Paralanguage: nonverbal cues of the voice

Paralanguage (sometimes called vocalic) is the study of nonverbal cues of the voice. Various
acoustic properties of speech such as tone, pitch and accent, collectively known as prosody, can
all give off nonverbal cues. Paralanguage may change the meaning of words.

The linguist George L. Trager developed a classification system which consists of the voice set,
voice qualities, and vocalization.[10]

 The voice set is the context in which the speaker is speaking. This can include the
situation, gender, mood, age and a person's culture.
 The voice qualities are volume, pitch, tempo, rhythm, articulation, resonance, nasality,
and accent. They give each individual a unique "voice print".
 Vocalization consists of three subsections: characterizers, qualifiers and segregates.
Characterizers are emotions expressed while speaking, such as laughing, crying, and
yawning. A voice qualifier is the style of delivering a message - for example, yelling
"Hey stop that!", as opposed to whispering "Hey stop that". Vocal segregates such as "uh-
huh" notify the speaker that the listener is listening

Kinesics

The term was first used (in 1952) by Ray Birdwhistell, an anthropologist who wished to study
how people communicate through posture, gesture, stance, and movement. Part of Birdwhistell's
work involved making film of people in social situations and analyzing them to show different
levels of communication not clearly seen otherwise. The study was joined by several other
anthropologists, including Margaret Mead and Gregory Bateson

Posture

Posture can be used to determine a participant’s degree of attention or involvement, the

difference in status between communicators, and the level of fondness a person has for the other
communicator.] Studies investigating the impact of posture on interpersonal relationships suggest
that mirror-image congruent postures, where one person’s left side is parallel to the other
person’s right side, leads to favorable perception of communicators and positive speech; a person
who displays a forward lean or a decrease in a backwards lean also signify positive sentiment
during communication.[6] Posture is understood through such indicators as direction of lean, body
orientation, arm position, and body openness

Gesture

A gesture is a non-vocal bodily movement intended to express meaning. They may be articulated
with the hands, arms or body, and also include movements of the head, face and eyes, such as
winking, nodding, or rolling ones' eyes. The boundary between language and gesture, or verbal
and nonverbal communication, can be hard to identify.
Proxemics: physical space in communication

Proxemics is the study of how people use and perceive the physical space around them. The
space between the sender and the receiver of a message influences the way the message is
interpreted.

The perception and use of space varies significantly across cultures[3] and different settings
within cultures. Space in nonverbal communication may be divided into four main categories:
intimate, social, personal, and public space.

The term territoriality is still used in the study of proxemics to explain human behavior regarding
personal space.[4] Hargie & Dickson (2004, p. 69) identify 4 such territories:

1. Primary territory: this refers to an area that is associated with someone who has
exclusive use of it. For example, a house that others cannot enter without the owner’s
permission.
2. Secondary territory: unlike the previous type, there is no “right” to occupancy, but
people may still feel some degree of ownership of a particular space. For example,
someone may sit in the same seat on train every day and feel aggrieved if someone else
sits there.
3. Public territory: this refers to an area that is available to all, but only for a set period,
such as a parking space or a seat in a library. Although people have only a limited claim
over that space, they often exceed that claim. For example, it was found that people
take longer to leave a parking space when someone is waiting to take that space.
4. Interaction territory: this is space created by others when they are interacting. For
example, when a group is talking to each other on a footpath, others will walk around
the group rather than disturb it.

Chronemics: time in communication

Chronemics is the study of the use of time in nonverbal communication. The way we perceive
time, structure our time and react to time is a powerful communication tool, and helps set the
stage for communication. Time perceptions include punctuality and willingness to wait, the
speed of speech and how long people are willing to listen. The timing and frequency of an action
as well as the tempo and rhythm of communications within an interaction contributes to the
interpretation of nonverbal messages. Gudykunst & Ting-Toomey (1988) identified 2 dominant
time patterns: Monochronic Time: A monochronic time system means that things are done one
at a time and time is segmented into precise, small units. Under this system time is scheduled,
arranged and managed .Polychronic Time: A polychronic time system is a system where
several things can be done at once, and a more fluid approach is taken to scheduling
[Link] European-Americans and most northern and western European cultures,
Native American, Latin American and Arabic cultures use the polychronic system of time.
Clothing and bodily characteristic
Elements such as physique, height, weight, hair, skin color, gender, odors, and clothing send
nonverbal messages during interaction. For example, a study[2], carried out in Vienna, Austria, of
the clothing worn by women attending discothèques showed that in certain groups of women
(especially women who were in town without their partners) motivation for sex, and levels of
sexual hormones, were correlated with aspects of the clothing, especially the amount of skin
displayed, and the presence of sheer clothing, e.g. at the arms. Thus, to some degree, clothing
sent signals about interest in courtship.

Research into height has generally found that taller people are perceived as being more
impressive. Melamed & Bozionelos (1992) studied a sample of managers in the UK and found
that height was a key factor affecting who was promoted. Often people try to make themselves
taller, for example, standing on a platform, when they want to make more of an impact with their
speaking.

Sender oriented barriers:

It can be either voluntary or involuntary. At any cost, efforts should be made on the part of the
sender to identify and remove them. Some of the barriers that are sender oriented are:

 Badly expressed message: concrete ideas and well structures message Loss in transmission:
correct choice of medium or channel Semantic problem: simple words and accurate
understanding of intension Over/under communication: quantum of information should be
right ‘I’ Attitude: avoid I attitude Prejudices: mind free of bias

Rules to overcome the sender oriented barriers:

 Plan and clarify ideas Create a climate of trust and confidence Time your mind carefully
Reinforce words with action Communicate efficiently

Receiver-oriented barriers:

 Poor retention: jot down points Inattentive listening: improve concentration Tendency to
evaluate: delay evaluation Interest and attitudes: develop interest Conflicting information:
confirm with feedback, clarify Differing status and position: encourage juniors to come up with
ideas and listen Resistance to change: be flexible Refutations and arguments: enter into
healthy discussions
Classical conditioning vs. Operant conditioning

Classical conditioning and operant conditioning are different learning methods. What

exactly is conditioning? Conditioning is the acquisition of specific patterns of behavior

in the presence of well-defined stimuli. Both classical and operant conditioning are

basic forms of learning. Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which an

organism learns to transfer a natural response from one stimulus to another, previously

neutral stimulus. Manipulating reflexes does this. Operant conditioning is a type of

learning in which the likelihood of a behavior is increased or decreased by the use of

reinforcement or punishment. Operant conditioning deals with more cognitive thought

process. These two forms of learning have similarities and differences. Their

similarities are that they both produce basic phenomena. One such phenomenon is

acquisition. Both types of conditioning result in the inheritance of a behavior.

One of the most famous of experiments that illustrates classical conditioning is Pavlov's

Dogs. In this experiment, Pavlov sat behind a one-way mirror and controlled the

presentation of a bell. The bell was the conditioned stimulus. A conditioned stimulus was

an originally neutral stimulus that could eventually produce a desired response when

presented alone. Directly after the ringing of the bell, Pavlov gave the dog food. The

food was the unconditioned stimulus. This means that the food caused an uncontrollable

response whenever it was presented alone. That response would be the salivation of the

dog. A tube that was in the dog's mouth then measured the saliva. When the unconditioned

stimulus (US) was paired with a conditioned stimulus (CS), it eventually resulted in a

conditioned response. Extinction results if there is a decrease in frequency or strength

of a learned response due to the failure to continue to pair the US and the CS.

Extinction can also occur in operant conditioning. The key to operant conditioning is
reinforcement. Reinforcement is when a stimulus is presented that increases the

probability that the preceding response will recur in the future. If reinforcement is

withheld, extinction will occur in operant conditioning. Another factor that is involved

in conditioning is spontaneous recovery. That is the reappearance of an extinguished

response after the passage of time, without further training. If Pavlov's dogs did not

hear the bell for a few years, and if when they heard it later they drooled, it would be

an example of spontaneous recovery. Something similar occurs with operant conditioning.

If an animal was conditioned to behave in a certain manor, but then their reinforcement

was stopped, that animal may still have a reaction to the stimulus at a much later date.

Organisms that are being conditioned through operant or classical conditioning can go

through something that is known as stimulus generalization. This is when there is a

transfer of a learned response to different but similar stimuli. An example would be if

one of Pavlov's dogs salivated to the sound of a bell that was different from the one

that they were originally conditioned with. Stimulus discrimination is another phenomena

that occurs with classical and operant conditioning. Discrimination is when an organism

learns to respond to only one stimulus and inhibit the response to all other stimuli. It

is the reverse of generalization. If an organism hears many different sounds, but is only

given reinforcement for responding to only one of the sounds, it learns to discriminate

between the sounds. Some of the differences between operant and classical conditioning

lie in the extent to which reinforcement depends on the behavior of the learner. In

classical conditioning, the learner is automatically reinforced. That is how it learns to respond to a
once neutral stimulus. In operant conditioning, the learner must provide acorrect response in order to
received the reinforcement. Another difference between thetwo forms of conditioning is the type of behavior
to which each method applies. Classical conditioning applies to a behavior that is always wanted. It was
Pavlov's purpose to have
the dogs salivate on command. In operant conditioning, a behavior can be learned or

extinguished. If you wanted to train a dog not to do something, you would use a form of

punishment.

Classical and operant conditioning are similar, but they do differ in a few ways. Both are fairly reliable
ways to teach an organism to act in a specific manor.

Essay On Importance Of Organisational Behaviour

In An Organisation:

Organisational behaviour is the study organisational culture; the study of people as a group or as an

individual in an organisation. If you want to become a good entrepreneur, it is necessary to learn
about your organisational structure more accurately. By leaning organisation behaviour managers can
build up a better environment in an organisation and can achieve a successful career.
Organisational behaviour is an important subject in, which every student has to write number of
essays, in order to enhance their writing and learning skills. Writing a good quality essay is one of the
most complicated tasks for students who are poor in grammar and punctuation. In this article you will
find the importance of organisational behaviour in an organisation. Students of organisational
behaviour can easily take help from this article, in order to write a good quality essay in less possible
time.
Business environment changes rapidly, in order to handle your employees, managers must have some
know-how regarding organisational behaviour. They must know three essential aspects in order to
handle a new workforce, these important factors are: (a) motivation (b) communication
(c) leadership. One of the essential fundamentals to any booming organisation is the people in place
of leadership. “Leadership is the capability to control a group toward the accomplishment of goals and
objectives.” 
Following are some most significant advantages of study organisational behaviour:
The study of organisational behaviour plays a major role in all parts of an organisation. It helps you to
know the human behaviour within and outside the organisation. 
The second biggest advantage of studying organisational behaviour is that, organisational behaviour
can tell managers how they manage their operations successfully and professionally.
The main objective of a company is to maximise their profits and minimise their risks. By studying
organisational behaviour managers can pay more attention on how to handle different situations of
their employees, so that they can successfully take a company towards success. 
Above are some advantages of study organisational behaviour. If a manager knows about his or her
employees they will eventually lead to a better more stable company.