Scientific Bulletin. Series F. Biotechnologies, Vol.

XVIII, 2014
ISSN 2285-1364, CD-ROM ISSN 2285-5521, ISSN Online 2285-1372, ISSN-L 2285-1364

BIOPOLYMERS BASED ON RENEWABLE RESOURCES - A REVIEW

Elisabeta Elena TĂNASE1, Maria RÂPĂ2, Ovidiu POPA1

1
University of Agronomic Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Bucharest, Faculty of Biotechnology,
Department of Industrial Biotechnology, 59 Mără‫܈‬ti Blv., sector 1, 011464, Bucharest, Romania,
phone: +40213182266, fax: +40213182288, e-mail address: [Link]@[Link],
ovid_popa@[Link]
2
SC ICPE Bistrita S.A., Parcului Street, no. 7, Bistrita, Romania, phone/fax: +40263210938,
e-mail address: rapa_m2002@[Link]

Corresponding author’s email: [Link]@[Link]

Abstract

It is well known that plastic waste has become a great problem for the environment all over the world. Conventional
polymeric materials are not easily degraded because they are resistant against microbial attack; they accumulate in the
environment and represent a significant source of environmental pollution. These problems caused by synthetic waste
have led to the need for developing new polymeric materials that can be biodegradable and biocompatible with the
environment, to replace the conventional ones. Over the past years a lot of attention has been paid to biodegradable
polymers based on renewable resources because of their wide range of applications in packaging, agriculture or
biomedical fields. This paper aims to present a review regarding the development of biopolymers and biocomposites
based on renewable resources, their properties and the area of their application.

Key words: biodegradable, biocomposites, biopolymers, renewable resources.

INTRODUCTION polymer materials to replace petrochemicals in

many industrial applications due to increased
Materials made from synthetic polymers are environmental concern and diminishing
not biodegradable and are often improperly petrochemical resources (Raquez J.M. et al.,
discarded (Suchada C., 2010). The huge 2013; Xiaoqing Z. et al., 2010). Particularly,
development of conventional plastics made renewable agricultural and biomass feedstock
from petroleum-based synthetic polymers have shown much promise for use in eco-
unable to degrade in landfill or compost-like efficient packaging to replace petroleum
environment had led to serious environmental feedstock without competing with food crops
issues. In response to this increasing awareness, (Abdelwahab M.A. et al., 2012). However, as
the use of polymers stemming from renewable compared to thermoplastic synthetic polymers,
and sustainable resources to develop biopolymers present problems when processed
biopolymers constitutes an innovative and with traditional technologies and show inferior
promising alternative to reduce greenhouse gas performances in terms of functional and
and toxic emissions, reduce energy demand and structural properties (Mensitieri G. et al.,
the use of non-renewable resources (Godoia 2011).
F.C. et al., 2011; Hassan M.A. et al., 2013; In recent years, there has been an important
Payam M. et al., 2010; Chevillard A. et al., increase in interest in the use of biodegradable
2011). materials for packaging, agriculture, medicine
Natural polymers derived from agricultural and other areas. A number of blends using
products (such as starch, proteins, cellulose and biopolymers can be the alternative of currently
plant oils) are the major resource for used synthetic polymeric materials. The most
developing renewable and biodegradable common and potential biopolymers are starch,
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chitosan, alginate, gelatin, PLA, PHAs, etc.
(Akter N. et al., 2012).
The term biopolymer is generally understood as
an organic polymer that is produced naturally
by living organisms (Armentano I. et al., 2013).
One major advantage of biopolymers is that
they are also fully capable of biodegradation at
Figure 2. Chemical structure for amylopectin
accelerated rates, breaking down cleanly into
simple molecules found in the environment,
Starch is a widely used material for making
such as carbon dioxide, water or methane,
biodegradable plastics, but pure starch based
under the enzymatic action of microorganisms,
films possesses low mechanical properties
in a defined period of time. Polymeric materials
(Akter N. et al., 2012). Starch is the most
derived from renewable resources can be
important polysaccharide; it is the most
biodegradable or compostable under specific
abundant in nature and relatively inexpensive.
environmental conditions. They are classified
Natural starch exists in granular form and, as
according to the method of production or their
such, it has been used as filler in polymers, but
source:
it can also be processed with classical plastic
- Polymers directly extracted or removed from
processing technologies such as extrusion,
biomass such as polysaccharides and proteins.
foaming and film blowing after
- Polymers produced by classical chemical
thermoplasticization. The main limitation for
synthesis starting from renewable bio-based
starch is its hydrophilic nature, which limits its
monomers such as polylactic acid (PLA).
use in high moisture environments (Mensitieri
- Polymers produced by microorganisms or
G. et al., 2011). Starch can be successfully used
genetically modified bacteria such as
in PLA composites (Qingfeng S. et al., 2011),
polyhydroxyalkanoates, bacterial cellulose, etc.
and it can also be mixed with polyvinyl
(Mensitieri G. et al., 2011).
alcohol, poly-hydroxybutyric acid,
polycaprolactone, chitosan, derivatives, and
POLYSACCHARIDES AND PROTEINS
other degradable polymers to prepare fully
degradable biomaterials (Wang Z. et al, 2008).
Starch is a potentially interesting biodegradable
Starch can be used as drug delivery carriers in
material due to its availability, low cost and
tissue engineering applications (Thombre N. A.
renewability. Moreover, the use of starch in the
et al., 2009), membranes in direct contact with
plastics industry can reduce dependence on
living tissues (Baran E.T. et al., 2004),
synthetic polymers. Although its structure has
microcellular foams (Manoi K. and Rizvi
not been fully elucidated, it was established
S.S.H., 2010) and food industry (Majzoobi M.
that starch is a heterogeneous material
et al., 2009; Omojola M. O. et al., 2012; Li
consisting primarily of two types of polymers:
B.Z. at al., 2009; Chung H.J. et al., 2008; Dang
amylose (Figure 1) and amylopectin (Figure 2).
H.V. et al., 2008; Anand U. and Ambarish J.,
2011).

Chitosan, as a unique positively charged

polysaccharide, has been one of the most
popular biopolymers for development of drug
delivery systems for various applications, due
to its promising properties, including high
biocompatibility, excellent biodegradability,
Figure 1. Chemical structure for amylase
low toxicity, as well as abundant availability
and low production cost (Bomou M. et al.,
2014; Yangchao L. and Qin W., 2014).
Chitosan is a biopolymer derived by
deacetylation of chitin, which is the second

189
most abundant biopolymer in nature after processed products. Chitosan has proven a
cellulose. Chemical structure of chitin and useful antimicrobial agent in food processing,
chitosan is shown in Figure 3. particularly for improving the shelf life of food
materials (Bano I. et al., 2014; Jooyeoun J. and
Yanyun Z., 2014; Sanches-Silva et al., 2010).
Chitosan and its derivatives have been
receiving significant scientific interests and
became one of the hottest topics in recent
decades, especially for its food, medical and
pharmaceutical applications, including drug
delivery and tissue engineering (Huang J. et al.,
2012; Jooyeoun J. and Yanyun Z., 2014;
Yangchao L. and Qin W., 2014; Lavorgna et
al., 2014; Sweetie R., et al., 2012, Dash M. et
al., 2011). Chitosan membrane, an important
form of chitosan, presents potential application
in tissue engineering, food preservation,
wastewater purification, environmental
protection, fuel cell and separation technology
(Bomou M. et al., 2014).

Figure 3. Chitin and chitosan structures Cellulose is a very important and fascinating
biopolymer and an almost inexhaustible and
Chitin is present in the exoskeleton of sustainable natural polymeric raw material,
arthropods such as insects, crabs, shrimps, which is of special importance both in
lobsters and certain fungal cell walls. The industries and in daily lives (Weili H. et al.,
production of chitosan from crustacean shells, 2014). It is found in the cell walls of superior
wastes of the seafood industry, is economically plants in the form of microfibrils with a helical
feasible. Chitosan has been reported as a organization on several levels containing
potential material of food packaging, especially crystalline domains (domains with ordering
as edible films and coatings due to its film high cellulose chains) and amorphous (segment
forming properties. However, one of the main fields distorted, twisted and deformed) (Figure
drawbacks of chitosan based materials relates 4).
to its relatively weak mechanical strength.
Because of reactive amino and hydroxyl
functional groups, chitosan is frequently
blended with other polymers or crosslinked to
improve their functional properties by inducing
inter- or intra-molecular crosslinking in the
polymer matrix (Yangchao L. and Qin W.,
2014; Akter N. et al., 2012; Liang S. et al.,
2009; Belalia et al., 2008; Vroman and Figure 4. Chemical structure of cellulose
Tighzert, 2009; Khwaldia et al., 2010; Agostino
et al., 2012; Zuang et al., 2012). Cellulose is the most abundant biomass
The antibacterial activity of chitosan is affected material in nature, and possesses some
by molecular weight and degree of promising properties, such as mechanical
deacetylation. Low molecular weight chitosan robustness, hydrophilicity, biocompatibility,
has strong antibacterial properties and it is also biodegradability, relative thermostability, high
harmless to human body. For the food sorption capacity and alterable optical
packaging industry, food quality and safety to appearance (Weili H. et al., 2014; Xiaoyun Q.
human health are the two major concerns as and Shuwen H., 2013). Cellulose has been
consumers prefer fresh and minimally widely applied in many fields. Biocomposites

190
based on cellulose have great advantages polymer materials. As one of the cheapest plant
(especially their intelligent behaviors in proteins derived from the second largest cereal
reaction to environmental stimuli) and they can crop wheat (after maize), wheat proteins or
be applied to many circumstances. wheat gluten have excellent properties in
Approximately 5×1011 metric tons of cellulose viscoelastic performance, tensile strength and
is being generated yearly. Unfortunately, only gas barrier performance (Xiaoqing Z. et al.,
2% is recovered industrially. The great 2010). Wheat gluten, a by-product of the starch
properties of cellulose enable it to be applied to industry with a high protein content (>75 wt
a vast array of fields (Xiaoyun Q. and Shuwen %), could be considered suitable for lots of
H., 2013). applications because of its good thermoplastic
properties, good processability and its
Collagen has been extensively used as a remarkable biodegradability. Moreover, the use
biomaterial in many biomedical applications. of protein as raw material offers a wide
Collagens are the most abundant proteins found spectrum of chemical functionalities due to the
in extracellular matrices of vertebrate animals large variety of amino acids, and also
(Vroman I. and Tighzert L., 2009). In animal represents a significant source of nitrogen for
hides and skins, the dominant collagen is type I the crops nutrition, a huge advantage for
and it is also the major structural component of agricultural applications (Chevillard A. et al.,
tendon, bone and connective tissue. Collagen 2011, 2012). Wheat gluten is mainly
exists in the form of fibrils and they provide the constituted of two main storage proteins that
main mechanical support and structural are gliadins (monomeric proteins with
organization of connective tissues. Because molecular weight ranging from 15 to 85 kDa)
collagens provide natural structure, and glutenins (macro polymer with molecular
biodegradability, and biocompatibility, they weight ranging from 150 to more than 103
have extensive applications as a biomaterial in kDa). Gluten proteins can undergo disulphide
tissue engineering, wound healing, as drug interchange upon heating, which leads to the
carriers, and cosmetics. For example, fibril- formation of a three-dimensional
forming collagens provide a scaffold for cell macromolecular network (Chevillard A. et al.,
attachment and migration, as well as providing 2011).
specific mechanical properties (Ganesh S. et
al., 2014, Hoyer B. et al., 2014). Because of the CHEMICAL SYNTHESIS PRODUCED
presence of collagen, the animal derived tissues POLYMER (PLA)
are used for the replacement of human tissues
that results in the improvement of the wound- In the framework of environmentally friendly
healing process. Furthermore, it has been used processes and products, polylactide (PLA)
as the main component in the design of represents the best polymeric substitutes for
biomaterials such as artificial dermis, wound various petropolymers because of its
dressings, tissue engineering devices, tendon renewability, biodegradability,
substitutes, and injectable material in plastic biocompatibility, good thermomechanical
surgery. Collagen from animals, particularly properties and relatively low cost (Armentano
from bovine species, is more advantageous due I. et al., 2013; Raquez J.M. et al., 2013).
to the possibility of extraction of a large Chemical structure of PLA is shown in Figure
quantity of pure type I collagen. The structure 5.
and stability of collagen are thus an important
factor as it is widely used as biomaterials
(Ganesh S. et al., 2014).

The major challenge in the material research is

Figure 5. Chemical structure of PLA
to develop suitable modification methodologies
to improve the properties of natural polymers. Initially, most of its applications concerned
One example is the development of wheat biomedical sector and short time uses such as
proteins or wheat gluten - based natural packaging, particularly for the biodegradable

191
properties of PLA. Interestingly, due to the variables, i.e. nature of PLA matrix, type, and
depletion of petroleum resources, PLA is now optimal percentage of plasticizer, thermal
seen more and more as a valuable biosourced stability at the processing temperature, etc.
polymer alternative in long term applications
must be considered (Hassouna F. et al., 2011,
such as automotive and electronics
(Abdelwahab M.A. et al., 2012; Lasprilla Abdelwahab M.A. et al., 2012; Halasz K. and
A.J.R. et al., 2012; Raquez J.M. et al., 2013). Csóka L., 2013). PLA is a linear aliphatic
PLA is an eco-friendly product with better thermoplastic polyester derived from 100%
features for use in the human body renewable resources such as sugar, corn,
(nontoxicity). Lactic acid polymers can be potatoes, cane, beet, etc. (Armentano I. et al.,
synthesized by different processes so as to 2013).
obtain products with an ample variety of
chemical and mechanical properties. Due to POLYMERS PRODUCED BY
their excellent biocompatibility and mechanical MICROORGANISMS
properties, PLA and its copolymers are
becoming widely used in tissue engineering for Polyesters are now universally used as fibers
function restoration of impaired tissues. It is a and films in various areas, while plastic waste
highly versatile biodegradable polymer, which management recently became a critical
can be tailored into different resin grades for problem of global environment.
processing into a wide spectrum of products. Polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA), which is
Polymers based on lactic acid (PLA) are a most produced from renewable carbon resources by
promising category of polymers made from many microorganisms, is an environmentally
renewable resources (Lasprilla A.J.R. et al., compatible polymeric material and can be
2012). PLA exhibits several advantages in processed into films and fibers. Also, findings
relation to the petroleum-based polymers suggest that PHA is a suitable material for
usually used for packaging (Armentano I. et al., fabrication of resorbable medical devices, such
2013): (i) Good transparency, usually defined as sutures, meshes, implants, and tissue
as the transmission of visible light in the range engineering scaffolds (Brigham C.J. and
of 540–560 nm, slightly higher than that of Sinskey A.J., 2012; Chen G.Q and Wu Q.,
poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) and 2005). A wide variety of bacteria can
poly(styrene) (PS); (ii) Degradation in accumulate these polymers as a carbon and
biological environment such as soil or compost; energy storage material under nutrient
(iii) Biocompatibility: PLA has been imbalanced condition such as nitrogen,
demonstrated to be biocompatible and to phosphorous or oxygen limitation together with
degrade into non-toxic components and it has excess carbon. They can be composed of over
been approved by the Food and Drug 100 different monomers and they act as a
Administration (FDA) for implantation in the carbon/energy store for more than 300 species
human body; (iv) Process ability: The main of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria
conversion approaches of PLA are based on as well as a wide range of archaea (Davis R. et
melt processing. al., 2013; Keiji N. et al., 2009; Laycock B. et
Unfortunately, PLA is rigid and brittle at room al., 2014; Suchada C. et al., 2010). PHAs can
temperature due to its glass transition be produced from renewable raw materials and
temperature (Tg) close to about 55°C. PLA is a are degraded naturally by microorganisms that
glassy polymer with poor elongation at break enable carbon dioxide and organic compound
(typically less than 10%) (Xiao L. et al., 2012). recycling in the ecosystem, providing a buffer
to climate change (Suchada C., 2010).
To improve the ductility of PLA-based
Biodegradation of PHA material occurs due to
materials, a large number of investigations the action of extracellular PHA depolymerase
have been made to modify its properties via secreted from microorganisms in various
plasticization and blending with other natural environments (Davis R. et al., 2013;
polymers. However, a great number of Keiji N. et al., 2009; Laycock B. et al., 2014).
Currently, new research efforts are proceeding

192
towards developing PHAs in transgenic plants cellulose obtained from bacteria is known to
(Reddi [Link] al., 2013). Polyhydroxybutyrate have unique properties over plant cellulose
(PHB) and poly(hydroxybutyrate- such as: (i) Absence of lignin and
cohydroxyvalerate) (PHBV) are the most well- hemicellulose, making it a highly pure source
known polymers of the polyhydroxyalkanoates of cellulose, (ii) High degree of polymerization
family. Chemical structure of the most combined with crystallinity (60–70%), leading
representative PHA is shown in Figure 6. to high Young’s modulus at room and elevated
temperatures, (iii) Extremely high water-
holding capacity, up to 100 times its self-
weight; (iv) Excellent biodegradability and
biological affinity (Vitta S. and Thiruvengadam
V., 2012).
Various modification methods have been
explored to open up possibilities for endowing
BC with new functionalities. In the last few
years, growing worldwide activity can be
observed regarding extensive scientific
Figure 6. PHA structure investigation and increasing efforts for the
practical use of the BC materials. There is an
Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) is polyester from increasing annual publication activity on BC
the PHA family and is accumulated by a wide (also known as microbial cellulose or bacterial
variety of micro-organisms as an intracellular nanocellulose). In recent years, the
storage source of organic carbon and chemical investigation and utilization of BC in functional
energy (Bertini F. et al., 2012). materials have been the focus of research, and a
The properties of the PHBV co-polymer can be growing number of works have been included
easily tailored by varying the valerate content. in this field. Functional BC-based
PHB is biodegradable thermoplastic polyester nanomaterial’s are especially an attractive topic
that can be considered analogous to many because they enable the creation of materials
conventional petroleum-derived plastics with improved or new properties by mixing
currently in use. Furthermore, it has some multiple constituents and exploiting synergistic
additional advantages such as being effects, such as electronic, optical, magnetic,
biocompatible and can be produced from a catalytic properties and bioactivity (Weili H. et
renewable raw material in a sustainable al., 2014, Castro C. et al., 2012).
technology from economical to ecological
point of view (Godoia F.C. et. al., 2011). CONCLUSIONS

Bacterial cellulose (BC) is a fascinating and Biodegradable natural polymers are mainly
renewable natural nanomaterial characterized based on renewable resources (like starch,
by favorable properties such as remarkable collagen, cellulose, etc.) and can be produced
mechanical properties, porosity, water naturally or synthesized from renewable
absorbency, mold ability, biodegradability and resources. Starch, collagen, chitosan, wheat
excellent biological affinity. gluten have all applications in agriculture, food
Intensive research and exploration in the past industry, medicine, cosmetics, etc. PLA also
few decades on BC nanomaterials mainly has applications in many areas such as
focused on their biosynthetic process to achieve packaging industry and biomedical sector.
the low-cost preparation and application in Biobased and biodegradable polyesters like
medical, food, advanced acoustic diaphragms, PHAs have been in demand in order to reduce
and other fields (Weili H. et al., 2014, Zhang S. carbon dioxide emissions from plastic waste
and Luo J., 2011). Bacterial cellulose has the and to build a sustainable society.
same molecular formula as plant cellulose, but In view of expanding the scope of BC
with unique and sophisticated three- applications, it is important to take full
dimensional porous network structures. The advantage of the unique structure and

193
properties of BC nanomaterials to develop reinforced chitosan membranes. International Journal of
novel BC-based nanomaterials with ground- Biological Macromolecules 64, p. 341– 346.
Brigham C.J. and Sinskey A.J., 2012, Applications of
breaking new features. Polyhydroxyalkanoates in the Medical Industry.
International Journal of Biotechnology for Wellness
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Industries 1, p. 53-60.
Castro C., Zuluaga R., Álvarez C., Putaux J.L., Caro G.,
This paper was published under the frame of Rojas O.J., Mondragon I., Gañán P., 2012. Bacterial
cellulose produced by a new acid-resistant strain of
European Social Fund, Human Resources Gluconacetobacter genus. Carbohydrate Polymers 89
Development Operational Programme 2007- (4), p. 1033–1037.
Chen G.Q., Wu Q., 2005. The application of
2013, project no. POSDRU/159/1.5/S/132765. polyhydroxyalkanoates as tissue engineering materials.
Biomaterials 26, p. 6565–6578.
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