Plastics & Composites

EWI's plastics and composites capability embodies welding and adhesive bonding
with expertise in properties of plastics, design and performance of adhesive systems, as
well as in-house equipment to simulate almost any manufacturing method.
Specific Plastics Joining Technologies and Equipment

 Introduction
 Hot Plate welding
 Ultrasonic welding
 Infrared heating
 Through-transmission infrared welding
 Vibration welding
 Laser welding
 Spin welding
 Hot gas and extrusion welding
 RF or dielectric welding
 Microwave welding
 Friction stir welding
 Induction welding
 Resistive implant welding
 Broad-based adhesive technology

(thermosetting, elastomeric, thermoplastic, natural and synthetic adhesives, structural and

non-structural applications)
Typical Applications
Repairing adhesive bonds
Fatigue testing techniques and design data for adhesive-bonded joints
Behavior of adhesively-stiffened structural beams
Durability of adhesive bonds
Variability of adhesive bond properties
Repair of aircraft composite structures using adhesive bonding
Automotive interiors, lighting, body components, fuel systems, and others
Manufacture and packaging of medical apparatus
Appliance components of all types
EWI staff has broad experience in the characteristics of plastics and composites, and in
the design and formulation of adhesives. This, along with complete process capability,
provides members with a complete resource to evaluate new product designs, materials,
and manufacturing processes
 Introduction: Plastics Joining Technologies

The need to produce larger, more complex parts from polymers has created an increased
need for joining, particularly of thermoplastics. Injection molding has led to increased use for
disposable products because the plastic parts can be made inexpensively and in high volume.
However, injection molding is not capable of producing all type of structures and the most cost-
effective way to make them will often involve molding two or more parts and joining them
together.
Adhesives and mechanical fastening are very useful joining techniques, but fusion
bonding or welding is particularly suitable since joining times are often very short, enabling high
volume production, and the welded parts are readily recycled or incinerated, easing disposal
problems. This is particularly true when joining polymers with low surface energies such as
polyethylene or polypropylene since these materials require complex surface activation
techniques.
While fusion bonding has been known for many years, involving processes such as ultrasonic,
RF or dielectric, hot plate, and vibration welding, the field has recently become very dynamic.
Equipment advances and new process developments offer manufacturers additional options in
materials joining.
Fusion processes for joining thermoplastics and thermoplastic composites involves heating the
polymer to a viscous state and physically causing polymer chains to interdiffuse, usually by
application of pressure. These processes have several attractive features:
 Speed
 Strong joints
 Tolerance of contaminated surfaces.
 Joins difficult substrates, such as polyolefins
 Improved recyclability or incineration.
 Hot Plate Welding
Hot plate welding is known as a tolerant process capable of providing weld strengths of
the parent polymer. Polyolefins and soft polymers can be easily welded with this process to
produce high quality parts. In other industries, such as automotive, it has been used to join plastic
battery cases, fuel tanks and fuel filler pipes. Infrastructure applications, such as gas and water
distribution, sewage and effluent disposal pipes have used hot plate welding extensively.

Hot plate welding operates by contacting the weld surfaces with a heated platen or tool to
create a molten or plasticized region. These regions are then pressed together to make the weld.
In practice, the process is operated on a hot plate welding machine in which the parts to be
welded are clamped in holders. A platen, heated to a suitable temperature, advances between the
parts and they are pressed against it. The part surface is melted away until contact is complete
(matching). At this point, further movement is often stopped, and heating continued, to create a
deeper molten or plasticized zone. After heating is completed, the parts are retracted from the
platen, the platen moves out of the way, and the samples are forged together and held until the
polymer cools. Mechanical or microprocessor-controlled stops are usually used to control the
amount of displacement of the polymer from the weld zone, particularly during the heating
phase.
If polymers are compatible, the hot plate process is capable of welding dissimilar
thermoplastics with the use of two platens to compensate for different polymer melting or
softening points (1). Hot plate welding can provide good welds with filled polymers providing
the filler material and level allow the polymer to interdiffuse on forging. Weld times will vary
with the volume of polymer to be fused and the thermal conductivity of the substrate. Welding
times normally fall in the range from 5 to 60 seconds, although the mass of polymer that must be
melted, and the corresponding cooling rates, will govern cycle times. With large masses of
polymer (1.5 meter diameter pipes with wall thicknesses of 10 cm may take an hour, depending
on equipment). The size of objects that can be hot plate welded is limited by the practical size of
the hot plate, the mechanics of its removal from the weld zone and of moving the parts to forge
them together. Hot plate welding is limited because melted polymers tend to stick to the platen.
Sticking can either create strings of polymer that end up in the product or tear out/deform
sections of the melted polymer that can produce gaps in the bond line. Non-stick surfaces are
used, but they tend to break down at temperatures in excess of 270 deg. C. This temperature
limitation is not a problem for lower melting polymers, but polycarbonates, polymethacrylates,
polyamides, and others, require higher welding temperatures. An alternate approach is to use hot
plate temperatures that are high enough to decompose and evaporate sticking material from the
platen surface. While this approach is used, it will produce weld fume from the decomposing
polymers and, if the polymers do not decompose cleanly, particles of char remain on the platen
and contaminate the following weld
 Ultrasonic Welding

When a rubber ball is dropped, it never bounces back to its drop height because some of
the potential energy is converted to heat and sound. This type of process is involved in ultrasonic
welding. Instead of a ball, a small projection(s) in the weld zone is flexed by an oscillating force
at rates of 10,000 to 70,000 times per second (kHz). This causes the projection to melt and flow
across the joint to create a weld. A metal tool (horn) that is oscillating vertically contacts the
plastic part at a distance from the projection and is the means for delivering the energy. The part
on the other side of the joint area rests on an anvil, ensuring the energy is spent in the weld zone.
Frictional heating can also occur to some extent because transmission of the energy through the
plastic parts is very complex.
The oscillating force is generated when alternating electrical power (at frequency) is
applied to a train of tuned components that are sized to form a resonant system. The first
component converts the electrical power to oscillations. This occurs when the power is applied to
a sandwich of piezoelectric or magnetostrictive materials and metal blocks. These oscillations
are amplified (or de-amplified) by a booster and the booster is connected to the horn. The horn
can either amplify or de-amplify the oscillations, depending on the needs of the application.
While the frequency of oscillations varies between 10 and 70kHz, the most common frequencies
are in the range from 20 to 40kHz. Oscillation amplitudes range from 20 to 80 microns. Joints
are designed to contain a molded projection of thermoplastic (usually triangular in shape and 0.2
to 0.3 mm high) that flexes in preference to the bulk of the plastic or composite. Modulus losses
occurring in this projection, the energy director, cause the polymer to melt and flow through the
bond line.
Ultrasonic welding can be accomplished at various distances from the horn ranging from
only a fraction of a millimeter up to several centimeters. For distant welding the polymer must
transmit the energy efficiently, i.e. not be too flexible or have too high a loss modulus. ABS and
high impact polystyrene are among the easiest polymers to weld ultrasonically. Ultrasonic
welding will usually join amorphous thermoplastics more readily than semicrystalline ones.
However, the advent of more powerful machines has blurred this distinction, and semicrystalline
polymers are welded routinely.
Joint design and location is very important in ultrasonic welding. Interference or shear types of
joint involve welding a slightly larger part into a smaller one. Shear joint designs are commonly
used for semicrystalline polymers, or when watertight seals or high joint strengths are needed.
Ultrasonic welding is probably the most commonly used thermoplastic welding process
because it is very fast (fractions to a few seconds) and usually produces welds that are relatively
free of flash. Often dust from fracture of joint components is produced. In addition, ultrasonic
welding is relatively easy to automate and is particularly suitable for high volume production.
Rapid development of the ultrasonic welding machine has occurred in the last ten years. Basic
functions, such as weld energy, collapse, trigger force, and pressure are now microprocessor-
controlled. In addition, real time feedback and control of welding conditions is being offered,
along with the ability to vary weld force and amplitude during the weld cycles.
The benefits of a amplitude control were reported recently. With a constant amplitude the
rate of heat generation in the bond line is extremely rapid (approximately 3000C per second),
and temperatures can reach those where polymer degrade. Degradation weakens the joint. If a
high amplitude is used to initially generate the desired temperature, a lower amplitude can then
be used to maintain it during the approximately 1 second weld cycle (13). Higher bond strengths
have been observed and, in at least one case, polycarbonate weld samples yielded in the sample
rather than the weld (14
 Infrared Heating

Infrared radiation is being developed as a non-contact alternative for hot plate

welding. The infrared radiation is often supplied by high-intensity, quartz, heat lamps,
producing radiation with wavelengths around 1 micron. When this radiation is applied to
a polymer, melting occurs. In one mode of operation, the lamps are removed after
melting has occurred, and the parts are forged together, as with hot plate welding.

Infrared is particularly promising for higher melting polymers since the parts do
not contact the heat source. The causes of stringing and/or joint damage are not present.
A recent report (2) indicates that infrared welding of a glass-reinforced polymer
(polyethersulfone) results in exceptionally high weld strengths (Weld Factor = 80+%)
that are not achieved with other welding processes.

Another potential advantage of infrared welding is speed. Infrared radiation can

penetrate into a polymer and create a zone of melt quickly. By contrast, hot plate welding
involves heating the polymer surface and relying on conduction to create the required
melt zone. As might be expected, however, the depth of penetration depends on many
factors, and it varies strongly with only minor changes in polymer formulation.
Consistent infrared welding is likely to require very close attention to batch-to-batch
polymer uniformity.
 Through-transmission Infrared Welding (TTIR)

EWI has been developing a process called through-transmission infrared welding

(TTIR) in which the radiation is passed through a transparent polymer to an absorbing
interface that is in contact with the transparent polymer. Heat generation at the interface
melts the transparent polymer. The heat source is outside the weld zone.

EWI has conducted Through-Transmission Infrared Welding (TTIR) both by

joining a transparent structure to an opaque one or by using a thin interlayer film between
two layers to be joined. Usually, only low forces are applied to the layers to keep them in
contact, to allow heat transfer. Air, blowing over the upper layer, can both cool and apply
the weld force.

Nearly all polymers are "transparent" to infrared energy in the near infrared part
of the spectrum. Even polymers that are very opaque to visible light, such as TeflonÒ
TFE, are highly transparent and can be welded using appropriate absorbing layers.

EWI has demonstrated that the infrared energy can be transmitted through optical
materials such as quartz rods (light pipes) or through glass fiber bundles. For example, a
bundle of quartz fibers with approximately the same area as the weld zone can receive the
infrared energy and the exit of the fiber bundle can be shaped to conform to the weld
zone. Very complex weld zones can be accommodated with this technique. Additional
information is available to members of EWI.
 Vibration Welding

Vibration or linear friction welding involves the rubbing of two thermoplastic parts
together, under pressure and at a suitable frequency and amplitude, until enough heat is
generated to melt and mix the polymer. After vibration is stopped, the parts are aligned and the
molten polymer allowed to solidify, creating the weld. The process is similar to spin welding
except the motion is linear rather than rotational.

In a welding cycle, the lower platen, holding a stationary part, rises to contact the part in
the upper platen containing the other part. The parts are pressed together at a preset pressure (1 to
4 MPa). The upper platen is mounted on a resonant spring assembly and is vibrated by hydraulic
or electromagnetic drivers. The resonant spring has several functions; it reduces the amount of
energy needed, allows pressure to be applied and positions the parts accurately at the end of the
weld before the polymer resolidifies.
This process is generally suitable for most thermoplastics, both amorphous and semicrystalline.
Welds are produced in a matter of milliseconds and the process is more tolerant of moisture in
the polymer, e.g., nylons. As might be expected, best results are obtained when the joints are
planar although parts with angles 10 degrees off planar are considered weldable. Amplitudes
generally range from 0.5 to a few millimeters and frequencies range from 100 to 500 Hz
although frequencies of 100-300 Hz are most common. Research vibration welders capable of
exploring higher frequencies have been built (9,10).
The parameters chosen for a particular application are usually determined by a test
program. A certain amount of flash from the weld zone is desirable because contaminants on the
surface of the substrates are usually removed from the weld zone along with the flash. Excessive
amounts, however, may detract from the esthetics of the weld. If so, a flash trap or cavity located
next to the joint but not visible, can be incorporated. As a general rule, higher amplitudes
produce greater amounts of flash.
The process is applicable to most polymers, both amorphous and semicrystalline, whether
extruded, blow molded, thermoformed or stamped. The technique is said to be particularly useful
for welding of crystalline thermoplastics such as acetal, polyethylene, nylons and polypropylene
which are not easily welded by ultrasonic or solvent welding.
Several new developments in equipment have been made during the last few years. One
is the ability to vary the pressure during the welding cycle. This allows more of the melted
polymer to remain in the bond line and produces, therefore, a wider weld zone. This tends to
both reduce flash and increase weld strength, A second development is the development of
equipment for orbital welding. In this friction process, one part is rotated against the other in an
orbital motion. At present, this process is unable to handle parts of the size used in vibration
welding, but it should be able to weld thin-walled parts more effectively (11)
 Laser Welding of Plastics

Laser welding of polymers is under development as a high-speed, non-contact

process for welding of thermoplastics. Laser radiation, in the normal mode of operation,
is so intense and focused that it will very quickly degrade thermoplastics (see figure). It
has been used to weld polyethylene by pressing the unwelded parts together and tracking
a laser beam along the joint area. Decomposed polymer was squeezed from the weld zone
and a strong joint was obtained through a thin layer of undecomposed polymer remaining
in the bond line. (3,4).

EWI has shown that Nd-YAG and similar wavelength energy is absorbed at levels
useful for welding even when very low levels of absorbing pigment are present in the
absorbing layer. EWI has demonstrated methods that form essentially invisible joints. For
example, particles of silicon carbide embedded in a surface of a transparent polymer will
provide enough absorption to form a weld but they are invisible to the eye. Similarly,
compatible inks that dry to form nearly transparent coatings are also useful. Further
information on this and other interactions with pigmented polymers is available to
members of EWI.
Recently, the plastics welding group at The Welding Institute (TWI) in the United
Kingdom reported on the high speed laser welding of polyethylene films using carbon
dioxide and Nd-YAG lasers (5). Weld speeds of 500 meters/minute were demonstrated,
but higher speeds were considered possible. Weld strengths were near parent material
strength.
As with through-transmission infrared welding, laser radiation of suitable wavelengths
can be passed through some polymers (transparent) and be absorbed by underlying,
absorbing polymers
 RF or Dielectric Welding

RF welding is useful for joining polymers that have strong dipoles, such as polyvinyl
chloride (PVC), polyurethanes, and polyamides. Application of a high intensity alternating
electromagnetic field to these dipoles will tend to cause orientation with the field. The dipoles
will try to alternate with the changing field polarity and, in the process, will convert some of the
field energy into heat, creating a weld (see figure). In the USA, the most common RF welding
frequency is set at 27.12 MHz, but frequencies can vary depending on country.
The high intensity field is normally applied to polymer by electrodes that are pressed
against both sides of the film layers. Since field intensity decreases with distance, this process is
normally most useful when the electrodes are close together, as with polymer films. Welding
appears to occur at the interface between the films because the relatively cold electrodes draw
heat from the film surface, but not as effectively from the more distant interface (7).
Concerns about the incineration of PVC disposable products has led to greatly increased
interest in welding of polyester or multilayer films. For the latter multilayer materials, one of the
layers is sensitive to the field while the other layers provide the properties required for the
particular application. These newer materials generally heat less efficiently, but conditions can
sometimes be found where acceptable welding occurs. Heating efficiency is material dependent.
Polyolefins, such as polyethylene and polypropylene, have very weak dipoles are essentially
insensitive to the field.
In the medical area, bags for fluids are probably the main application of RF welding. The
bags, and the ports for entry into the bag, can be made in one step. Weld times range from
fractions of a second to seconds, depending on the material, film thickness, and area being
welded. Use of microprocessors and improved control during the weld cycle have led to both
increased quality and speed (8).
 Microwave Welding

Microwave welding is still a technology in a fairly early stage of development.

Microwaves have higher frequencies than either induction or RF (dielectric) welding and,
in the United States, the two common frequencies are 915 MHz and 2.45 GHz (kitchen
microwaves). As with RF welding, heating is caused by interaction with dipoles, such as
those found in water or similar compounds, or with ionic species, such as carbon black.
Rubber does not absorb microwaves very strongly until it is formulated with carbon
black. Other materials that absorb microwaves inlcude some iron oxides, ferrites, and
electrically-conducting polymers, such as polyaniline salts (emeraldine).

The process offers considerable promise as a means for continuous processing of

manufactured parts. However, a major concern is heating uniformity due to oven
configurations (multimodal applicators). Single-mode, resonant applicators can produce
uniform fields but are limited in the sizes of parts that can be heated. In addition, the
behavior of some polymers toward the field can cause concerns. Polar polymers that melt
will absorb more strongly when molten (above Tg, probably), and absorption increases as
viscosity decreases, so they exhibit the process of "runaway" heating. Nonpolar polymers
do not exhibit this phenomenon. On the other hand, adhesives, such as epoxies, can be
heated by microwaves because of polar groups in the hardener component. As the
adhesive cures and the chemical bonds become less mobile, the ability to absorb
microwave energy decreases as well, so the process is self-limiting.
Friction Stir Welding of Plastics

While conventional friction processes involve rubbing the parts together, a new
developmental process involves rubbing a third body against the parts to be joined. The
third body can be a blade or a rotating mandrel. This process is currently used mainly for
metals, but the potential for plastics is clear (15).
A crude analogy to this process is observed sometimes when cutting a piece of
thermoplastic with a sabre saw. If conditions are right, the oscillating motion of the blade
melts the polymer on either side of the blade and it flows together behind the sawblade.
Of course, no pressure is applied and material is being removed by the sawblade, but the
concept is similar.

Resistive Implant Welding

Resistive implant welding is observed when an electrically conducting element is
heated in a bond line by application of a current (see figure). The region around the
element melts and welds are created by the application of pressure. Sometimes, it is
beneficial to include additional polymer in the bond line to provide for better melt flow
and filling of gaps in the bond line.

Power supplies range from simple variable voltage transformers to programmable

units that operate in either the AC or DC mode. The resistive element can be any material
that conducts current, including metal wires and braids, and carbon-based elements, such
as tapes, ropes and sheets. This process has normally been applied to larger structures and
to those that do not involve a closed-loop weld joint.
Implant welding has been applied to complicated joints in automotive applications
such as vehicle bumpers and panels, joints in plastic pipe, containers and medical
devices, such as blood oxygenators. Implant heating processes are reasonably fast, from
seconds to minutes, depending on the application, and the processes can be used to join
most thermoplastic-based materials. Implant materials should be compatible with the
intended application, since they remain in the bond line.

Adhesive Technology

EWI provides comprehensive support for all adhesive bonding and curing
processes. Beginning with selection and screening, surface preparation techniques,
application methods, and curing processes, EWI can provide the client with a complete
adhesive bonding protocol, ready to implement.
 Mirror Welding

For butt welding pipes and profiles of Polyethylene, polypropylene and PVC, the PTFEcoated
Welding mirror 135 mm is fitted on the LEISTER-TRIAC or the DIODE. The welding mirror,
Heated by hot air electronically controlled on the within a few minutes of adjustment between ambient
and 300°C. Another PTFE-coated welding mirror 270 mm can be fitted on the LEISTER ELECTRON.

MIRROR WELDING PROCESS

To create bends or junctions in pipes, the Sections should be sawn to give the required radius and any
burring should be removed. The two areas to be joined are then presses one on each side of the heated
welding mirror. After about 20-30 seconds the important “wash” is formed on the pipe ends, which are
against the mirror. When this “wash” has formed, the pipe ends are immediately pressed against each other
by hand, the pressure being maintained for about 20 seconds. During this process the “wash” becomes
obvious.
The welding process is now complete. Mirror welding is not only a quick and simple welding process but
ensures great strength, especially on pipe and profile joins. LEISTER-TRIAC and LEISTER ELECTRON
with push Fit welding mirror of 135 mm and 160 mm diameter respectively. Using the mirror welding process
all Polypropylene (PP), Polyethylene (PE) and PVC pipes and boards can be butt welded with these tools.