Formulas for IPhO 6. Cosine and sine laws: 2. If there is an extraordinary coincidence in the 4. Motion of a rigid body.

s an extraordinary coincidence in the 4. Motion of a rigid body. a) vA cos α = vB cos β;

Version: January 29, 2012 2 2 2 problem text (e.g. two things are equal) then the ~vA , ~vB — velocities of pts. A and B; α, β — angles
c = a + b − 2ab cos ϕ
a/ sin α = b/ sin β = 2R key to the solution might be there. formed by ~vA , ~vB with line AB. b) The instanta-
I Mathematics
7. An angle inscribed in a circle is half of the central 3. Read carefully the recommendations in the neous center of rotation (6= center of curvature of
1. Taylor series (truncate
X
for approximations): angle that subtends the same arc on the circle. problem’s text. Pay attention to the problem’s for- material pt. trajectories!) can be found as the inter-
F (x) = F (x0 ) + F (n) (x0 )(x − x0 )n /n! Conclusions: hypotenuse of a right triangle mulation — sometimes insignificant details may section pt. of perpendiculars to ~vA and ~vB , or (if
Special case — linear approximation: is the diameter of its circumcircle; if the angles carry vital information. If you have solved for some ~vA , ~vB ⊥ AB) as the intersection pt. of AB with
F (x) ≈ F (x0 ) + F ′ (x0 )(x − x0 ) of a quadrilateral are supplementary, it is a cyclic time unsuccessfully, then read the text again — per- the line connecting endpoints of ~vA and ~vB .
Some examples for |x| ≪ 1: quadrilateral. haps you misunderstood the problem. 5. Non-inertial reference frames:
~v2 = ~v0 + ~v1 , ~a2 = ~a0 + ~a1 + ω 2 R ~ + ~aCor
sin x ≈ x, cos x ≈ 1 − x2 /2, ex ≈ 1 + x 8. Taking derivatives: 4. Postpone long and time-consuming mathemat-
ical calculations to the very end (when everything Note: ~aCor ⊥ ~v1 , ~ω ; ~aCor = 0 if ~v1 = 0.
ln(1 + x) ≈ x, (1 + x)n ≈ 1 + nx (f g)′ = f g ′ + f ′ g, f [g(x)]′ = f ′ [g(x)]g ′
(sin x)′ = cos x, (cos x)′ = − sin x else is done) while writing down all the initial equa- 6∗ . Ballistic problem: reachable region
2. Perturbation method: find the solution itera- tions which need to be simplified. y ≤ v02 /(2g) − gx2 /2v02 .
tively using the solution to the "non-perturbed" (di- (ex )′ = ex , (ln x)′ = 1/x, (xn )′ = nxn−1
(arctan x)′ = 1/(1 + x2p ) 5. If the problem seems to be hopelessly difficult, 7. For finding fastest paths, Fermat’s and Huygens’s
rectly solvable) problem as the 0th approximation; ′ ′ principles can be used.
(arcsin x) = −(arccos x) = 1/ 1 − x2 it has usually an extremely simple solution (and a
corrections for the next approximation are calcu-
9. Integration: the formulas are the same as for simple answer). This is valid only for Olympiad 8. To find a vector (velocity, acceleration), it is
lated on the basis on the previous one.
problems, which are definitely solvable. enough to find its direction and a projection to a
3. Solution of the linear differential equation with derivatives, but with swapped left-hand-side and single (possibly inclined) axes.
rhs. (inverseZ operation!), e.g. 6. In experiments a) sketch the experimental
constant coefficients ay ′′ + by ′ + cy = 0:
scheme even if you don’t have time for measure-
y = A exp(λ1 x) + B exp(λ2 x), xn dx = xn+1 /(n + 1). IV Dynamics
ments; b) think, how to increase the precision of
where λ1,2 is the solution of the characteristic Special case of the substitution method: the results; c) write down (as a table) all your di-
equation aλ2 + bλ + c = 0 if λ1 6= λ2 . If the solu-
Z 1. For a 2D equilibrium of a rigid body: 2 eqns.
f (ax + b)dx = F (ax + b)/a. rect measurements. for force, 1 eq. for torque. 1 (2) eq. for force can
tion of the characteristic equation is complex, while
be substituted with 1 (2) for torque. Torque is of-
a, b and c are real numbers, then λ1,2 = γ ±iω and 10. Numerical methods. Newton’s iterative method III Kinematics ten better — “boring” forces can be eliminated by a
y = Ceγx sin(ωx + ϕ0 ). for finding roots f (x) = 0:
1. For a point or for a translational motion of a rigid proper choice of origin. If forces are applied only to
4. Complex numbers xn+1 = xn − f (xn )/f ′ (xn ).
body (integral → area under a graph): 2 points, the (net) force application lines coincide;
z = a + bi = |z|eiϕ , z̄ = a − ib = |z|e−iϕ Trapezoidal rule for approximate integration:
Z b d~x
Z Z for 3 points, the 3 lines meet at a single point.
b b−a ~v = , ~x = ~v dt (x = vx dt etc.)
|z|2 = z z̄ = a2 + b2 , ϕ = arg z = arcsin f (x)dx ≈ [f (x0 ) + 2f (x1 ) + . . . dt 2. Newton’s 2nd law for transl. and rot. motion:
2n
|z| a d~v d2 ~x F~ = m~a, M
~ = I~ε (M ~ = ~r × F~ ).
Z
Rez = (z + z̄)/2, Imz = (z − z̄)/2 +2f (x n−1 ) + f (x n )] ~
a = = , ~
v = ~adt ~
dt Z dt2 For 2D geometry M and ~ε are essentially scalars
|z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 |, arg z1 z2 = arg z1 + arg z2 11. Derivatives and integrals of vectors: differenti- Z
−1 −1
Z
vx and M = F l = Ft r, where l is the arm of a force.
t = vx dx = ax dvx , x = dvx
eiϕ = cos ϕ + i sin ϕ ate/integrate each component; alternatively differ- ax
eiϕ +e−iϕ eiϕ −e−iϕ 3. Generalized coordinates. Let the system’s state be
cos ϕ = 2 , sin ϕ = 2i
entiate by applying the triangle rule for the differ- If a = Const., then previous integrals can be found
defined by a single parameter ξ and its time deriva-
5. Cross and dot products of vectors are distribu- ence of two infinitesimally close vectors. easily, e.g.
tive ξ˙ so that the pot. energy Π = Π(ξ) and kin. en.
tive: a(b + c) = ab + ac. x = v0 t + at2 /2 = (v 2 − v02 )/2a.
K = µξ˙2 /2; then µξ¨ = −dΠ(ξ)/dξ. (Hence for
~a · ~b = ~b · ~a = ax bx + ay by + . . . = ab cos ϕ II General recommendations 2. Rotational motion — analogous to the transla- transl. motion: force is the derivative of pot. en.)
~ ~ ~
|~a × b| = ab sin ϕ; ~a × b = −b × ~a ⊥ ~a, b ~ 1. Check all formulas for veracity: a) examine di- tional one: ω = dϕ/dt, ε = dω/dt; 4. If the system
X consists
Xof mass points
Xmi :
~a ×~b = (ay bz −by az )~ex +(az bx −bz ax )~ey +. . . mensions; b) test simple special cases (two param- ~a = ~τ dv/dt + ~nv 2 /R ~rc = mi~ri / mj , P~ = mi~vi
~a × [~b × ~c] = ~b(~a · ~c) − ~c(~a · ~b). eters are equal, one param. tends to 0 or ∞); c) 3. Curvilinear motion — same as point 1, but vec- ~
X X
L= mi~ri × ~vi , K = mi vi2 /2
Mixed prod. (volume of parallelep. def. by 3 vec.): verify the plausibility of solution’s qualitative be- tors are to be replaced by linear velocities, accelera- X Z
(~a, ~b, ~c) ≡ (~a · [~b × ~c]) = ([~a × ~b] · ~c) = (~b, ~c, ~a). haviour. tions and path lengths. Iz = mi (x2i + yi2 ) = (x2 + y 2 )dm.
5. In a frame where the mass center’s velocity is ~vc one of the bodies with respect to the impact point, d) 2. Eq. of motion
P
for a system of coupled oscilla- 2. Snell’s law:
(index c denotes quantities rel. to the mass center):
total energy (for elastic collisions); in case of fric- tors: ẍi = j aij xj . sin α1 / sin α2 = n2 /n1 = v1 /v2 .
L~ =L ~ c + MΣ R~ c × ~vc , K = Kc + MΣ v 2 /2
c
tion, kin. en. is conserved only along the axis ⊥ to 3. A system of N coupled oscillators has N dif- 3. If refraction index changes continuously, then
the friction force. Also: e) if the sliding stops during ferent eigenmodes when all the oscillators oscillate
P~ = P~c + MΣ~vc we imaginarily divide the media into layers of con-
the impact, the final velocities of the contact points with the same frequency ωi , xj = xj0 sin(ωi t +
6. Steiner’s theorem is analogous (b — distance of will have equal projections to the contact plane; stant n and apply Snell’s law. Light ray can travel
ϕij ), and N eigenfrequencies ωi (which can be along a layer of constant n, if the requirement of to-
the mass center from rot. axis): I = Ic + mb2 .
d) if sliding doesn’t stop, the momentum delivered multiple, ωi = ωj ). General solution (with 2N
7. With P~ and L~ from pt. 5, Newton’s 2nd law: tal internal reflection is marginally satisfied, n′ =
from one body to the other forms angle arctan µ integration constants Xi and φi ) is a superposition n/r (where r is the curvature radius).
F~Σ = dP~ /dt, M ~ Σ = dL/dt
~ with the normal of the contact plane. of all the eigenmotions :
4. If refraction index depends only on z, the pho-
8∗ . Additionally to pt. 5, the mom. of inertia rel. to 16. Every motion of a rigid body can be repre-
X
xj = Xi xj0 sin(ωi t + ϕij + φi ) ton’s mom. px , py , and en. are conserved:
the z-axis through the mass center can be found as sented as a rotation around the instantaneous cen- i
kx , ky = Const., |~k|/n = Const.
Iz0 = i,j mi mj [(xi −xj )2 +(yi −yj )2 ]/2MΣ . ter of rotation C (in terms of velocities of the body 4. If a system described with a generalized coordi-
P
5. The thin lens equation (pay attention to signs):
9. Mom. of inertia rel. to the origin θ = mi~ri2 points). NB! Distance of a body point P from C 6= nate ξ (cf IV-2) and K = µξ̇ 2 /2 has an equilib-
P

is useful for calculating Iz of 2D bodies or bodies to the radius of curvature of the trajectory of P . rium state at ξ = 0, for small oscillations Π(ξ) ≈ 1/a + 1/b = 1/f ≡ D.
with central symmetry using 2θ = Ix + Iy + Iz . 17. Tension in a string: for a massive hanging κξ 2 /2 [where κ = Π′′ (0)] so that ω 2 = κ/µ. 6. Newton’s eq. (x1 , x1 — distances of the image
10. Physical pendulum with a reduced length l̃: string, tension’s horizontal component is constant 5. The phase of a wave at pt. x, t is ϕ = kx − ωt + and the object from the focal planes): x1 x2 = f 2 .
and vertical changes according to the string’s mass ϕ0 , where k = 2π/λ is a wave vector. The value 7. Parallax method for finding the position of an
ω 2 (l) = g/(l + I/ml),
q underneath. Pressure force (per unit length) of a at x, t is a0 cos ϕ = ℜa0 eiϕ . The phase velocity is image: find such a pos. for a pencil’s tip that it
ω(l) = ω(l̃ − l) = g/l̃, l̃ = l + I/ml string resting on a smooth surface is determined by vf = νλ = ω/k and group velocity vg = dω/dk. wouldn’t shift with resp. to the image when moving
11. Coefficients for the momenta of inertia: cylin- its radius of curvature and tension: N = T /R. 6. For linear waves (electromagn. w., small-amplit. perpendicularly the position of your eye.
der 21 , solid sphere 52 , thin spherical shell 23 , rod 12
1 Analogy: surface tension pressure p = 2σ/R; to sound- and water w.) any pulse can be considered
8. Geometrical constructions for finding the paths
1
(rel. to endpoint ), square . 1 derive, study the pressure force along the diameter. as a superpos. of sinusoidal waves; a standing w. is
3 6 of light rays through lenses:
12. Often applicable conservation laws: 18∗ . Adiabatic invariant: if the relative change of the sum of two identical counter-propagating w.: a) ray passing the lens center does not refract;
energy (elastic bodies, no friction), the parameters of an oscillating system is small dur- b) ray k to the optical axis passes through the focus;
ei(kx−ωt) + e−i(kx−ωt) = 2e−ωt cos kx.
momentum (no net external force; can hold only ing one period, the area of the loop drawn on the c) after refr., initially k rays meet at the focal plane;
along one axis), phase plane (ie. in p-x coordinates) is conserved 7. Speed of sound in a gas
p p p d) image of a plane is a plane; these two planes meet
angular momentum (no net ext. torque, e.g. the with a very high accuracy. cs = (∂p/∂ρ)adiab = γp/ρ = v̄ γ/3. at the plane of the lens.
arms of ext. forces are 0 (can be written rel. to 2 or 19. For studying stability use a) principle of mini- 8. Speed of sound in elastic material cs = E/ρ.
p
9. Luminous flux Φ [unit: lumen (lm)] measures
3 pts., then substitutes conservation of lin. mom.). mum potential energy or b) principle of small vir- 9. Sp. of shallow (h ≪ λ) water waves: v = √gh. the energy of light (emitted, passing a contour, etc),
13. Additional forces in non-inertial frames of ref.: tual displacement. 1+vk /cs weighted according to the sensitivity of an eye. Lu-
~ and
10. Doppler’s effect: ν = ν0 1−u k /cs
.
inertial force −m~a, centrifugal force mω 2 R 20∗ . Virial theorem for finite movement: minous intensity [candela (cd)] is the luminous
∗ ~
Coriolis force 2m~v × Ω (better to avoid it; being a) If F ∝ |~r|, then hKi = hΠi (time averages); 11. Huygens’ principle: wavefront can be con- flux (emitted by a source) per solid angle: I =
⊥ to the velocity, it does not create any work). −2
b) If F ∝ |~r| , then 2 hKi = − hΠi. structed step by step, placing an imaginary wave
Φ/Ω. Illuminance [lux (lx)] is the luminous flux
source in every point of previous wave front. Re-
14. Tilted coordinates: for a motion on an inclined 21. Tsiolkovsky rocket equation ∆v = u ln M m.
(falling onto a surface) per unit area: E = Φ/S.
sults are curves separated by distance ∆x = cs ∆t,
plane, it is often practical to align axes along and ⊥ 10. Gauss theorem for luminous flux: the flux
where ∆t is time step and cs is the velocity in given
to the plane; gravit. acceleration has then both x- V Oscillations and waves through a closed surface surrounding the point
point. Waves travel perpendicular to wavefront. P
and y- components. Axes may also be oblique (not sources of intensity Ii is Φ = 4π Ii ; single-
1. Damped oscillator:
⊥ to each other), but then with ~v = vx~ex + vy ~ey , source-case: at a distance r, E = I/r2 .
ẍ + 2γ ẋ + ω02 = 0 (γ < ω0 ). VI Geometrical optics. Photometry.
vx 6= to the x-projection of ~v . 11. An experimental hint: if a grease stain on a pa-
15. Collision of 2 bodies: conserved are a) net mo- Solution of this equationq
is (cf. I.2.):
1. Fermat’s principle: waves path from point A to per is as bright as the surrounding paper, then the
mentum, b) net angular mom., c) angular mom. of x = x0 e−γt sin(t ω02 − γ 2 − ϕ0 ). point B is such that the wave travels the least time. paper is equally illuminated from both sides.
 VII Wave optics 11. Coherent electromagnetic waves: electric fields 6. Characteristic
√ times: τRC = RC, τLR = L/R, 4. Magnetic field caused by current element:
are added; vector diagram can be used, angle be- ωLC = 1/ LC. Relaxation to stationary current
~ = µµ0 I d~l × ~er
1. Diffraction — method based on Huygens’ prin- dB ;
tween vectors isp the phase shift; NB! dispersion: distribution exponential, ∝ e−t/τ . 4π r2
ciple: if obstacles cut the wavefront into frag-
n = n(ω) = ε(ω). Energy flux density (en. 7. Energy conservation for electric circuits: hence, at the center of circular I: B = µ2r
0I
ment(s), the wavefront can be divided into small
per unit area and time): I = cε0 nE 2 . ∆W + Q = U q, where q is charge which has 5. F~ = e(~v × B~ + E),
~ F~ = I~ × Bl. ~
pieces which serve as imaginary point-like light
sources; the wave amplitude at the observ. site will 12. Malus’ law: for linearly polarized light I = crossed a potential drop U ; work of emf is A = Eq. 6. From the Gauss’s and circulation laws:
I0 cos2 ϕ, where ϕ is the angle between the polar- 8. WC = CU 2 /2, WL = LI 2 /2. charged wire: E = 2πεσ0 r , DC: B = Iµ 2πr ;
0
be the sum over the contributions of these sources.
ization planes. charged surface E = 2εσ0 , current sheet B = µ20 j ;
2. Two slit interference (the slit width d ≪ a, λ): 9. E = −dΦ/dt = −d(LI)/dt, Φ = BS.
angles of maxima ϕmax = arcsin(nλ/a), n ∈ 13. Brewster’s angle: reflected and refracted rays 10. Nonlinear elements: graphical method — find inside a sphere (or infinite cylindrical surface) of
Z; I ∝ cos2 (k a2 sin ϕ), where k = 2π/λ. are ⊥; reflected ray is completely polarized; inci- homogeneous surface charge E = 0, inside a cylin-
the solution in U -I coordinates as an intersection
dence angle tan ϕB = n. drical surface current k to the axes B = 0,
3. Single slit: angles of minima ϕmin = point of a nonlinear curve and a line representing
14. Diffr. with optical elements: no need to cal- Ohm/Kirchoff laws. In case of many intersection inside a ball (d = 3), cylinder (d = 2) or layer
arcsin(nλ/d), n ∈ Z, n 6= 0. NB! the central
culate optical path lengths through lenses, prisms points study stability — some solutions are usually (d = 1) of homogeneous ρ or ~j:
maximum is double-wide. I ∝ sin2 (k d2 sin ϕ)/ϕ.
4. Diffraction grating: the main maxima are the etc.: work simply with images. Particular conclu- unstable. ~ = ρ ~r; B
E ~ = 1 ~j × ~r.
sion: biprism gives the same diffr. as a double slit. dε0 dε0
same as in pt. 2, the width of the main maxima — 11. Make use of short- and long-time limits. For 7. Long solenoid: inside B = Inµµ0 , outside 0,
the same as for pt. 3 with d being the net grating 15∗. Optical fibres: Mach-Zehnder interferome- tobservation ≫ τRC or τLR , quasiequilibrium is
elsewhere Bk = Inµµ 0Ω
; flux Φ = N BS and in-
length. Spectral resolving power ∆λλ
= nN , where ter is analogous to a double-slit diffraction; circular reached: IC ≈ 0 (wire is “broken” near C) and 4π
ductance L = Φ/I = V n2 µµ0 (where n = Nl ).
n is the order number of the main max. and N — resonator — to Fabry-Pérot interferometer; Bragg EL ≈ 0 (L is effectively short-circuited). For
filters work similarly to the X-ray case. Single-mode tobservation ≪ τRC or τLR , the charge leakage of 8. Measuring magnetic fieldR with a small coil and
the number of slits. E
fibres: ∆n/n ≈ λ/d. ballistic galvanometer: q = R dt = N S∆B/R.
5. Resolving power of a spectral device: λ
= L C and current drop in L are small, ∆Q ≪ Q and
∆λ λ, 9. Potential energy of aZsystem of charges:
where L is the optical path difference between the ∆I ≪ I: C is “short-circuited” and L is “broken”.
X qi qj 1
shortest and longest beams. VIII Circuits 12. If L 6= 0, then I(t) is a continuous function. Π=k = ϕ(~r)dq, dq = ρ(~r)dV.
i>j
rij 2
λ dn
6. Resolving power of a prism: =
∆λ a dλ .
1. U = IR, P = U I 13. Through a superconducting contour, magnetic
7. Angular distance when two pts. are resolved in an X X flux Φ = Const. In particular, with no external B, 10. Force between parts of a uniformly charged
Rseries = Ri , Rk−1 = Ri−1 LI = Const. sphere or cylindrical surface: substitute force due
ideal telescope (lens): ϕ = 1.22λ/d. For that an-
2. Kirchoff ’s laws: to charges with force due to hydrostatic pressure.
gle, the center of one point falls onto the first diffr. 14. Mutual inductance: magnetic flux through a
min. of the other point. contour Φ1 = L1 I1 + L12 I2 (I2 — current in 11. If all the charges are at the distance R (eg. at
X X
I = 0, U =0
8. Bragg theory: a set of k ion planes of a crystal node contour a second contour). Theorems: L12 = L21 ≡ M ; the center of an inhomogeneously charged sphere
√ or ring), ϕ = kQ/r.
reflects X-rays if 2a sin α = kλ; a — distance be- 3. To reduce the number of eqns. for pt 2: method of M ≤ L1 L2.
tween neighb. planes, α — glancing angle. node potentials; method of loop currents; equivalent
12. To find the net charge (or potential) induced
by external charges, use the superpos. pr.: “smear”
9. Reflection from optically denser dielectric me- circuits (any 3-terminals ⇒ triangle or star; any 2- IX Electromagnetism
the charges to make the problem symmetric.
dia: phase shift π. Semi-transparent thin filmS also terminal with emf ⇒ r and E in series).
2
introduce phase shifts. 1. F = kq1 q2 /r , Π = kq1 q2 /r — Kepler’s laws 13. Conductor shields charges and electric fields,
4. Resistivity of infinite chain: use self-similarity;
are applicable (Ch. XII). eg. charge distribution inside a hollow sphere can-
10. Fabry-Pérot interferometer: two k semitransp. resistance between neighbour nodes of infinite
~ ~ not be seen from outside (it seems as if there is a
H
mirrors with large reflectivity r (1 − r ≪ 1). Re- grid: generalized method of electrical images. 2. Gauss’s law: BdS = 0,
ν 2a
I I conducting ball carrying a total charge Q)
solving power ∆ν ≈ λ(1−r) . Transmission spec- 5. AC: apply pts. 1–4 while substituting R with Z: ~ S
εε0 Ed ~ = Q, ~ = −4πGM.
~gdS
trum can be found by introducing 5 plane waves 14. Capacitances: C = εε S/d (plane), 0
ZR = R, ZC = 1/iωC, ZL = iωL; 4πεε0 r(sphere), 2πεε0 l(ln R/r)−1 (coaxial).
(for left- and rightwards-propagating waves before 3. Circulation theorem
the device, in the dev. and after the dev.) and tailor- ϕ = arg Z, Ueff = |Z|Ieff I I ~
Bdl
I 15. Dipole moment:
~ ~l = 0 (= Φ̇),
Ed = I, ~g d~l = 0. d~e = qi~ri = ~lq, d~µ = I S.
~
X X
ing these at the region boundaries. P = |U ||I| cos(arg Z) = Ii2 Ri . µµ0
16. Energy and torque of a dipole: 29. For µ ≫ 1, fieldlines of B are attracted to the XI Quantum mechanics 6. For small ellipticities ε = d/a ≪ 1, trajectories
W = d~ · E ~ (B),
~ M~ = d~ × E~ (B).
~ ferromagnetic (acts as a potential hole, cf. pt. 28). can be considered as having a circular shapes, with
1. ~p = h̄~k (|~p| = h/λ), E = h̄ω = hν.
17. Dipole field: ϕ = kd~ · ~er /r2 ; E, B ∝ r−3 . 30. Current density ~j = ne~v = σE~ = E/ρ. ~ shifted foci.
2. Interference: as in wave optics.
18. Forces acting on a dipole: F = (E~ d~e )′ , F = 7. Properties of an ellipse: l1 + l2 = 2a (l1 , l2
~ d~µ )′ ; interaction between 2 dipoles: F ∝ r−4 .
(B X Thermodynamics 3. Uncertainty (as a math. theorem): — distances to the foci), α1 = α2 (light from one
h̄ h̄ 1
19. Electric and magnetic images: grounded (su- 1. pV = m RT ∆p∆x ≥ , ∆E∆t ≥ , ∆ω∆t ≥ . focus is reflected to the other), S = πab.
2 2 2
perconducting for magnets) planes act as mirrors.
µ For qualitative estimates by non-smooth shapes, h
8. A circle and an ellipse with a focus at the circle’s
2. Internal energy of one mole U = 2i RT . serves better (∆p∆x ≈ h etc).
Field of a grounded (or isolated) sphere can be center can touch each other only at the longer axis.
found as a field of one (or two) fictive charge(s) in- 3. Volume of one mole at standard cond. is 22,4 l. 4. Spectra: hν = En −Em ; width of spectral lines 9∗ . Runge-Lenz vector (the ellipticity vector):
side the sphere. The field in a planar waveguide (slit 4. Adiabatic processes: slow as compared to sound is related to lifetime: Γτ ≈ h̄. ~ × ~v
L
γ
between metallic plates) can be obtained as a super- speed, no heat exchange: pV = Const. (and 5. Oscillator’s (eg. molecule) en. levels (with ~
ε = + ~er = Const.
GM m
position of electromagnetic plane waves. T V γ−1 = Const.). eigenfrequency ν0 ): En = (n + 12 )hν0 . For many
XIII Theory of relativity
20. Ball’s (cylinder’s) polarization in homoge- 5. γ = cp /cv = (i + 2)/i.
P
eigenfrequencies: E = i hni νi .
neous (electric) field: superpos. of homogeneously 6. Boltzmann’s distribution: 6. Tunnelling effect: barrier Γ with width
p l is easily
1. Lorentz transforms (rotation ofp4D space-time
−µgh/RT −U/kT
charged (+ρ and −ρ) balls (cylinders), d ∝ E. ρ = ρ0 e = ρ0 e . penetrable, if Γτ ≈ h̄, where τ = l/ Γ/m. of Minkowski geometry), γ = 1/ 1 − v 2 /c2 :
′ ′ ′ 2
21. Eddy currents: power dissipation density ∼ 7. Maxwell’s distribution 2
(how many molecules 7. Bohr’s model: En ∝ −1/n2. In a (classically x ′= γ(x − vt), y = y,′ t = γ(t − vx/c2 )
B 2 v 2 /ρ; momentum given during a single pass: have speed v) ∝ e−mv /2kT . calculated) circular orbit, there is an integer num- px = γ(px − mv), m = γ(m − px v/c )
F τ ∼ B 2 a3 d/ρ (where d — thickness; a — size). 8. Atm. pressure: if ∆p ≪ p, then ∆p = ρg∆h. ber of wavelengths λ = h/mv. 2. Length of 4-vector:
22. Inside a superconductor and for fast processes 9. p = 13 mnv̄2 , v̄ = 3kT /m, ν = vnS.
p s2 = c2 t2 − x2 − y 2 − z 2
8. Compton effect — if photon is scattered from an
inside a conductor B = 0 and thus I = 0 (current 10. Carnot’s cycle: 2 adiabats, 2 isotherms. η = m0 c = m2 c2 − p2x − p2y − p2z
2 2
electron, photon’s ∆λ = λC (1 − cos θ).
flows in surface layer — skin effect). 3. Adding velocities:
(T1 − T2 )/T1 ; derive using S-T -coordinates. 9. Photoeffect: A + mv2 /2 = hν (A - work of
~ = B~ez w = (u + v)/(1 + uv/c2 ).
23. Charge in homog. magnetic field B 11. Heat pump, inverse Carnot: η = T1T−T 1
. exit for electrons). I-U -graph: photocurrent starts
moves along a cycloid with drift speed v =
2
at the counter-voltage U = −(hν − A)/e, satu-
4. Doppler effect:p
12. Entropy: dS = dQ/T . ν ′ = ν0 (1 − v/c)/(1 + v/c).
E/B = F/eB; generalized mom. is conserved rates for large forward voltages.
p′x = mvx − Byq, p′y = mvy + Bxq, 13. I law of thermodynamics: δU = δQ + δA 5. Minkowski space can be made Euclidean if time
10. Stefan-Boltzmann: P = σT 4.
′ 1
as well as gen. angular mom. L = L + 2 Bqr . 2 14. II law of thermodynamics: ∆S ≥ 0 (and is imaginary (t → ict). Then, for rot. angle ϕ,
24. MHD generator (a — length along the direc- ηreal ≤ ηCarnot ). XII Kepler laws
tan ϕ = v/ic. Express sin ϕ, and cos ϕ via tan ϕ,
~
tion of E): 15. Gas work
Z (look also p. 10) and apply the Euclidean geometry formulae.
E = vBa, r = ρa/bc. i 1. F = GM m/r2 , Π = −GM m/r. 6. Shortening of length: l′ = l0 /γ.
A = pdV, adiabatic: A = ∆(pV )
2 2. Gravitational interaction of 2 point masses (Ke- 7. Lengthening of time: t′ = t0 γ.
25. Hysteresis: S-shaped curve (loop) in B-H-
16. Dalton’s law: p = pi .
P
coordinates (for a coil with core also B-I-coord.): pler’s I law): trajectory of each of them is an ellipse, 8. Simultaneity is relative, ∆t = −γv∆x/c2 .
the loop area gives the thermal energy dissipation 17. Boiling: pressure of saturated vapour pv = p0 ; parabola or hyperbola, with a focus at the center of
9. F~ = d~p/dt [= dtd (m~v), where m = m0 γ].
density per one cycle). at the interface betw. 2 liquids: pv1 + pv2 = p0 . mass of the system. Derive from R.-L. v. (pt 9).
10. Ultrarelativistic approximation: v ≈ c, p ≈
26. Fields in matter: D ~ = εε0 E ~ = ε0 E ~ + P~ , 18. Heat flux P = kS∆T /l (k — thermal con- 3. Kepler’s II law (conserv. of angular mom.): for mc, p1 − v2 /c2 ≈ p2(1 − v/c).
where P~ is dielectric polarization vector (volume ductivity); analogy to DC circuits (P corresponds a point mass in a central force field, radius vector
~′ = B
~ || , E
~′ = E
~ || ,
~ = B/µµ~ to I, ∆T to U , k to 1/R). covers equal areas in equal times.
11∗ . Lorentz tr. for E-B: B|| ||
density of dipole moment); H 0 =
~
~ ⊥ −~v × E⊥ ).
R
B/µ0 − J, where J is magnetization vector (vol- 19. Heat capacity: Q = c(T )dT . Solids: for low
~ ~ ~ 4. Kepler’s III law: for two point masses at elliptic E~ ⊥′ = γ(E~ ⊥ +~v×B
~ ⊥ ), B
~ ′ = γ(B
⊥ 2 c
ume density of magnetic moment). temperatures, c ∝ T 3 ; for high T , c = 3N kT , orbits in r−2 -force field, revolution periods relate
27. In an interface between two substances E , D where N — number of ions in crystal lattice.
t n as the longer semiaxes to the power of 32 : marks an advanced material.
∗

(= εEt ), Ht (= Bt /µ) and Bn are continuous. 20. Surface tension: T12 /T22 = a31 /a32 . Corrections/suggestions ⇒ kalda@[Link].
U = Sσ, F = lσ, p = 2σ/R. 5. Full energy (K + Π) of a body in a gravity field: Composed by J. Kalda, translated by U. Visk and J.K.
28. Energy density: W = 12 (εε0 E 2 + B 2 /µµ0 ).
E = −GM m/2a.