4/20/2019

Forging
• It is a deformation process in which the work piece is compressed
between two dies, using either impact load or hydraulic load (or
gradual load) to deform it.
• It is used to make a variety of high-strength components for
automotive, aerospace, and other applications. The components
include engine crankshafts, connecting rods, gears, aircraft structural
components, jet engine turbine parts etc.
Category based on temperature : cold, warm, hot forging
Category based on presses:
impact load => forging hammer; gradual pressure => forging press

Category based on degree to which the flow of the work metal is

constrained by the dies
Open die forging, impression die forging, flashless forging

Forging
In open die forging, the workpiece is compressed between two flat dies,
thus allowing the metal to flow without any restriction in the sideward
direction relative to the die surfaces.

In impression die forging, the die surfaces contain a shape that is given to
the work piece during compression, thus restricting the metal flow
significantly. There is some extra deformed material outside the die
impression which is called as flash. This will be trimmed off later.

1
 4/20/2019

Forging
In flashless forging, the work piece is fully
restricted within the die and no flash is produced.
The amount of initial work piece used must be
controlled accurately so that it matches the
volume of the die cavity.

Open die forging

A simplest example of open die forging is
compression of billet between two flat dies
which is like compression test. This also known
as upsetting or upset forging. Basically height
decreases and diameter increases.
In open die forging, as the metal flows
laterally between the advancing die surfaces,
there is less deformation at the die interfaces
because of friction forces than at the mid
height. Thus the sides of the upset cylinder
becomes barreled.

Forging process

The equipments are classified in to

Forging hammer: Drop
hammer, pneumatic hammer -
delivers rapid impact or blows
to the surface of the metal

Forging press: Hydraulic press,
screw press or crank press –
metal subjected to slow speed
compression force

2
 4/20/2019

Table: Typical values of velocity for different forging equipment

Forging machine Velocity range (m/s)
3.00 - 6.00
Gravity drop hammer
3.00 – 9.00
Power drop hammer
6.00 - 24.00
HERF machines
0.06 - 1.5
Mechanical press
0.06 – 0.3
Hydraulic press

Forging operations
Edging: Edging dies are used to shape the ends of the bars and to gather
metal. The metal is confined by the die to flow horizontally but is free to
flow laterally to fill the die.

Fullering : Used to reduce the Cross

sectional area of a portion of the stock.
The metal flow is outward and away from
the centre of the fullering die.
Eg. Connecting rod of an IC engine

3
 4/20/2019

Forging operations
Drawing down: is used to reduce the cross
Sectional area of work with concurrent increase in
length
Swaging: If the drawing-down operation is carried
out with concave dies, then it is called Swaging.

In closed die forging, the billets are first fullered and edged to place the metal
in the correct places for subsequent operations. The pre-shaped billet is then
placed in the cavity of the blocking die and rough forged to close to the final
shape. Blocking is the penultimate operation of the finish forging operation.
Then it is transferred to the finishing dies and forged to the final shape and
dimensions.

4
 4/20/2019

Flash and Gutter

Since it is difficult to put just the right amount of metal in the correct place, it is
customary to provide a slight excess metal
When the dies comes together in the finishing operation, the excess metal squirts
out of the cavity a thin ribbon of metal called FLASH.
Flash Gutter is provided to prevent the formation of a very wide flash.

The purpose of the flash :

1. To act as a “safety valve” for excess metal.
2. Flash regulates the escape of metal and thus the thin flash greatly increases
the flow resistance of the system so that pressure builds up inside the die
cavity.
As the flash begins to form in the die gap, friction resists
continued flow of metal into the gap, thus constraining the
bulk of the work material to remain in the die cavity. In hot
forging, metal flow is further restricted because the thin
flash cools quickly against the die plates.

3. Flash acts as a cushion thereby reducing the extent of impact between the two
die halves.

5
 4/20/2019

Forging analysis

As the ram advances downward, the metal flow lateral, i.e. perpendicular to
the ram travel. This result in shear stresses at the die contact surfaces which is
directed toward the centre line, opposite to the metal flow.
The presence of friction causes an imbalance of force on the element in the x
direction which must by accommodated by a change in lateral pressure σx
from one side of the element to the other.
It is assumed that the plate has a unit width and remain uniform.

Taking equilibrium of forces in the x- direction,

i.e. -----------------(1)

Von Mises’ criterion for Plane strain condition is

-----------------(2)

Considering P and σx as positive compressive principal stresses, p= σz

-----------------(3)

Since σ0’ does not change with x, and we get

-----------------(4)

6
 4/20/2019

If the shearing stress is related to normal pressure by coulomb’s law of

sliding friction, τxy = μp. The above equation then becomes

-----------------(5)
Integrating both sides,

-----------------(6)
BCs: at free surface, x= a, the lateral stress σx = 0, and p = σ0’

Hence,

-----------------(7)

Since μ is a small number, we can use the expansion series for simplification

-----------------(8)
Therefore,

The mean forging pressure is

-----------------(9)

p in terms of the ratio of length to thickness (L/h) can also be written as:

-----------------(10)

where L=2a. As L/H increases, the resistance to deformation

increases rapidly.

7
 4/20/2019

Another way other than Coulomb's law to describe the interface shear stress is
with Friction factor m, where τxy = τi = mk. Substituting τxy = mk in to ---(4) gives

Integrating ,

Since

-------------------------(11)

This pressure distribution is liner with distance from the centerline of the slab.
There is a limit below which sliding friction can exist at the die-works piece
interface. When that limit is reached interfacial shear of the work piece occurs
at a value of the flow stress τi = k where k is the shear yield stress = σo/(√3). In
general τi = mk , so that m = 1 is the condition for sticking friction. For the
special case of sticking friction, m =1 and equation (11) becomes

------------(12)
The mean forging pressure is

------------(13)

Normally the frictional conditions are intermediate between full sticking

and slipping so that there may be sliding friction at the edges of the plate
where pressure is lower but at some distance closer to the neutral surface,
the pressure increases to the shear yield strength of the material. If this
point, measured from the centre line where this transition occurs is x1,
this can be obtained by substituting for P of equation (12) in eqn (7). i.e.

------------(14)