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A Systematic Review of Self-Directed Cognitive Strategies' Effects on

Strength Performance

Article  in  Sports Medicine · September 2015

DOI: 10.1007/s40279-015-0356-1

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Sports Med
DOI 10.1007/s40279-015-0356-1

SYSTEMATIC REVIEW

A Systematic Review of the Effect of Cognitive Strategies

on Strength Performance
David Tod1 • Christian Edwards2 • Mike McGuigan3 • Geoff Lovell4

Ó Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015

Abstract Results Globally, cognitive strategies were reliability

Background Researchers have tested the beliefs of associated with increased strength performance (results
sportspeople and sports medicine specialists that cognitive ranged from 61 to 65 %). Results were mixed when
strategies influence strength performance. Few investiga- examining the effects of specific strategies on particular
tors have synthesised the literature. dependent variables, although no intervention had an
Objectives The specific objectives were to review evi- overall negative influence. Indeterminate relationships
dence regarding (a) the cognitive strategy–strength per- emerged regarding hypothesised mediators (except cogni-
formance relationship; (b) participant skill level as a tive variables) and participant skill level as a moderator.
moderator; and (c) cognitive, motivational, biomechani- Conclusions Although cognitive strategies influence
cal/physiological, and emotional mediators. strength performance, there are knowledge gaps regarding
Method Studies were sourced via electronic databases, specific types of strength, especially muscular power.
reference lists of retrieved articles, and manual searches of Cognitive variables, such as concentration, show promise
relevant journals. Studies had to be randomised or coun- as possible mediators.
terbalanced experiments with a control group or condition,
repeated measures, and a quality control score above 0.5
(out of 1). Cognitive strategies included goal setting,
Key Points
imagery, self-talk, preparatory arousal, and free choice.
Dependent variables included maximal strength, local
Cognitive strategies of various types influence
muscular endurance, or muscular power.
muscular strength performance.
Participant skill level does not appear to moderate
Electronic supplementary material The online version of this the cognitive strategy and strength performance
article (doi:10.1007/s40279-015-0356-1) contains supplementary relationship.
material, which is available to authorized users.
No explanation for why cognitive strategies enhance
& David Tod
muscular strength has substantial support, but
[Link]@[Link]
initial evidence supports continued examination of
1
School of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Tom Reilly Building, cognitive variables.
Byrom Street Campus, Liverpool John Moores University,
Liverpool L3 3AF, UK
2
Institute of Sport and Exercise Science, University of
Worcester, Worcester, UK 1 Introduction
3
Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand,
Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand Many strength athletes engage in one or more cognitive
4
School of Social Sciences, University of the Sunshine Coast, strategies prior to or during performance in training and
Sippy Downs, QLD, Australia competition, with typical examples including imagery,

123
 D. Tod et al.

self-talk, and goal setting [1]. These strategies are designed systematic review will provide an up-to-date understanding
to increase physical and mental activation, focus attention, of the topic. Third, the previous reviews did not examine
and build self-efficacy [2]. Although athletes believe the the quality or rigour of the research. Assessing research
result will be enhanced strength performance, scientists rigour is an established component of systematic reviews
have tested the hypothesis empirically and have reported [10], and allows insights regarding the confidence that may
both (a) significant and nonsignificant results, and (b) pos- be placed in current knowledge and any derived
itive and negative results [3–5]. In addition, scientists have implications.
examined the influence of cognitive strategies on strength For the current review, cognitive strategies were defined
performance in the injury rehabilitation context [6]. The as self-directed mental interventions used prior to or during
possibility that cognitive strategies may assist performance skill execution to enhance physical performance [1].
and recovery from injury has potential psychological and Related interventions such as music, external verbal
performance benefits. If cognitive strategies could assist encouragement, or instructor-led guided imagery were not
performance and recovery from injury, then athletes might considered for this review. The current review focused on
experience greater training gains, enhanced competitive imagery, goal setting, self-talk, preparatory arousal, and
performance, and shortened periods of time away from free choice. These strategies were included because they
sport when injured. are the common interventions participants have identified
Researchers have identified typical cognitive strategies as being related to enhanced muscular strength [7].
athletes use prior to performing strength-based tasks (e.g. Research under the imagery heading included studies
imagery, self-talk, goal setting), and the reasons why they where participants had been asked to visualise or imagine
employ them, with typical motives including increasing performing the movement [11]. Goal-setting research
arousal, confidence, and self-belief [7]. These reasons can included investigations in which participants had been
be interpreted via the activation set hypothesis [8]. given specific attainment levels to achieve, as opposed to
According to the hypothesis, a specific internal state is being asked to ‘do your best’ [12]. Self-talk studies
associated with optimal task execution (e.g. level of acti- included those in which participants had been asked to use
vation, attentional focus, and confidence). Cognitive a cue phrase to assist performance [13]. Preparatory arousal
strategies may facilitate performance by enabling athletes involved self-directed strategies aimed at increasing the
to adjust their internal state to one that is desirable for the activation levels of participants [14]. In free-choice
upcoming task [2]. The activation set hypothesis implies strategies, participants had selected a preferred cognitive
that athletes use cognitive strategies to marshal their psy- method [7].
chological and physical resources to bear on the strength The major dependent variables measured in the research
task at hand. In the absence of cognitive strategies, there is included maximal strength, local muscular endurance, and
the perception that task performance will suffer because power. Maximal strength has been defined as the maximal
athletes are not making use of their psychological and force generated by a muscle or group of muscles at a
physical assets (c.f. with Steiner’s [9] model of group specified speed [15, 16]. Research under the maximal
productivity where actual performance equals possible strength label included studies that measured strength
performance minus coordination and motivational losses). performance during a low number of repetitions, such as a
The purpose of this article was to conduct a systematic one-repetition maximum (RM). Investigations under the
review of the experimental literature examining the influ- local muscular endurance umbrella included studies that
ence of cognitive strategies on muscular strength. There are assessed a high number of repetitions performed at a
a number of reasons why a systematic review will advance specified resistance level during a particular time period,
current understanding. First, there have been few attempts such as the number of sit-ups performed during 1 min [16].
to synthesize literature on the topic, and authors have Tasks included in this research emphasised muscular
published narrative reviews only [1, 2]. In these narrative strength-based movements (e.g. handgrip, squats), typically
reviews, clear inclusion and exclusion criteria, detailed for 1–2 min, rather than tasks such as cycling or running.
search strategies, and transparent data extraction and Muscular power-related research included studies that
analysis procedures were absent. It is not clear if the body measured explosive muscular strength, and has been
of research was adequately represented or examined. Also, defined as the rate at which work can be performed under a
by relying on a subjective interpretation to synthesis given set of circumstances [16, 17]. Maximal strength and
knowledge, there is the possibility of reviewer bias. A muscular power were separated because research has
systematic review offers a more objective and transparent revealed they may predict sporting performance differently
way of synthesising the knowledge. Second, the most [18].
comprehensive review is more than 10 years old and a As a second way to advance literature, we examined the
number of studies have been published since [1]. A evidence concerning the degree to which participant skill

123
Cognitive Strategies and Force

level moderated the cognitive strategy–muscular strength identified four possible mechanisms: cognitive, motiva-
relationship. Moderators influence relationships by altering tional, biomechanical/physiological, and affective. These
the direction (positive or negative) and/or magnitude. The four mechanisms were derived from the work of Hardy
moderator’s influence may then affect the consistency of et al. [13] on self-talk, with one change. Their behavioural
the relationship within the sampled literature. Although we category was modified to become a biomechanical/physi-
acknowledge we were unable to test directly whether a ological category. This change represented the research
moderating effect exists, because researchers have not being reviewed better than a behavioural category because
conducted the types of studies needed, examining the researchers had sometimes examined biomechanical and
overall direction and consistency of findings for different physiological variables but had not engaged in behavioural
categories of participant skill level generates meaningful, observations. We also considered a separate neurophysio-
albeit initial, information concerning the presence of a logical category, apart from the biomechanical/physiolog-
moderating effect. These initial findings then provide ical umbrella, but decided against doing so because the
direction to help researchers design studies to test moder- research that emerged from our search had typically not
ating effects. measured neurophysiological variables as mediators of the
Participant skill level was selected because researchers cognitive strategy–strength performance relationship. Fig-
have hypothesised it as a meaningful moderator with ure 1 reflects the emphasis given by researchers to the
regard to strength performance [3], and Fitts and Posner’s various types of mediators. The four categories were also
[19] stages of skill learning framework provides a theo- derived from current understanding of how cognitive
retical rationale [14]. During the early stages of learning, strategies might influence strength. The force resulting
novices use explicit instruction and talk themselves from voluntary skeletal muscle contraction is determined
through the phases of a movement, whereas during the later by several factors, starting with input from the higher
stages of learning, individuals engage in less cognitive motor centres and terminating with the energy-dependent
activity and their performances are more automatic. Fur- interaction of actin and myosin [21, 22]. These factors may
ther deliberate use of cognitive strategies may hinder the be categorised as central, peripheral, and mechanical
display of strength in advanced learners if they disrupt influences [21]. Central components include motor unit
attentional or other movement-related resources [14]. As recruitment, synchronisation, and firing rate [23]. Periph-
such, novice performers may benefit more frequently from eral factors include processes intrinsic to the muscle, such
the use of cognitive strategies compared with their skilled as muscle membrane excitation, calcium release, sarcom-
counterparts. Recently, Zourbanos and colleauges [20] ere length, and myosin adenosine triphosphatase activity
observed that the influence of instructional self-talk on [23]. Mechanical factors include the length of muscle,
motor skill performance was greater in a novel rather than velocity of contraction, and the physical arrangement of
well-learned movement. Although the task was not a muscle fibres [23]. Cognitive strategies may influence any
strength-based movement, the study provides initial evi- of the factors mentioned. It is likely that cognitive strate-
dence to support the hypothesis advanced in the current gies influence the central nervous system, given the cere-
review. Equally, however, some practitioners might sug- bral cortex is the first and highest level of muscular
gest that during well-learned movements, performers have contraction control. Self-directed cognitive strategies occur
had greater opportunities to practice helpful cognitive in the cerebral cortex and may stimulate changes in central
strategies and may benefit more from their use than novi- nervous system activity, resulting in changes in motor unit
ces. As such, we acknowledge that our hypothesis repre- recruitment, synchronisation, and/or firing rate. Changes in
sents our conjecture based on our interpretation of existing the central nervous system may modify sympathetic ner-
empirical evidence. vous system activity, which may result in alterations in
Regarding a third way the current systematic review peripheral factors, such as muscle contractility. These
may further knowledge, we considered potential mecha- changes at the muscle level could occur in the primary
nisms that might explain the relationship. Adopting a muscles responsible for the movement, the antagonist
throughput perspective, as illustrated in Fig. 1, we muscles, and/or any additional muscles contributing to

Fig. 1 Proposed mediators Cognitive mechanisms (e.g., concentration/attention)

studied in the cognitive
strategy–muscular strength Motivational mechanisms (e.g., self-confidence, motivation)
Cognitive strategy Strength
relationship Biomechanical/physiological mechanisms (e.g., kinetics, performance
muscle activation)

Affectual mechanisms (e.g., affect, anxiety)

123
 D. Tod et al.

movement [3]. It is likely that the interactions among these of Strength and Conditioning Research, Medicine and
variables mediate the cognitive strategy–strength Science in Sports and Exercise, Psychology of Sport and
relationship. Exercise, Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, The
Similar to the focus on moderators, researchers have not Sport Psychologist, International Journal of Sport Psy-
adopted the research designs needed to assess possible chology, International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psy-
mechanisms in the cognitive strategy and strength perfor- chology, Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, and Journal
mance relationship. However, by collating the existing of Sport Behavior. Keywords used during the search
findings, where the conceptualised mechanisms have been included combinations and variants of strength, muscle,
examined as dependent, but not mediating variables, the power, muscular endurance, imagery, visualisation, self-
current review represents an initial step towards identifying talk, inner dialogue, preparatory arousal, goal setting, and
possible mechanisms worthy of further inquiry. In the psyching-up. Studies published anytime up until the last
current review, cognitive mechanisms encompass infor- day of searching were considered (including ‘in press’
mational processing and attentional control. Motivational articles made available online). The last search was con-
mechanisms focused on self-efficacy [24], perceived effort, ducted on 19 November 2014.
and persistence or long-term goal commitment. Biome- Figure 2 presents a PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items
chanical/physiological mechanisms refer to changes in for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) flow diagram
physiological, kinematic, or kinetic variables that may summarising the search results. These search strategies
underlie performance improvements from cognitive generated an initial pool of 13,746 possible articles. After
strategies. Affective mechanisms include changes in emo- removing duplicates and documents that did not meet the
tional states, such as increased arousal or decreased inclusion criteria after a title and abstract review, the
anxiety. available pool was reduced to 103 documents. After a full-
The purpose of the current article was to review the text assessment of the remaining documents against the
experimental cognitive strategy–muscular strength litera- inclusion criteria, data were extracted from 53 studies,
ture, employing a transparent systematic approach. The which are identified in the reference list with an asterisk
first specific aim was to review the evidence concerning [3–5, 7, 25–66, 76]. To assess the adequacy of the search,
whether cognitive strategies influence muscular strength; prior to implementing the protocol, the relevant 36 studies
the second specific aim was to review the evidence cited in the previous narrative review in the area [2] were
regarding participant skill level as a possible moderator; identified as a test pool. All 36 articles surfaced during the
and the third specific aim was to review the evidence search protocol. Reasons that studies were excluded at the
regarding four types of mediators: cognitive, motivational, full-text review stage included unsuitable interventions
biomechanical/physiological, and emotional. Understand- (17 % of rejected studies), inadequate strength assessment
ing the evidence for specific techniques, along with (32 %), lack of sufficient details, with none forthcoming
knowledge regarding mechanisms and moderators involved from authors (6 %), or the research design was outside the
in the cognitive strategy–strength relationship, may assist inclusion criteria (e.g. lack of control group, 45 %).
in optimising interventions to secure maximal
performance. 2.2 Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

Studies had to have (a) been experimental in design with

2 Method randomisation or counterbalancing; (b) compared the use
of a cognitive strategy against a control condition;
2.1 Search Strategy (c) measured maximal strength, local muscular endurance,
or power as a dependent variable; (d) scored over 0.5 in the
The search strategy included (a) an online search of the quality assessment (discussed below); and (e) been written
following electronic databases: SPORTDiscus, PsycINFO, in English. Regarding the moderation and mediation
PsycARTICLES, PubMed, Annual Reviews, Science analysis, studies also needed to have described the partic-
Direct, Taylor and Francis Journals, Sage Journals, and ipant skill level or have measured a variable that fell within
Web of Science; (b) a manual review of reference lists one of the four mediator categories (cognitive, motiva-
within retrieved articles; and (c) a manual search of jour- tional, biomechanical/physiological, or affective).
nals, including those that had yielded three or more Each study was subject to a quality assessment, as
retrieved articles, and included British Journal of Sports suggested by the Cochrane guidelines [10]. Studies
Medicine, Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, Journal of underwent a quality assessment procedure and were graded
Sport and Exercise Psychology, Journal of Sports Medicine with respect to their methodological strength. Although
and Physical Fitness, Journal of Sports Sciences, Journal quality assessment has limitations, such as articles

123
Cognitive Strategies and Force

Fig. 2 PRISMA flowchart

illustrating the literature search Records idenfied through Addional records idenfied
at each stage. PRISMA database searching through other sources
Preferred Reporting Items for (n = 13, 308) (n = 438)
Systematic Reviews and Meta-
Analyses

Records aer duplicates removed

(n = 4038)

Records aer and tle and Full-text arcles excluded

abstract review (n = 50)
(n =103)

Studies included in
synthesis aer full text
review
(n = 53)

receiving low scores because of poor report writing rather disadvantaged older studies published when there was less
than deficiencies in experimental design, the grading assists agreement regarding the necessary details to report in
in study interpretation. For example, assessment assists experimental research.
readers in placing greater confidence in articles with better,
rather than lower, quality scores. In the current study, the 2.3 Procedure
checklist of Timmer et al. [67] was applied because it had
good construct validity and had been found acceptable by Retrieved papers were scrutinised using the aforemen-
expert reviewers. The checklist contains 21 items on which tioned inclusion and exclusion criteria. Once these criteria
studies can receive 2 (yes), 1 (partial), or 0 (no) points. had been satisfied, we used procedures described by Sallis
Two additional items refer to study design (scored 2, 3, or et al. [68] to analyse the content of the papers in a
4), and randomisation reporting (score 1 or 0). Two items quantitative fashion. We selected these procedures
were not applied in the current study because they referred because they provided a transparent way to organise lit-
to the strategy of blinding participants and researchers, erature that results in identifying the major trends and
which was not a realistic expectation in the current litera- answering the review questions [69–72]. Each study was
ture. Studies were scored out of a possible 39 and we listed alphabetically according to author; however, as
calculated a ratio of actual score divided by possible score, independent effects (k) were employed as the unit of
leading to a quality score of between 0 and 1. For studies to analysis, coding also reflected papers that reported mul-
be included in the current review, they had to have at least tiple studies and/or effects on multiple dependent vari-
a ratio of 0.5. Scores lower than 0.5 indicate a lack of ables (e.g. Theodorakis et al., study 1; Theodorakis et al.,
several necessary details, such as the absence of participant study 2 [25]). Data tables were developed to reflect
description, descriptive and statistical results, or informa- sample characteristics (e.g. sex, age, skill level), research
tion about how measurements were operationalised. The designs (e.g. presence of manipulation check, random
score of 0.5 is relatively low and leads to the exclusion of allocation, random selection), and the effects of each
few studies. We kept the ratio for exclusion low because a specific cognitive strategy on muscular strength and
high-quality ratio exclusion criterion would have hypothesised mediating variables.

123
 D. Tod et al.

2.4 Analysis studies using individuals aged between 17 and 39 years.

Students and novices, as opposed to competitive athletes,
The data tables mentioned above were analysed to create were recruited most frequently (75 %).
summary tables presented in the Sect. 3, which involved a As seen in Table 2, the majority of the research used a
number of stages. First, sample and design characteristics between-participant design (79 %). Local muscular
were summarised by a tally count; and, second, the effects strength/endurance was the most frequently tested muscu-
of cognitive strategy on strength performance and lar strength variable (59 %), with goal setting (50 %) and
hypothesised mediators were examined. For each depen- imagery (26 %) being the most common interventions. The
dent variable, the numbers of significant and nonsignificant most frequently employed control conditions (85 %)
results were tallied. Positive and negative significant find- included asking participants to ‘do your best’, engaging
ings were tallied separately because a cognitive strategy them in a distraction task, or providing no instructions. Of
could potentially enhance or hinder performance. Consis- the studies, 59 % had employed a manipulation check of
tent with similar reviews, the direction of each effect was some type to assess the successful formation of experi-
subsequently coded as positive (?), negative (-), no effect mental and control groups.
(0), or inconsistent (?) if the effect was ambiguous. Sum-
marising of the research surrounding each consequence 3.2 Effects of Cognitive Strategies on Muscular
was performed by the calculation of the percentage of Strength Performance
support offered by the relevant studies. We employed the
coding system of Sallis et al. [68]: 0–33 % = no effect, Table 3 presents a summary of the results regarding the
34–59 % = inconsistent effect, 60–100 % = positive or effectiveness of cognitive strategies on muscular strength.
negative effect. Although potential moderator-related Overall, 129 observations (ks) satisfied the inclusion cri-
research findings were examined using the same classifi- teria, of which 84 (65 %) indicated a positive relationship
cation system, a slightly altered version was employed for
mediator findings.
Researchers had often used different measures of the Table 1 Sample characteristics of participants employed in the
reviewed research
same potential mediator concurrently, which may have
exaggerated the study’s influence on the results (e.g. they Characteristic No. of studies
may have used two or more anxiety questionnaires). Gender
Mediation results were categorised as ‘?’ (measures of the Male only 18
same construct in a study yielded the same significant Female only 3
positive result), ‘0’ (measures yielded a nonsignificant Combined 27
result), or ‘?’ (measures yielded mixed results).
Not stated 5
Two researchers familiar with the field of cognitive
Sample size
strategies extracted the data. Through discussion, a con-
\20 6
sensus and final coding of the data were agreed between the
20–39 18
two researchers, allowing the individuals to form an
40–59 8
indepth appreciation of the searched literature and ensure
60–79 7
that only eligible studies were included in the final analysis
80–99 3
stage.
100? 11
Mean age (years)
\17 7
3 Results
17–39 45
3.1 Descriptive Characteristics of Included Studies 40? 1
Participant label
Analysis of the literature allowed a clear understanding of Primary-school student 3
the samples and designs researchers have employed. As a High-school student 4
result, we were able to highlight gaps in these descriptive University student 29
aspects. The present review was based on a total population Novice 5
size of 3762 participants (2071 male, 1334 female, and 357 Weight trained 8
not specified). Regarding sample size, 60 % of studies used Other 4
less than 60 participants. As presented in Table 1, 53 % of Total participants = 3762; male participants = 2071, female partic-
studies employed mixed-sex samples, with 86 % of eligible ipants = 1334, not disclosed = 357

123
Cognitive Strategies and Force

Table 2 Design characteristics of the reviewed research Table 3 Effects of each cognitive strategy on muscular strength
Characteristic Total K Number of Ks supporting Sum code (%)
the effect
Between versus within participant
? - 0
Between 41
Within 12 Imagery
Dependent variable Strength 29 20 0 9 ? (69)
Maximal strength 56 Endurance 11 6 0 5 ? (55)
Local muscular endurance 58 Power 3 1 0 2 0 (67)
Muscular power 15 Total 43 27 0 16 ? (63)
Cognitive strategy (Ks) Goal setting
Imagery 43 Strength 3 3 0 0 ? (100)
Goal setting 40 Endurance 36 22 0 14 ? (61)
Self-talk 18 Power 1 1 0 0 ? (100)
Preparatory arousal 16 Total 40 26 0 14 ? (65)
Free choice 12 Self-talk
Control Motivational ST 10 7 1 2 ? (70)
Do your best/task 43 Instructional ST 7 4 0 3 ? (57)
Distraction 37 CR 1 0 0 1 0 (100)
No instruction/intervention 30 Strength 5 3 1 1 ? (60)
Rest 8 Endurance 4 2 0 2 ? (50)
Usual care/training 4 Power 9 6 0 3 ? (67)
Placebo 7 Total 18 11 1 6 ? (61)
Strategy manipulation check employed Preparatory arousal
Manipulation check employed 76 Strength 11 6 0 5 ? (55)
Manipulation check not employed 53 Endurance 4 4 0 0 ? (100)
Power 1 1 0 0 ? (100)
Total 16 11 0 5 ? (63)
between cognitive strategies and muscular strength, and 44
Free choice
(34 %) indicated no influence, with 1 (\1 %) negative
Strength 8 5 0 3 ? (63)
result. The following sections provide a more detailed
Endurance 3 3 0 0 ? (100)
explanation based on each specific intervention.
Power 1 1 0 0 ? (100)
Total 12 9 0 3 ? (75)
3.2.1 Imagery
Total 129 84 1 44 ? (65)
Overall, imagery was reliably associated with increased ST self-talk, CR cognitive restructuring, K number of comparisons
muscular strength (63 %). According to the criteria we with a control condition, ? indicates positive, - indicates negative, 0
indicates no effect, ? indicates inconsistent
used, the strategy was found to reliably increase maximal
strength (69 %), had an inconsistent relationship with
muscular endurance (55 %), and no relationship with and power (100 %). Across the observations, 30 had been
muscular power (67 %). Across the observations, 24 had made during training studies that had lasted between 3 and
been made during training studies that had lasted between 10 weeks. The remaining observations came from non-
10 days and 6 months. The remaining observations came training studies. In both types of studies, goal setting had
from non-training studies. In non-training studies, imagery been reliably associated with increased muscular strength
had been found to reliably influence muscular strength (75 % in training studies and 60 % in non-training studies).
performance (74 %) but had an inconsistent relationship in
the training studies (54 %). 3.2.3 Self-Talk

3.2.2 Goal Setting Generally, self-talk was associated with increased muscular
strength (61 %). A fine-grained examination indicated that
Goal setting was reliably associated with increased strength the strategy was consistently found to increase maximal
performance (65 %). The strategy was found to increase strength (60 %) and power (67 %), but not local muscular
maximal strength (100 %), muscular endurance (63 %), endurance (50 %). Self-talk interventions were further

123
 D. Tod et al.

subdivided into motivational self-talk, instructional self- Table 4 Results stratified according to participant skill level
talk, and cognitive restructuring. Some researchers had K Number of Ks supporting the Sum code (%)
used positive self-talk, and this was subsumed within the effect
motivational self-talk umbrella. The description of positive
? 0 -
self-talk presented in the relevant papers indicated it was
equivalent to the motivational type. Motivational self-talk Imagery
was consistently found to increase muscular strength Novice 40 24 16 0 ? (60)
(70 %), whereas the instructional (57 %) and cognitive Trained 3 3 0 0 ? (100)
restructuring (0 %) variants were not observed to reliably Goal setting
enhance strength performance. Novice 39 25 14 0 ? (64)
Trained 1 1 0 0 ? (100)
3.2.4 Preparatory Arousal Self-talk
Novice 11 6 4 1 ? (58)
Overall, preparatory arousal was associated with increased Trained 7 5 2 0 ? (71)
muscular strength (63 %). More specifically, the strategy Preparatory arousal
was found to increase muscular endurance (100 %) and Novice 14 11 3 0 ? (79)
power (100 %) but had an inconsistent relationship with Trained 2 0 2 0 0 (100)
maximal strength (55 %). Free choice
Novice 8 6 2 0 ? (75)
3.2.5 Free-Choice Psych-Up Trained 4 3 1 0 ? (75)
Total
A free choice strategy was associated with increased Novice 112 72 39 1 ? (65)
strength (75 %). More specifically, the strategy was found
Trained 17 12 5 0 ? (71)
to increase maximal strength (63 %), muscular endurance
(100 %), and power (100 %). K number of comparisons with a control condition, ? indicates
positive, - indicates negative, 0 indicates no effect, ? indicates
inconsistent
3.3 Participant Skill Level

Table 4 presents results stratified by participant skill level. Table 5 Results from mediation analysis
Samples were classified as consisting of either untrained K Number of Ks Sum code (%)
novices or trained individuals with regard to the assessed supporting the
strength task. A consistent pattern emerged that, regardless effect
of participant skill level, cognitive strategies were associ- ? 0 M
ated with enhanced maximal strength (novices = 65 % and
Cognitive 4 4 0 0 ? (100)
trained = 71 %). Two anomalous results included the effect
of self-talk on maximal strength in novices (an inconsistent Motivation 17 6 8 3 ? (47)
relationship, 58 %) and the influence of preparatory arousal Emotional 18 6 3 9 ? (50)
in trained individuals (no relationship, 100 %). Biomechanical/physiological 15 7 5 3 ? (47)
K number of comparisons with a control condition, ? indicates
3.4 Potential Mediators positive, 0 indicates no effect, ? indicates inconsistent, M indicates
mixed results
Table 5 presents the results from the assessment of medi-
although this was based on a value of k = 4). For the
ators. Examples of variables included in the cognitive
remaining three categories, there was insufficient evidence
mediator rubric included attention, concentration, and
that they had consistent relationships with cognitive
absence of interfering thoughts. Examples of variables
strategies (motivation = 35 %, affective = 17 %, and
included under the motivation mediator label included
biomechanical/physiological = 47 %).
perception of effort, confidence, and self-efficacy. Vari-
ables such as anxiety, arousal, and various mood states
were examples included in the affective category. Within 4 Discussion
the biomechanical/physiological category were variables
such as joint rotation, hormone concentration, and heart Globally, the current results indicate that cognitive strate-
rate. In the reviewed research, only cognitive variables had gies enhance the display of muscular strength. These
a consistent relationship with cognitive strategies (100 %, results are based on research testing different types of

123
Cognitive Strategies and Force

cognitive strategies across the various dimensions of regarding instructional self-talk may also be understand-
strength: maximal strength, strength/endurance, and power. able within the matching hypothesis. According to the
The adoption of systematic review principles represents an matching hypothesis, instructional self-talk is considered
advance over previous reviews in the area that have been better suited for tasks involving technique, timing, and
narrative [1, 2]. Compared with previous reviews, the coordination than those needing effort and energy expen-
current article was based on a transparent method with diture. However, strength tasks vary on their need for
clear inclusion/exclusion criteria, a detailed literature timing, technique, and coordination. Some strength and
search strategy, and accepted data extraction and analysis power tasks, such as a squat or clean and jerk require
procedures. Also, the most comprehensive existing review considerable skill and practice and instructional self-talk
is more than a decade old (and the other review was not might be useful for them. Other tasks, such as a maximal
focused on reviewing the literature for knowledge synthesis hand grip may require less skill and coordination. The
but rather to identify applied implications for a professional value of instructional self-talk may vary according to the
audience), and the current article is based on more than type of strength task being measured and could account for
double the number of studies cited by the 2003 publication. the indeterminate relationship observed in the current
These two reasons imply that the current review represents review. Implications advanced in the literature that moti-
the most up-to-date and objective synthesis of the experi- vational self-talk is better for strength tasks than instruc-
mental cognitive strategy and muscular strength perfor- tional self-talk may be simplistic and reflect a practitioner’s
mance research. lack of understanding of the requirements for a strength
Although the broad findings suggest that cognitive task. Future research is needed to explore the issue.
strategies enhance strength, when drilling down into the Although we differentiated between motivational and
results the evidence begins to fragment and is less clear for instructional self-talk, it was not possible to identify sub-
the effect of some types of mental interventions on specific types among the other strategies because researchers have
strength dimensions, particularly muscular power. There not always provided clear descriptions. However, such
are alternate explanations for this observation. First, there subtypes might exist, and represent possible future
might be a strategy by type of strength matching principle, research, because it cannot be assumed different strategy
such as imagery being useful for maximal strength but not subtypes are equally useful. For example, research reveals
for muscular endurance. Such a conjecture echoes the that diverse combinations of outcome, performance, and
hypothesis that motivational, but not instructional, self-talk process goals influence performance differently [73]. Out-
enhances strength [25]. The challenge for researchers come goals assess performance relative to another person
adopting a matching hypothesis is to develop plausible (e.g. winning a weightlifting tournament), performance
explanations in the absence of clear data, as indicated by goals measure performance against a personal standard
the largely inconsistent results emerging from the exami- (e.g. lifting a new personal best), and process goals refer to
nation of the potential mediators. Any hypothesised implementing particular processes that underpin perfor-
explanations would require testing. Second, where null or mance (e.g. athletes may set a goal to ‘drive the bar above
inconsistent relationships arose, the cell sizes were rela- the eyes’ in the bench press exercise). Drawing on the
tively small. In addition, investigators had typically based research of Wulf and Prinz [74] regarding the focus of
their studies on smaller, rather than larger, sample sizes. It attention (where an external focus is regarded as better for
is possible that insufficient research has been published to performance than an internal focus), we hypothesise that
allow an accurate understanding to emerge. Small sample performance goals may influence strength performance
sizes may be underpowered to identify relationships. The more positively than process goals. Performance goals may
influence of cognitive strategies on muscular power pro- be aligned with an external focus, whereas process goals
vides a clear illustration. Generally, more research is nee- may be associated with an internal focus.
ded to uncover the effect of specific strategies on particular Furthermore, investigators have typically measured
types of muscular force. maximal strength more often than local muscular endur-
With specific reference to the self-talk matching ance and power (aside from goal setting, where local
hypothesis mentioned above, the current findings found muscular endurance has been the most common dependent
that motivational self-talk had a consistent relationship variable). However, in many situations maximal strength
with strength, whereas instructional self-talk had an inde- may be less helpful to individuals than either local mus-
terminate relationship. The self-talk matching hypothesis cular endurance or power. For example, absolute strength
helps explain the observation that motivational self-talk of athletes may have less predictive power in many
had a consistent relationship with strength because it is sporting situations than their ability to generate force in a
conjectured to increase effort and energy expenditure, two short time period [18]. Similarly, in the rehabilitation
attributes that assist strength performance. The findings context, muscular endurance may be more prized than

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maximal strength. The strength measures used in the hand. Goals can be adjusted relatively easily to ensure they
research may help explain the profile of results. Common focus participants’ attention towards the task in many
measures have included sit-ups, hand grip, and leg exten- strength contexts because of the immediate numerical
sions, and these are convenient tasks to use in research feedback gained from performance and, with experience,
because they are easily measured and do not require par- athletes can identify realistic increments (e.g. if an athlete
ticipants to engage in extensive motor skill learning or to squats 210 kgs in their last session for five repetitions, then
attend multiple familiarisation sessions. Researchers could they can easily set a new target of 215 kgs for when they
extend current knowledge by employing strength measures next train). The same level of flexibility may take more
that have relevance to the populations under study, e.g. the time to develop with regard to imagery because it may be
competitive lifts Olympic weightlifters perform, the reha- less clear how to adjust imagery scripts to help athletes
bilitation exercises therapists prescribe to patients, or the coordinate their resources for a new level of performance.
exercises strength and conditioning professionals teach However, the notion that cognitive strategy effectiveness
their clients. on strength performance may vary with intervention
Given the presence of nonsignificant and (occasional) familiarity represents an avenue of future research.
negative relationships across the results, it appears that As a limitation with the existing research, there was
cognitive strategies do not help all people enhance the evidence that individuals in control groups spontaneously
display of strength. Paralleling other psychological inter- engaged in cognitive strategies [25, 26, 77], and such
ventions, cognitive strategies help some people, have no actions weaken experimental control, blurring distinctions
effect in others, and may hinder the performance of a few between groups. According to the American Psychological
individuals [75]. The challenge for researchers is to iden- Association, these groups would be more accurately
tify the reasons why there may be various effects. The labelled ‘contrast groups’ because of the inability to control
possible individual difference moderator examined in the their cognitive actions [78]. One solution is the use of
current review was participant skill level. However, results manipulation checks to assess the degree to which partic-
provided limited evidence that skill level may act as a ipants have adhered to their instructions and the success of
moderator. Moreover, researchers have not made direct experimental and control group formation, but researchers
comparisons between participants with different levels of have not always employed these measures. Another solu-
expertise in a movement. The current results are only tion might be to discard control groups and focus on
suggestive of the likely findings that would emerge from comparing cognitive strategies on the assumption that most
direct comparisons. Whelan et al. [76] classified their people who attempt muscular strength-related tasks prob-
participants according to level of athletic competitive ably engage in some type of mental preparation technique
experience, but given the individuals were from various (e.g. it seems unlikely that many people prepare for a
sports it is unclear the degree to which they were trained in movement by distracting themselves with a mathematical
the task assessed as the dependent variable. However, the activity, a common control group strategy across the
vast majority of the research has used novices as partici- research). Although comparative studies would not let
pants. Much less attention has been paid to trained indi- investigators assess if cognitive strategies caused observed
viduals. When a small number of studies have been changes in dependent variables, they would shed light on
undertaken, trends across the results may not be robust. As dosage-response questions and identification of the most
outlined in the introduction, arguments can be constructed beneficial interventions [77].
explaining why cognitive strategies might be more or less Aside from cognitive variables, typically those associ-
effective for trained rather than novice participants. ated with concentration, the mediation results were char-
Although the current review indicates trained and untrained acterised by inconsistent results. Given that scientists who
individuals may benefit, more research is needed to build have typically studied the area have track records in psy-
confidence in the result, especially studies that make direct chological research, it is understandable that they have
comparisons. most often postulated changes in mental states as the rea-
A related observation was the relationship between sons why cognitive strategies may enhance strength, and
strength and cognitive strategy in training versus non- have focused their attention on motivational, cognitive, and
training studies. The influence of goal setting appeared emotional mediators (e.g. Wilkes and Summers [27]). A
stronger during training studies than in non-training stud- limitation with this research could be the reliance on self-
ies. In contrast, the influence of imagery was stronger in report data. Participants may not be capable of accurately
non-training studies than training studies. The difference reporting their higher-order cognitive processes, perhaps
between the two strategies may be due to the relative ease due to a lack of self-awareness or their responses being
with which participants can adjust them to suit the task at biased by their beliefs regarding why cognitive strategies

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Cognitive Strategies and Force

should influence strength [79]. It is difficult to blind par- sensation of how hard, heavy, and strenuous a physical task
ticipants in these studies. When researchers ask people to is’’ and, similar to the other mechanisms, results were
engage in imagery, repeat a self-talk statement, or to inconsistent with regard to the cognitive strategies and
achieve a specific goal, participants are likely to guess at strength performance relationship. However, authors have
the research question and have perceptions about what they not used analysis techniques capable of treating perception
expect the investigator is hoping to find. As such, issues of effort as a mediator in this body of knowledge. Studies
regarding social desirability or demand characteristics are that have shown that perception of effort regulates endur-
likely to be present in the reviewed studies. Two possible ance performance provide justification for further exami-
solutions may help address these concerns. First, assessing nation regarding the cognitive strategy–strength
characteristics in novel ways other than self-report may relationship [82, 83], as long as suitable analysis proce-
help to uncover the psychological mediators underpinning dures are used. For instance, Hayes [84] has recently
the influence of cognitive strategies on strength perfor- published regression-based procedures that allow the
mance. For example, perhaps the use of eye-tracking examination of mediators and mechanisms using sample
equipment may reveal differences in attention concentra- sizes smaller than those needed for structural equation
tion, or the use of body language and posture may reveal modelling.
changes in self-efficacy. Second, researchers could make Related to perception of effort, but as yet unexplored
greater use of placebo control conditions in which partic- sufficiently in the cognitive strategy–strength performance
ipants are given the expectation they will perform well but research, is the role of mental fatigue, defined by Marcora
other psychological states are unchanged [5, 76, 80]. and colleagues [85] (p. 857) as ‘‘a psychobiological state
Also equivocal are the results regarding physiological caused by prolonged periods of demanding cognitive
and behavioural variables. An advantage that physiological activity and characterised by subjective feelings of
and biomechanical variables have is that they can be ‘‘tiredness’’ and ‘‘lack of energy’’. Marcora and colleagues
measured directly rather than indirectly, as is often the case [85] revealed that mental fatigue limited performance in a
with psychological variables. The challenge may be the cycling endurance task of 90 min through higher percep-
selection of suitable measures. For example, arousal is a tion of effort. Evidence reveals that engagement in cogni-
multidimensional construct consisting of various psycho- tive strategies, such as imagery, leads to mental fatigue
logical and physiological components, some of which may [86]. Perhaps the inconsistent findings related to mecha-
be relevant, and others irrelevant, to strength. Investigators nisms involved in the cognitive strategy–strength perfor-
who measure multiple physiological variables may con- mance relationship may be partly attributable to mental
tribute to understanding possible mediators. To illustrate, fatigue. Novices have been used as participants for much of
heart rate may be unsuitable as a measure of arousal when the research, and they might become mentally fatigued
examining strength; it can increase from both enhanced when asked to engage in both a cognitive strategy and a
sympathetic nervous system activity or from reduced novel strength task.
parasympathetic nerve activity [81]. In the absence of empirical data, one way to drive
Another possible explanation for the inconsistent knowledge forward may be to identify suitable theory from
mediator-related findings is that the various cognitive which testable hypotheses can be derived. One example is
strategies work for different reasons, such as preparatory the schema theory [87]. According to the schema theory,
arousal helping to increase participants’ activation levels, the instructions for a task, such as the squat, are represented
and goal setting helping to increase attention concentration. in the nervous system by a generalised motor programme.
At present there are too few studies, relative to the number There is also a motor response schema allowing people to
of cognitive strategies and possible mediators, to have adjust the generalised motor programme so they are able to
confidence in any strategy-specific mediator conclusions. produce the desired action (e.g. generate sufficient force to
Although examination of the mechanisms underlying squat a particular weight). Cognitive strategies may help
the cognitive strategy and strength performance relation- performers select and adjust the suitable generalised motor
ship may yield useful knowledge (e.g. such research might programme so they can achieve the desired outcome. As a
help coaches, athletes, trainers, and sports medicine staff to second example, according to the attention-control theory,
tailor cognitive strategies to specific ends), investigators cognitive strategies help trainers organise their attention
need to employ data collection and analysis designs resources so they can focus on relevant cues and avoid
allowing adequate investigation. For example, one possible distractions [88]. A third possible explanation is provided
mechanism that has been studied, and that we classified by the activation set hypothesis [8]. An activation set refers
under the motivation category, is perception of effort, to an internal state associated with optimal task execution
defined by Marcora [82] (p. 380) as the ‘‘conscious (e.g. level of arousal, attentional focus, etc.). Cognitive

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strategies may allow performers to adjust their activation 5 Conclusions and Implications
set so that it is relevant for the upcoming task. One theme
common among these various explanations is that cogni- Based on the results of the current systematic review,
tive strategies help individuals prepare for upcoming although cognitive strategies generally enhance the display
exercise or movement. People adjust their physiological, of muscular strength, during dynamic tasks requiring
neurophysiological, biomechanical, and psychological maximal strength, local muscular endurance, or muscular
states so that these facets of performance are adequate to power, the results are not unanimous. At a more specific
ensure successful completion. Research would benefit from level, i.e. the examination of specific strategies on partic-
multidisciplinary studies assessing neurophysiological, ular types of strength, there sometimes exist small numbers
psychological, physiological, and biomechanical variables of observations, especially with regard to muscular power.
in the same study. Such knowledge would give rise to a The potential implications help to justify additional
psychobiological understanding of the area. research.
The inclusion/exclusion criteria used in the current As one implication, the use of cognitive strategies may
review ensured that the findings were based on experi- contribute to the reliability of testing protocols. If cognitive
mental research that had employed sound design principles activity influences strength then providing patients, ath-
such as randomisation or counterbalancing and suitable letes, and other test takers with a prescribed cognitive
control groups or conditions. However, a review of the strategy to follow may help to standardise psychological
research rigor still points to possible future research that factors that might otherwise contribute to unreliability [28].
will help advance knowledge, in addition to those sug- As a second implication, cognitive strategies might help
gestions already mentioned (e.g. an enhanced range of patients rehabilitating from muscular injuries recover as
meaningful and ecologically valid tasks, further examina- quickly as possible. As a third implication, individuals
tion of moderators and mediators). For example, the wishing to maximise training or competitive performance
majority of the research has used students and people aged may be advised to employ a psychological technique.
between 17 and 39 years as participants. Notwithstanding Cognitive strategies refer to self-directed mental inter-
that students and individuals in their 20s and 30s are ventions used prior to or during skill execution to enhance
worthy of examination (e.g. they represent a significant physical performance. The current article has systemati-
segment of the population in countries where the research cally reviewed the research investigating the influence that
has been undertaken); such individuals may be different such interventions have on muscular strength performance.
from other people in numerous psychological, physiologi- Although the evidence generally suggests that cognitive
cal, biomechanical, or sociological ways. These differences strategies enhance strength, muscular endurance, and local
may influence the cognitive strategy and strength perfor- muscular power, additional research is needed to investi-
mance relationship. Researchers will provide useful gate the applicability of these studies beyond the tasks and
knowledge advances through examination of a diverse people currently examined. Research is also needed to
range of people, such as children, older adults, and the investigate the possible reasons why cognitive strategies
elderly. These types of individuals participate in strength- may be effective. Given the possible implications and
based sports, receive rehabilitation and surgery for acci- importance that many athletes and coaches place on mental
dents and injuries, and have a desire to function throughout preparation immediately prior to performance, additional
life autonomously and independently. Being able to guide empirical attention is justifiable.
these folks on how cognitive strategies may assist them
may contribute to improved happiness, performance, and Acknowledgments David Tod, Christian Edwards, Mike McGui-
gan and Geoff Lovell declare that they have no conflicts of interest.
functioning.
No financial support was received for the conduct of this study or
There have been a limited number of studies examining preparation of this manuscript.
the influence of self-directed cognitive strategies on mus-
cular strength in injured individuals or people recovering
from musculoskeletal surgery. Existing related research has
examined different types of interventions, such as
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