embankment, using
end areas method.

ENGINEERING SURVEYING 11 21

Natukunda Nathan,[0772-883239,0704-983239,[email protected] ]
j (b). Prismoidal formula.
This is comparable to Simpson's rule for area calculation.
The volume contained between a series of cross sections a constant distance a part ca be
approximated to the volume of a prismoid.
*A prismoid is a solid figure with plane parallel ends and plane sides (fig. 13)

It can be shown that for a series of cross section as in fig. 14, the volume contained between the
is give by:
V1-3 = d/3(A1 + 4A2 +A3).....................................................................................(i)
The above expression (i) is the prismoidal formula used for earthwork calculation.
*It gives a true volume if either:
(i) The transverse slopes are parabolic and the longitudinal profile is a straight line, OR

ENGINEERING SURVEYING 11 22

Natukunda Nathan,[0772-883239,0704-983239,[email protected] ]
(ii) The transverse slopes at right angles to the centre line are straight and the longitudinal profile
on the centre line is parabolic.
For a series of five cross sections, CS1 – CS5, the total volume V1-5 is given by:
V1.5 = d/3[A1 + A5 + 4(A2 + A4) + 2(A3)] .....................................................................(ii)
The general formula for N cross sections, where N must be odd such that N ≥ 3 is given as
below:

V = d/3[A1 + AN+ 4∑ even areas + 2∑reaining odd areas]

Examples:
The data given below is for a section of a proposed road way of an embankment 100m long.
Chainages(m) 40 60 80 100 120 130 140
Area (m2) 7.50 12.50 15.13 16.57 30.12 27.83 8.47
Calculate the volume of material required for an embankment using Prismoidal formula.
Solution:
V = d/3[A1 + AN+ 4∑ even areas + 2∑reaining odd areas]
V1-5 = d/3[A1 + A5+ 4( A2 +A4) + 2(A3)]
V1-5 = 20/3[7.5 + 30.12+ 4(12.50 +16.57) + 2(15.13)]
= 1227.73m3
V5-7 = d/3[A5 + A7+ 4( A6)]
V5-7 = 10/3[30.12 + 8.47+ 4(27.83)]
= 499.7m3
Therefore:
Vtotal = V1-5 + V5-7 = 1227.73 + 499.7 = 1727.43m3

ENGINEERING SURVEYING 11 23

Natukunda Nathan,[0772-883239,0704-983239,[email protected] ]
Assignment:3
Qn. The figure below is a cross-section of part of a proposed road. The formation width of the
road is 16m and the side slopes are 1 in 2, while the ground surface has a uniform slope of 1 in 5

Given that the depth of cutting at the centre lines of the five sections that are consecutively 50m
a part are d1 = 4m, d2 = 5m , d3 = 5.5m ,d4 = 6m ,d5 = 6.4m respectively.
Determine the:
(a) Side widths and the cross- section areas at these sections.
(b) Volume of cutting using the prismoidal formula between these sections.

ENGINEERING SURVEYING 11 24

Natukunda Nathan,[0772-883239,0704-983239,[email protected] ]
 VOLUME FROM SPOT HEIGHTS
This method is used to obtain the volume of large deep excavations such as basements,
underground tanks etc, where the formation level can be slopping, horizontal or terraced.
A square, rectangular or triangular grid is set out on the ground and spot levels are taken at each
point of grid intersection. Smaller grids will always lead to a more accurate result, though it
involves more field work.
The formation level at each grid point must be known and hence the depth of cut from the
existing to the proposed level at each point of grid intersection can be calculated.
Fig. 15 below shows a 10 m square grid with the depths of cut marked at each grid intersections.

Consider the volume contained in grid square shown in fig 16 below.

ENGINEERING SURVEYING 11 25

Natukunda Nathan,[0772-883239,0704-983239,[email protected] ]
It is assumed that the surface slope is constant between grid intersections; hence the volume is
given by:
Volume = mean height x plan area
= 1/4(4.76 + 5.14 + 4. 77 + 3.21) x100 = 447 m3
A similar method can be applied to each individual grid square and leading to the general
formula for square or rectangular grids as below;
V Total = A/4 [∑single depths + 2∑double depths + 3∑triple depths + 4∑quardruple depths +
... + δv],
Where A = plan area of each grid square.
Single depths = depths such as h1 and h4 which are used once.
Double depths = depths such as h2 and h3 which are used twice.
Triple depths = depths such as h7, which are used three times.
Quadruple depths = depths such as h6, which are used four times.
δv = total volume outside the grid which is calculate separately.
Thus the total volume contained with the grid shown in finger 15 is given as below.
V= 100/4[(4.76 + 8.10 + 6.07 + 1.98 + 3.55) +2(5.14 + 6,72 + 3.21 + 2.31) + 3(5.82) + 4(4.77).
= 25(24.46 + 34.76 + 17.46 + 19.08) = 2394m3
* The above result is only an approximation since it has been assumed that the surface slope is
constant between spot heights.
If triangular grid is used the formula used is:
VTotal = A/3[Single depths + 2∑double depths + 3∑triple depths + 4∑quadouple Depths +
….) + δv, where
A = the plan area of each triangle. Other variables are the same.

ENGINEERING SURVEYING 11 26

Natukunda Nathan,[0772-883239,0704-983239,[email protected] ]
Example 4:
Finger below shows the reduced levels of a rectangular plot which is to be excavated to a
uniform depth of 8m above datum. Calculate the volume of earth to be excavated if the site is
divided into triangles.

Depth of cuts is obtained a, below:

dA=RLA-FL= 12.16-8 = 4.16
dB = RLB- FL = 12.48 - 8 = 4.48
dc=RLc-FL = 13.01 -8 = 5.01
dD = RLD- FL = 12.56 – 8= 4,56
dE = RLE- FL =12.87 - 8 =4.87
dF=RLF-FL=13.53-8 = 5.53
dG = RLG- FL = 12.94 - 8 =4.94
dH =RLH- FH =13.27 - 8 =5.27
dJ= RLJ - FL =13.84 - 8 = 5.84
Area of each triangle plan is given by A = l/2bh = 1/2 x 15 x 10 = 75 m2
Applying the general formula for triangular grids, we have;
V = A/3[ (dA+ 2(dc +dF +dG +dH+dJ) +3(dB+dD)+7(dE)]
= 75/3[ (4.16 +2 (5.01+5.53 + 4.94 + 5.27 +5.84) + 3(4.48+4.56)+ 7(4.87) = 2963.75m3

ENGINEERING SURVEYING 11 27

Natukunda Nathan,[0772-883239,0704-983239,[email protected] ]
 Assignment4:
Qn. The figure below shows the reduced levels of a rectangular plot of land which is to
be excavated to a uniform reduced level of 100m above datum.

Assuming the sides to be vertical, Calculate the total volume of earthwork involved in the
excavation from the given.
(i) Rectangles.
(ii) Triangles.

VOLUMES FROM CONTOURS:

This method is suitable for calculating very large volumes such as those of reservoirs, earth
dams, etc.
The system adopted is to calculate the plan area enclosed by each contour and the area treated as
across sectional area. The contour vertical interval provides the distance between cross sections.
Either the prismoidal or area end method is then used to calculate the volume.
If the prismoidal method is used, the number of contours must be odd.
The plan area enclosed by each contours can be calculated using a planimeter or one of the other
methods seen earlier (give and take, graphical or mathematical method)
The accuracy depends on the contour interval.

ENGINEERING SURVEYING 11 28

Natukunda Nathan,[0772-883239,0704-983239,[email protected] ]
Example:
A planimeter was used to measure the Earth dam ,plan areas enclosed by contours .The results
are shown in the table below.
Contour(m) 80.0 81.0 82.0 83.0 84.0 85.0 86.0 87.0
Area (m2) 20.22 30.11 33.22 40.50 44.12 29.54 15.45 12.11
Calculate the volume of earth material contained between the 80.0 and 87.0m contours in m3 by :
(i) End areas method.
(ii) Prismoidal formula.
(iii) Compare accuracies achieved by Simpson’s rule and Trapezoidal rule.
SOLUTION:
(i) End areas method.
Vtotal = d/2[A1 + A8 + 2(A2 + A3 + A4+A5 + A6+ A7)]
Where d = 1m
Vtotal = 1/2[20.22 + 12.11 + 2(30.11 + 33.22 + 40.50+44.12 + 29.54+ 15.45)]
= 209.105m3
(ii) Prismoidal formula.
V = d/3[A1 + AN+ 4∑ even areas + 2∑reaining odd areas]
V1-7 = d/3[A1 + A7+ 4( A2 +A4 + A6) + 2(A3+ A5)]
Where d= 1m
V1-7 = 1/3[20.22 + 15.45+ 4(30.11 + 40.50 + 29.54) + 2(33.22+ 44.12)]
= 196.98m3
Volume 7-8 use end areas method
Where d= 1m
V7-8 = d/2[A7 + A8] = 1/2[15.45 + 12.11] = 13.78m3
Vtotal = V1-7 + V7-8 = 196.98 + 13.78 = 210.76m3

ENGINEERING SURVEYING 11 29

Natukunda Nathan,[0772-883239,0704-983239,[email protected] ]
4. TRIGONOMETRICAL LEVELLING
Defn: It is a technique for the determination of the difference in height by measuring vertical
angles (Elevation or Depression) from one point to another.

Principle:

The principle of trigonometrical leveling is illustrated in the figure below, where the height of
the building is to be determined.

A theodolite is set up, some distance from the building and a vertical angle θ is measured to the
top of the building.

The horizontal distance AB from the theodolite to the building is measured using a steel tape and
from these field observations, the height BC is obtained trigonometrically.

This height obtained above, is the height of building above the horizontal plane through the
theodolite telescope.

To get the total height of the building, the height BD (instrument height i) from the horizontal
plane to the ground must be added to obtain the true height of the building.

ENGINEERING SURVEYING 11 30

Natukunda Nathan,[0772-883239,0704-983239,[email protected] ]
CASEI: To determine the height of an object (building) , when the building
base and the theodolite are on fairly flat ground.

Procedure:

1. Set the theodolite in apposition such that the distance from it , to the building is about one
to two times the height of the building.
2. Measure the instrument height (i) and measure the some distance I, which is BD to the
wall from the base.
3. Measure the horizontal distance AB from the theodolite to the building using a steel tape.
4. Set the telescope to the horizontal position, marked point B, on the building (by using
both faces).
5. Measure/sight the top of the building on both faces of the theodolite and make necessary
computation of the vertical angle θ.

The height of the building at C will be equal to DB + BC = i + ABtanθ

Therefore height DC = I + xtanθ
Where: I = theodolite height
X = distance AB measured using steel tape
Θ = vertical angle
When the RLat I is known, then the RL at C can be obtained as. RLC= RLI + I + xtanθ
Example1: using figure 2, when the above observations have been measured.
Horizontal distance AB = 39.48m
Mean vertical angle θ = 28030`
Height of instrument I (BD) = 1.82m
Then the height of the building DC= I + xtanθ = 1.82 + 39.48tan28030` = 23.26m.

ENGINEERING SURVEYING 11 31

Natukunda Nathan,[0772-883239,0704-983239,[email protected] ]
 CASE2: when the building base is below the instrument/theodolite
position.
For this case the horizontal plane will strike the building in a position that the BD will not
be easy to measure with a tape , because the height BD will be too high. In such a case
the fieldwork is done as follows.

Procedure:

1. Measure the height of the instrument I and mark this height I on the building from the
base.(height ED).

2. measure the slope length EF and this length is equal to AD.

3. measure vertical angle α to the marked position D on the wall.

4. measure the vertical angle θ to the top of the wall.

Therefore: the height of building CE = ED + DB + BC where ED = i

By considering ∆ABD:

- AB = ADcosα
- DB = ADsinα

By considering ∆ABC.

- BC = ABtanθ
- The height of the building = CE =ED + DB +BC = I + ADsinα + ABtanθ

ENGINEERING SURVEYING 11 32

Natukunda Nathan,[0772-883239,0704-983239,[email protected] ]
 Example:

Given the field observations in the figure above ,calculate the height of the building EC.

Solution:

Height of the building = EC = ED + DB + BC

Where: ED = I =1.36m

DB = ADsinα = 51.22sin4030` = 4.02m

Using triangle ABD:

AB = AD cosα = 51.22cos4030` = 51.06m

Using triangle ABC:

BC = ABtanθ = 51.06tan26015` = 25.18m

Therefore, height of the building = 1.36 + 4.02 + 25.18 = 30.56m

ENGINEERING SURVEYING 11 33

Natukunda Nathan,[0772-883239,0704-983239,[email protected] ]
CASE3: when the building base is higher and the instrument position is at the lower point.

When the theodolite is at a lower level than the building base , the horizontal plane through the
telescope will strike the ground before reaching the building.

The field procedure is the same as the previous.

The theodolite is set at F and its height I is measured the slope length BF is measured using steel
tape and the point D is marked on the wall building equal to I,

The vertical angles θ and α are all measured.

The height of building = BC = EC – EB = EC- ED + BD = EC – ED + I

ENGINEERING SURVEYING 11 34

Natukunda Nathan,[0772-883239,0704-983239,[email protected] ]
Example:

Using the figure 4. Calculate the height of the building;

Solution:

The height of building = BC = EC – EB = EC- ED + BD = EC – ED + I

Slope length BF = length AD = 48.32m

Using triangle ADE :

AE = ADcosα = 48.32cos10005` = 47.57m

DE = ADsinα = 48.32sin10005` = 8.46m

Using triangle ACE:

CE = AEtan32010` = 29.92m

height of building = BC = EC – ED + I = 29.92 – 8.46 + 1.29 = 22.75m

ENGINEERING SURVEYING 11 35

Natukunda Nathan,[0772-883239,0704-983239,[email protected] ]
CASE4 (a): when the object does not have avertical sides e.g a hill

It becomes difficult to measure adistance from the theodolite to a point vertically below the top
of the hill.

The best way of getting the solution to a such problem is to use EDM, incomperated with the
theodolite.

Measure the instrument height I and the vertical angle θ and measure the prism height h a bove
the hill ,also measure slope length TP electronically.

Height of the hill = I + HP –h

Where:

HP = TP sinθ

ENGINEERING SURVEYING 11 36

Natukunda Nathan,[0772-883239,0704-983239,[email protected] ]
Example:

Using figure 5 ;

Calculate the height of the hill and RL of the hill top.

Solution:

Height of the hill = I + HP –h

Where:
𝐻𝑃
Sinθ = 𝑇𝑃

HP = TP sinθ = 318.29sin10031`10`` = 58.11m

Height of hill = 1.51 + 58.11 – 0.71 = 58.91m

Reduced level of hill top = RL at T + height of hill =RL at T + I + HP – h

= 93.23 + 58.91 = 152.14m

ENGINEERING SURVEYING 11 37

Natukunda Nathan,[0772-883239,0704-983239,[email protected] ]
CASE 4(b): determination of a height of object with an inaccessible base (e.g mountain peak),

Base line AB in line with the peak P

Note: X can be measured with tape while Y can not be measured directly.

Procedure:

 select two stations I and II such that station II lies on line I P

 i1 and i2 are instrument height at I & II respectively.
 α and β are the vertical angles at I and II respectively.
 X is the horizontal distance between I and II that can be measured.
 Y is the horizontal distance between II and P that cannot be measured directly with a
tape.
 RLP = RLI + i1 + (x + y)tanα ……………………………… 1
 RLP = RLII + i2 + ytanβ ……………………………………….2
 1-2
 RLI + i1 + (x + y)tanα = RLII + i2 + ytanβ
 RLI + i1 + (x + y)tanα - RLII + i2 + ytanβ = 0
 Y(tanα – tanβ) = RL2 – RL1 + L2 – L1 - xtanα
 Y = (RL2 + L2) – (RL1 + L1 + xtanα)/ tanα – tanβ ………………3

ENGINEERING SURVEYING 11 38

Natukunda Nathan,[0772-883239,0704-983239,[email protected] ]
Example:

The figure below show two theodolite stations A and B ,set up some distance from a tall
building ,All relevant survey observations for finding the height of the building are shown in the
figure.

Calculate the height of the building CD.

Solution:

Home work

ANSWERS:

BC = 47.36m

DC = 30.46m

ENGINEERING SURVEYING 11 39

Natukunda Nathan,[0772-883239,0704-983239,[email protected] ]