7.

TRANSPORTATION

7.1 TRANSPORT IN PLANTS

7.1.1 WATER UPTAKE

Identify root hair cells, as seen under the light microscope, and describe their functions.

Functions

 Root hairs form part of the epidermis of the roots.

 They are specialized for the absorption of water and mineral ions from the soil
 Root hairs provide a large surface area because they are;
 Numerous
 Have thin walls
 Do not have a waxy cuticle.

Describe the passage of water through root, stem and leaf.

• Water has the ability to move from place to another because of the energy it has, and this ability is called a
water potential.
• Water will always move from a high water potential to a low water potential.
• When water in the soil has a high water potential than in the xylem in the centre of the root, it will move from
the soil to the xylem down a water potential gradient.
• Water enters root hair cells by osmosis. This happens when the water potential in the soil surrounding the root
is higher than in the cell then water move from the soil into the root hair, down its concentration gradient.

• As the water enters the cell, its water potential becomes higher than in the cell next to it, e.g. in the cortex. So
water moves, by osmosis, into the next cell. Some of water may also just seep through the spaces between the
cells, or through the cell walls, never actually entering a cell.

• Water vapour evaporating from a leaf creates a kind of suction, its pressure at the top of the vessels is lower
than that at the bottom so water move up the stem in the xylem, more water is drawn into the leaf from the
xylem. This creates a transpiration stream, pulling water up from the root. Mature xylems cells have no cell
contents, so they act like open-ended tubes allowing free movement of water through them. Roots also produce
a root pressure, forcing water up xylem vessels.
• Water moves from xylem to enter leaf tissues down water potential gradient. In the leaves, water passes out of
the xylem vessels into the surrounding cells.

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7.1.2 TRANSPIRATION
Transpiration is the loss of water from the leaves through the stomata by diffusion.

Describe how water vapour loss is related to cell surfaces, air spaces and stomata.

In the leaves, water molecules leave the xylem vessels and move from cell to cell. They move through the spongy
mesophyll layer by osmosis along a concentration gradient. Water then evaporates into spaces behind the stomata
and diffuses through the stomata into the surrounding air.

Transpiration is the evaporation of water at the surfaces of the mesophyll cells, followed by loss of water vapour
from plant leaves, through the stomata.

Water in the leaf cells forms a thin layer on their surface. The water evaporates into the air spaces in the spongy
mesophyll. This creates a high concentration of water molecules. They diffuse out of the leaf into the surrounding
air, through the stomata, by diffusion.

The rate of transpiration can be affected by several factors:

FACTOR EXPLAINATION
Temperature Increase in temperature results in the increase in kinetic energy of water molecules which
makes them diffuse faster.
Air movement Increase in air movement removes water molecules as they pass out of the leaf quicker
Humidity The concentration of water molecules outside the leaf results
Light intensity Stomata open to allow gaseous exchange for photosynthesis resulting in water vapour
diffusing out of the leaf

Opening and closing of stomata

The opening and closing of the stomata is controlled by the guard cells.
In light, guard cells take up water by osmosis and become turgid. Because their
inner walls are rigid they are pulled apart, opening the pore.
In darkness water is lost and the inner walls move together closing the pore.

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 Investigate and describe the effects of variation of temperature, humidity, light intensity and air
movement on transpiration rate using a potometer.

Experiments to investigate the role of environmental factors in determining the rate of transpiration from a
leafy shoot
A bubble potometer can be used to illustrate the effects of light, wind, temperature and air humidity. Plants covered with
dark polythene bags simulate darkness and can be compared with plants covered with transparent polythene bags.
Hairdryers can simulate wind. The use of potted plants is also acceptable, where the pot and the soil is sealed with
polythene and the mass of the potted plant is measured before and after a period of exposure to the environmental factor.

Effect of different factors on transpiration rate:

An increase in rate will result from transferring the shoot from darkness to light, moving from shade to sunlight,
from still to moving air and removing the plastic bag.
A decrease will occur when the shoot is enclosed in a plastic bag and on any reduction of light intensity. The
stomata probably respond to increased light intensity by opening more widely so allowing more rapid diffusion.
Direct sunlight will also warm up the leaves and increase the rate of evaporation.

Inside the plastic bag, the humidity will rise to 100% saturation and so prevent the establishment of a diffusion
gradient for water vapour from the leaf to the atmosphere. In moving air, the water vapour is carried away from the
leaf so maintaining a steep diffusion gradient.
Changes in light intensity and diffusion gradients may affect the rate of photosynthesis. Changes in photosynthetic
rate are, however, unlikely to produce such large changes in water uptake. The most dramatic increase in
transpiration will be seen when the shoot is moved from shade to sunlight. The rate may increase to 10 times that in
the shade of the laboratory. It is difficult to separate the effects of temperature and light in these circumstances.
On moving from the laboratory to outside there will be changes in light intensity, temperature, air movement and
perhaps humidity. The inside of the plastic bag may become misted with condensed water.
The significance is:
(a) That the water must have come from the plant
(b) That the air in the bag must be saturated with water vapour.
An increase in light intensity will increase the rate of photosynthesis if other factors are not limiting.
An increased rate of photosynthesis will need more water, which may be reflected in the rate of uptake. The
distinction between uptake and loss is made because not all the water taken up is necessarily transpired or,
alternatively, evaporation may be taking place faster than uptake in some circumstances. It is assumed that the bulk
of the water taken up is evaporated and that the changing conditions affect evaporation far more than any other
process in the leaf.

Describe how wilting occurs.

Young plant stems and leaves rely on their cells being turgid to keep them rigid. If the amount of water lost from
the leaves of a plant is greater than the amount taken into the roots that means the plant will have a water shortage
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which makes cells become flaccid (soft) and will no longer press against each other and this cause Stems and leaves
lose their rigidity, and wilt.
Identify the tissue structure of a dicotyledonous root and stem as seen in a cross section: (xylem,
phloem, epidermis, cortex, pith).
Dicotyledonous root

In the root, phloem and xylem are in the center to withstand stretching forces

Dicotyledonous stem

In the stem, they are arranged in bundles near the edge to resist compression and bending.

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 Explain the mechanism of water uptake and movement in terms of transpiration producing a
tension ('pull') from above, creating a water potential gradient in the xylem, drawing cohesive
water molecules up the plant.

Water enters root hair cells by osmosis. This happens when the water potential in the soil surrounding the root is
higher than in the cell. Water diffuses from the soil into the root hair, down its concentration gradient.

• As the water enters the cell, its water potential becomes higher than in the cell next to it, e.g. in the cortex. So
water moves, by osmosis, into the next cell. Some of water may also just seep through the spaces between the
cells, or through the cell walls, never actually entering a cell.

• Water vapour evaporating from a leaf crates a kind of suction, its pressure at the top of the vessels is lower than
that at the bottom then as water move up the stem in the xylem, more water is drawn into the leaf from the
xylem. This creates a transpiration stream, pulling water up from the root. Mature xylems cells have no cell
contents, so they act like open-ended tubes allowing free movement of water through them. Roots also produce a
root pressure, forcing water up xylem vessels.

 In other words water molecules are attracted to each other (cohesion). Water vapour evaporating from a
leaf creates a kind of suction, pressure of water at the top of the vessels is lower than that of the bottom so water
move up the stem in the xylem, more water is drawn into the leaf from the xylem. This creates a transpiration
stream, pulling water up from the root.

• Water moves from xylem to enter leaf tissues down water potential gradient. In the leaves, water passes out of
the xylem vessels into the surrounding cells.

Discuss the adaptations of the leaf stem and root to different environments with emphasis on local
examples and the factors described in the core section.

Plants which live in extreme environments have adaptations to control their transpiration rate. Most modifications
are adaptations to very dry (arid) environments. Water plants have no problems of water shortage. They do not
need adaptations to conserve water as desert plants. Plant living in deserts where water is scarce and evaporation is
rapid, or in windy habitats where evaporation can also be rapid, they have to cut down water loss.

Leaves
• Reduced to spines to reduce rate of transpiration
• Stomata are closed during the day to reduce water loss.
•
•
Roots
• Spread out, to increase surface area for maximum absorption of water.
• Long, to increase surface area for maximum water absorption
•
•
Stem
• Swollen, containing water storage tissues
•
•
•

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 7.1.3 TRANSLOCATION
Translocation is the movement of sucrose and amino acids from regions of production or of storage to regions of
utilization in respiration or growth.

Describe translocation throughout the plant of applied chemicals, including systemic pesticides.

People who grow crops for food sometimes need to use chemicals called pesticides. Pets such as insects that eat the
crop plants, or fungi that grow on them, can greatly reduce the yield of the crop. Pesticides are used to kill the
insects or fungi.

Some pesticides kill only the insects or fungus that the spray touches. They are called contact pesticides. They can
be very effective if they are applied properly, but they also kill insects and pests that are useful to the plant.

Systemic pesticides are more effective because when sprayed onto the leaves of the plant, they are absorbed by it
through the cuticle or stomata and into the phloem tubes. They move through the plant in the phloem
(translocation) and are taken in by any insect eating the plant or sucking up phloem sap.
So any insect feeding on the plant, even if it was hidden under the leaf where the spray could not reach it, will
eventually end up feeding on pesticide. The same is true for fungi; no matter where they are growing on the plant,
the pesticide will eventually reach them. Once an insect has ingested enough pesticide it will die, meanwhile the
harmless insects remain safe.
The disadvantages of systemic pesticides are that they may accumulate in the food chain.
Systemic pesticides may need to be taken up by roots or through the leaves.

Compare the role of transpiration and translocation in the transport of materials.

TRANSPORT FROM TO MECHANISM HIGH RATE

TRANSPIRATION • Water soil • Leaves Passive process using a tension On hot sunny windy
• Mineral ions • Flowers in the xylem produced by the and dry days
• Fruits evaporation of water
(Transpiration pull).

TRANSLOCATION • Sucrose Leaves • Shoot, Active process, the water enters On warm sunny
• Amino acids • root tips, the tubes to build up a head of days when plants
• root cortex, pressure that forces the phloem are producing more
• seeds sap to the sinks. sugar.
• Flowers,
• fruits

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7.2 TRANSPORT IN HUMANS

7.2.1 HEART

Identify and describe the gross structure and function of the heart, including chambers, different
valves and its associated major blood vessels.

Structure of the heart

Functions of the heart

1. Blood circulation
 Blood in the right ventricle (RV) is pumped to the lungs
 Blood from the lungs flows back into the left atrium (LA) and then into the left ventricle (LV).
 Blood in the lv is pumped through the body (except for the lungs)
 Blood returns to the heart where it enters the right atrium (RA).

2. Muscular contraction
 The heart is made of a special type of muscle called cardiac muscle which contracts and relaxes
regularly, throughout life.
 The heart’s muscle is constantly active, so it needs its own blood supply, through the coronary artery,
to provide it with oxygen and glucose.

3. Working of the valves

Valves in the heart prevent blood from being pushed backwards up into the atria when the heart ‘beats’.

7
 Investigate and explain the effect of exercise on heartbeat.

Investigation

Effect of exercise (explanation)

A heartbeat is a contraction. Each contraction squeezes blood to the lungs and body. The heart beats about 70 times
a minute, more if you are younger, and the rate becomes lower the fitter you are.
• During exercise the heart rate increases to supply the muscles with more oxygen and glucose which
allow the muscles to respire aerobically so that they have sufficient energy to contract.
• Regular exercise is important to keep the heart muscle in good tone so that the heart is more efficient in
maintaining blood pressure and lower risk of coronary heart disease and stroke.

Describe the likely causes of a heart attack (diet, smoking and stress), and preventive measures.

CAUSE EXPLANATION PREVENTIVE MEASURES

Poor diet (too much Cholesterol build up on arteries, block the blood vessels/form a • Cholesterol free diet
saturated animal fats) blood clot.

Smoking • Stop smoking

Stress • Relaxing
• Avoid causes of stress

Lack of exercise • Regular exercise

• Controlled diet
Obesity • Regular exercise

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Inherited factors • Reduce risk by a healthy life style

7.2.2 ARTERIES, VEINS AND CAPILLARIES

- describe:
 The structure and functions of arteries, veins and capillaries.
 The double circulatory system.

Describe the double circulation in terms of a low pressure circulation on to the lungs and a high
pressure circulation to the body tissues and relate these differences to the different functions of the
two circuits.

A double circulation means that blood flows through the heart twice for every complete journey around the body.

Pulmonary (low pressure) circulation:

• Blood flows from the heart to the lungs and then back to the heart.
• Right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the body via vena cava and pumps it to right ventricle.
Right ventricle pumps deoxygenated blood into pulmonary arteries which transports it to lungs, i.e.
Vena cava  Right atrium  Right ventricle  Pulmonary artery  Lungs

Systemic (high pressure) circulation:

• Blood flows from the heart to body tissues and then back to the heart.
• Left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the lungs via pulmonary veins and pump it to the left ventricle.
The left ventricle then pumps the oxygenated blood into the aorta which transports it to the rest of the body.
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 Lungs  Pulmonary vein  Left atrium Left ventricle  Aorta

7.2.3 BLOOD

Identify red blood cells, phagocytes, lymphocytes and platelets (as seen under a light microscope).

describe:
• The components of blood (red blood cells, platelets, plasma, phagocytes and lymphocytes) and
their functions.
• the functions of blood including clotting (no details of clotting required),

The components of blood (red blood cells, platelets, plasma, phagocytes and lymphocytes) and their
functions
Plasma
Transports:
• Blood cells
• Soluble nutrients e.g. Glucose (products of digestion) from the small intestine to the organs
• Amino acids (plasma acts as a pool for amino acids for these cannot be stored in the body)
• Plasma proteins that are important in blood clotting (e.g. Fibrinogen).
• CO2 (waste gas produced by respiration in cells) from the organs to lungs
• Other wastes of digestion (e.g. Urea) from the liver to the kidneys.
• Antibodies and antitoxins
• Hormones
• Ions
• Heat from the liver and muscles to all parts of the body.

Red blood cells (erythrocytes)

• Made in the bone marrow of some bones, including ribs, vertebrae and some limb bones. Produced at a
very fast rate – about 9000 million per hour!
• Transport o2 from lungs to all respiring tissues. Prepare co2 for transport from all respiring tissues to lungs.
• Contain haemoglobin (Hb), a red iron-containing pigment which can carry O2. In the lungs, Hb combines
with o2 to form Oxyhaemoglobin. In other organs, Oxyhaemoglobin splits up into Hb and O2
• Have no nucleus so that they can fit more Hb inside the cytoplasm, but can lives only for about 4 months.
• Have a special biconcave disc shape so that they increases the surface area and makes the diffusion of
oxygen into & out of the cell easier.
• Old red blood cells are broken down in the liver, spleen and bone marrow. Some of the iron from the Hb is stored, and
used for making new Hb, some of it is turned into bile pigment and excreted.

White blood cells (leukocytes)

• Made in the bone marrow and in the lymph nodes.
• Have a nucleus, often large and lobed.
• Can move around and squeeze out through the walls of blood capillaries into all parts of the body.
• There are many different kinds of white blood cells. They all have the function of fighting pathogens
(disease-causing bacteria and viruses) and to clear up any dead body cells in your body:

a. Phagocytes:
• Have lobed nuclei and granular cytoplasm.
• Can move out of capillaries to the site of an infection.
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 • Remove any microorganisms that invade the body and might cause infection, engulf (ingest) and kill them by
digesting them.

b. Lymphocytes:
• Produce antibodies to fight bacteria and foreign materials.
• Have large nuclei
• Responsible for immunity
• There are two different types of lymphocytes:
1. B-lymphocytes: secrete special proteins called antibodies in response to contact with
their particular antigen, which may be an invading pathogen or a foreign tissue that has
been transplanted.
2. T-lymphocytes attack foreign or infected cells and kill them.

Platelets (thrombocytes)
• Small fragments of cells, with no nucleus.
• Made in the red bone marrow.
• Involve in blood clotting: form blood clot, which stop blood loss at a wound and prevent the entry of
germs into the body

The functions of blood including clotting (no details of clotting required),

 Prevent excessive blood loss from the body when there is a damage of the blood vessel.
 Maintain the blood pressure.
 Prevent the entry of microorganism and foreign particles into the body.
 Promote wound healing.

Explain how structure and function are related in arteries, veins and capillaries.

ARTERIES CAPILLARIES VEINS

FUNCTION
STRUCTURE OF
WALL
LUMEN
VALVES
HOW STRUCTURE
HELPS IN
FUNCTION

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 Relate the blood components to their functions.

Describe the immune system in terms of antibody production, tissue rejection and phagocytosis.

The immune system is the body's defense against disease and foreign bodies, under the form of antibody
production, tissue rejection and phagocytosis.

Antibody production
 Antibodies are produced by lymphocytes, which are formed in lymph nodes. Lymphocytes produced
antibodies in response to the presence of pathogens such as bacteria. This is because alien cells have
chemicals called antigen on their surface. A different antibody is produced for each antigen.
 The antibodies make bacteria clump together in preparation for action by phagocytes, or neutralize toxins
produced by the bacteria. Once antibodies have been made, they remain in the blood to provide long-term
protection.

 Some lymphocytes memorize the antigens the body has been exposed to. They can rapidly reproduce and
produce antibodies to respond to further infections by the same pathogen (disease-causing organism).

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Tissue rejection
Transplants involve replacing a damaged organ with a donor organ. Unfortunately, lymphocytes and
phagocytes will respond to any foreign cells in your body, even if they are not pathogens.

If a person's kidneys fail, they can be given a new kidney taken from another person. However the
recipient's immune system will recognize the cells in the new kidney as 'foreign', and will attack and
destroy them. The transplanted organ triggers an immune response, antibodies are secreted and the organ
may be rejected. This is called tissue rejection.

To prevent this happening:

• The donor organ needs to be a similar tissue type to that of the patient e.g. from a close relative.
• Immunosuppressive drugs are uses, which switch off the body's immune response. While
recovering, transplant patients are at risk of dying from any disease they are exposed to, so they
need to be kept in isolation.

Phagocytosis
• Phagocytes have the ability to move out of capillaries to the site of an infection.
• They then engulf (ingest) the infecting pathogens and kill them by digesting them.

Describe the process of clotting (fibrinogen to fibrin only).

Blood clotting
• When an injury causes a blood vessel wall to break, platelets are activated.
• They change shape from round to spiny, stick to the broken vessel wall and each other, and begin to plug
the break.
• The platelets also interact with fibrinogen, a soluble plasma protein, to form insoluble fibrin

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 • Fibrin strands form a net that entraps more platelets and other blood cells (red cells and white cells),
producing a clot that plugs the break.

Describe the function of the lymphatic system capillaries in circulation of body fluids, and the
production of lymphocytes and tissue fluid.

Functions of lymphatic system

The lymphatic system is a collection of lymph vessels and glands. It has 3 main roles:
1. Fluid balance: return tissue fluid to the blood
2. Protection from infection: produce white blood cells lymphocytes
3. Absorption of fats: transport digested fats from villi to blood stream

Lymph and tissue fluid

Tissue fluid is a fluid surrounding the cells of a tissue. It is leaked plasma - plasma from the blood
capillaries move to the tissue through gaps in the walls and become tissue fluid.

Tissue fluid play an important role in substance exchange between blood and cells. It supplies cells with
O2 and nutrients and takes away waste products including CO2.

At the end of the capillary bed, the tissue fluid leaks back into the blood, and becomes plasma again, but
not all of it. A little of it is absorbed by the lymphatic vessel and becomes lymph.

The lymphatic vessel takes the lymph to the blood stream by secreting them in a vein near the heart, called
subclavian vein. The lymph in the lymphatic vessels are moved along by the squeeze of muscles against
the vessel, just like some veins.
The return of tissue fluid to the blood in the form of lymph fluid prevents fluid built up in the tissue.

Production of lymphocytes
The lymphatic system is an important component of the immune system, which fights infection. One
group of white blood cells, the lymphocytes, are made in lymph glands such as the tonsils, adenoids and
spleen. The glands become more active during an infection because they are producing and releasing large
numbers of lymphocytes.

The lymphocytes can live and multiply in the lymphatic system, where they attack and destroy foreign
organisms. Lymphoid tissue scattered throughout the body filters out pathogens, other foreign matter and
cellular debris in body fluids.

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The absorption of fatty acids and glycerol from the small intestine
Following the chemical and mechanical breakdown of food in the digestive tract, most nutrients are
absorbed into the blood through intestinal capillaries. Many digested fats, however, are too large to enter
the blood capillaries and are instead absorbed into lymphatic capillaries by intestinal lacteals. Fats are
added to the blood when lymph joins the bloodstream.

Each villus contains a lacteal - a blind ending lymph vessel.

SUMMARY OF TRANSPORT IN PLANTS

 In plants, xylem vessels transport water and mineral ions from the roots upwards to the leaves.
 Phloem tubes transport sucrose and other organic nutrients, from the leaves where they are made to all
parts of the plant. This is called translocation.
 Xylem vessels are made of dead, empty cells with strong lignin in their walls. As well as transporting
water, they help to support the plant.
 Water is drawn up xylem vessels by the evaporation of water from the leaves, called transpiration.
Transpiration happens fastest when it is hot, dry, windy and sunny.
 Water enters root hairs by osmosis, and then moves across the cortex of the root into the xylem.
 Root hairs take up mineral ions by active transport, using energy supplied by respiration to move them
against their concentration gradient.
 Phloem is made of living cells with sieve plates at their ends. A companion cell is associated with each
phloem sieve tube element.
 Systemic pesticides are translocated in phloem.

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 Sucrose is translocated from sources to sinks. Different parts of a plant may become sources and sinks in
different seasons.

SUMMARY OF TRANSPORT IN ANIMALS

 Mammals have a double circulatory system, in which blood is moved through vessels by the regular
contraction and relaxation of cardiac muscles in the wall or the heart.
 Blood enters the atria of the heart, flows through open vales into the ventricles, and is then forced out into
the arteries during systole.
 The ventricles have thicker walls than the atria, and the left ventricle has a thicker wall than the right
ventricle, to allow them to produce a greater force when the muscles contract, necessary so that they can
push the blood further.
 In coronary heart disease, the coronary arteries become blocked, so oxygen is not delivered to the heart
muscles and they stop contracting.
 Smoking, stress and a diet high in saturated fats increase the risk.
 Arteries are thick-walled, elastic vessels that carry pulsing, high-pressure blood away from the heart. They
split into capillaries, which are tiny vessels with walls only one cell thick. Capillaries take blood close to
every cell to the body, so that the cells are supplied with oxygen and nutrients and have their waste
products removed.
 Capillaries join up to form veins.
 Veins are thin-walled vessels with valves, which carry low-pressure blood back to the heart.
 Blood contains red cells, white cells and platelets floating in plasma.
 Plasma transports many different substances in solution. Red cells contain the iron-containing protein
haemoglobin, which transports oxygen. White cells fight against bacteria and viruses. Platelets help the
blood to clot.
 Fluid leaks out of capillaries to fill the spaces between all the body cells, where it is called tissue fluid. It is
collected into lymph vessels which carry it back to the bloodstream.

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