COURSE OUTCOME #4: Distinguish among different fluid machinery and its

application.
TOPICS: Compressors
Impusle/Reaction Turbines

LEARNING OUTCOME: Determine the power produced by impulse and reaction

turbine.

COMPRESSORS
Compressors are mechanical devices used to increase pressure in a variety of
compressible fluids, or gases, the most common of these being air. 
Compressors are
similar to pumps: both
increase the pressure on
a fluid and both can transport
the fluid through a pipe. As
gases are compressible, the
compressor also reduces the
volume of a gas. Liquids are
relatively incompressible; while
some can be compressed, the
main action of a pump is to
pressurize and transport Figure 1. Compressor
liquids.
Many compressors can be staged, that is, the fluid is compressed several times
in steps or stages, to increase discharge pressure. Often, the second stage is physically
smaller than the primary stage, to accommodate the already compressed gas. Each
stage further compresses the gas and increases pressure . s

Operating Principle of Compressor

` Air compressors function based on a very simple principle. When the air is
compressed, its volume decreases whereas the pressure increases.
 It will be easy to discuss
the principle of compressor by
the help of a reciprocating
piston. Each reciprocating
piston compressor has a
crankshaft, connecting rod, a
piston, cylinder, and a valve
head. In order for the entire
mechanism to work, power is
needed. Air compressors are
usually powered by electricity
or gas depending on the model. Most compressors also have a tank which is there to
store compressed air for the purpose of keeping the air pressure within a set range
while powering various air tools.
At the top of every compressor cylinder there is a valve head that contains both
the inlet and discharge valve which are basically metal flaps. These open and close and
are located on top of the valve plate. When the piston moves down inside the cylinder in
the space above the piston a vacuum is created.
The difference in pressure on the inside of the cylinder to the outside allows the
atmospheric pressure to open the inlet valve. The air then enters the area where the
vacuum used to be, and is compressed by the piston which is now going up. The inlet
valve closes and the discharge valve is opened. The compressed air is stored inside the
tank thereby increasing the pressure

Types of Compressor
Compressors may be characterized in several different ways, but are commonly
divided into types based on the functional method used to generate the compressed air
or gas. The figure below shows the different types of compressor.
Positive Displacement Compressor
Positive displacement compressors draw in and capture a volume of air in a
chamber. They then reduce the volume of the chamber to compress the air. 

Reciprocating Compressor
Piston compressors or reciprocating compressors, rely on the
reciprocating action of one or more pistons to compress gas within a cylinder (or
cylinders) and discharge it through valving into high pressure receiving tanks.
In many instances, the tank and compressor are mounted in a common
frame or skid as a so-called packaged unit.
While the major application of piston compressors is providing
compressed air as an energy source, piston compressors are also used by pipeline
operators for natural gas transmission.
Piston compressors
are generally selected on the
pressure required (psi) and the
flow rate (scfm). A typical plant-air
system provides compressed air in
the 90-110 psi range, with volumes
anywhere from 30 to 2500 cfm;
these ranges are generally
attainable through commercial, off-
the-shelf units. Plant-air systems
can be sized around a single unit
or can be based on multiple
smaller units which are spaced
throughout the plant. To achieve
higher air pressures than can be
provided by a single stage compressor, two-stage units are available. Compressed air
entering the second stage normally passes through an intercooler beforehand to
eliminate some of the heat generated during the first-stage cycle.
Speaking of heat, many piston compressors are designed to operate
within a duty cycle, rather than continuously. Such cycles allow heat generated during
the operation to dissipate, in many instances, through air-cooled fins.
Piston compressors are available as both oil-lubricated and oil-free
designs. For some applications which require oil-free air of the highest quality, other
designs are better suited.
 Single - acting Compressor
Single
acting reciprocating compressors
are the oldest and world most
common compressors. It drawn air
and compressed on one side of the
piston. The other side is exposed to
the crankcase of the compressor. 
In this case, the downward stroke of
the piston draws in the air, and the
upward stroke compresses it. Most
of these compressors are splash oil lubricated; some are dry running on PTFE to make
Oil-Free air. Air-cooled is common and the power is mostly limited to 15kW.
These small, air-cooled reciprocating compressors are limited in
duty cycle to approximately 50%. They should not be run more than 30 minutes per
hour. This gives the pump time to cool off. Without this break, the pump will run too hot,
causing excessive wear and short life. Efficiencies are typically low to moderate at full
load, but part load efficiency is typically good because the machines use start/stop
control. A pressure switch starts the compressor when pressure drops to the cut-in
setpoint. The compressor pumps at full capacity until reaching the cut-out pressure and
shuting off the compressor. This typically requires about a 30 PSI swing in pressure to
prevent the motor from starting and stopping too often.
These machines are typically inexpensive to purchase and
maintain. However, their performance gradually degrades over time, contain high noise
levels, and possess low air quality. With high levels of oil (about 50ppm), and high
discharge temperatures, these machines may cause moisture to travel down line.

Diaphragm Compressor
It will be find in smaller
(hobby) air compressors, in trucks for the
pneumatic system, multi-stage for higher
pressures, and also in fridge.
The diaphragm
compressor uses a motor-mounted
concentric that oscillates a flexible disc
which alternately expands and contracts
the volume of the compression
chamber.The drive is sealed from the
process fluid by the flexible disc, and
thus there is no possibility of lubricant coming into contact with any gas.
 Diaphragm air compressors are relatively low capacity
machines that have applications where very clean air is required, as in many
laboratory and medical settings.

Double - acting Compressor

Double Acting reciprocating
compressors have compression chambers on
both sides of the piston. On the down stroke, air
is drawn in on the top of the piston while air is
compressed on the bottom side. On the
upstroke, air is drawn into the bottom side while
air is compressed on the top side. Double acting
machines require sealing of the piston rod, so
they use a cr osshead to eliminate the angular
movement of the rod.
Double acting reciprocating
compressors may have one or more stages and
are typically water-cooled.  Sizes range from
around 40 Horsepower to over 1000 Horsepower. The continuous flow of water through
the cylinders and heads provides better cooling to these machines than their air-cooled
counterparts. Therefore, they can operate fully loaded for long periods (100% duty
cycle). Full load efficiency is typically excellent on these machines, as is part load
(particularly when three- or five-step unloading is used). In machines with multi-step
unloading, multiple valves per cylinder exist. The valves are ported such that controlling
certain valves varies the amount of the cylinder where compression is occurring. Typical
multi-step unloading schemes allow the machine to operate at 0, 50%, and 100% load,
or 0, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% load.  Double acting piston compressors without multi
step unloading typically operate in the load/unload control scheme, without shutting off. 
Pressure controls on these machines typically operate over about a 10 PSIG band.
Very few manufacturers still produce the double acting
reciprocating compressor because it is quite expensive to produce, requires special
foundations to handle vibration, and requires frequent extensive maintenance.

Rotary Compressor
Rotary compressors are another type of famous compressors. It uses two
Asymmetrical rotors that are also called helical screws to compress the air.
The rotors have a very special shape and they turn in opposite directions
with very little clearance between them. The rotors are covered by cooling jackets. Two
shafts on the rotors are placed that transfer their motion with the help of  timing gears
that are attached at the starting point of the shafts/compressor

Lobe Compressor

Rotary-lobe
compressors are high-
volume, low-pressure devices more appropriately classified
as blowers.

Liquid Ring Compressor

Liquid Ring Compressors compress gases from a lower pressure to
a higher pressure. Almost all gases and vapours can be
compressed, even those containing dust and liquids. Due to
the intensive contact between the gas being conveyed and the
operation fluid, there is only a very slight rise in the
temperature of the gas being conveyed, so that one can
almost describe it as an isothermal compression.

  Screw Compressor
Rotary screw compressors are presently the industry standard in
plant air compressors from about 25 to 300 horsepower. They are rapidly expanding
into both smaller and larger markets. Many manufacturers offer size ranges as low as
3HP and as high as over 600HP.
Rotary screw compressors draw air and lubricant into a void
created as two helical rotors
mesh together.  Once the
rotors pass by the inlet port of
the pump (called an airend),
the cavity decreases in size for
the remainder of the rotation,
compressing the air-oil
mixture.
The oil
introduced into the airend
along with the air leads to the
terminology of “oil flooded
screw compressor” or “oil
injected screw
compressor”. This oil performs
numerous functions in a rotary
screw compressor, including lubrication, sealing of the air pockets, collection of
contaminants, and absorption of heat.  The compressor oil (called ”coolant” by some
manufacturers) has a much higher specific heat than the air, allowing it to soak up about
80% of the heat of compression.  This leads to far lower operating temperatures than
reciprocating and centrifugal compressors.  The lower temperature, in turn, allows the
oil flooded rotary screw compressor to operate at 100% duty cycle without adverse
effects.
The oil, however, must be removed from the air before it leaves the
compressor.  These compressor types require a large coalescing oil removal filter, often
known as the oil separator cartridge.    This regular maintenance item must be replaced
periodically, or it will suffer from high pressure drop, or excessive oil passage.  When
operating properly, oil carryover from the rotary screw compressor is from 2 to 5 ppm.
Early rotary screw compressors exhibited poor efficiency in comparison to the double
acting piston compressor. However, modern rotary screw compressors typically have
very good full load efficiency.  Part load efficiency, however, is greatly dependent upon
control method.  Many rotary screw compressor control methods are available, as
discussed in the controls section.
Typical rotary screw compressors come completely packaged, with
all capacity and motor controls, oil and air coolers, and safety devices pre-installed.  
Most new machines (outside the smallest units) include microprocessor controllers.

Scroll Cmpressor
Scroll air compressors use stationary and
orbiting spirals which decrease the volume of space between
them as the orbiting spirals trace the path of the fixed spirals.
Intake of gas occurs at the outer edge of the scrolls and
discharge of the compressed gas takes place near the center.
Because the scrolls do not contact, no lubricating oil is needed,
making the compressor intrinsically oil-free. However, because
no oil is used in removing the heat of compression as it is with
other designs, capacities for scroll compressors are somewhat
limited. They are often used in low-end air compressors and
home air-conditioning compressors

Vane Compressor
Rotary sliding vane compressors operate similar to an air motor,
with an off-center rotor turning sliding vanes.  As the vanes near the area where the
distance between the rotor and casing is small, the
air compresses.
Other than the geometry, rotary
vane compressors are very similar to rotary screw
compressors. As oil injected machine, they also
require the same separators and oil system
components.  Generally, separators of a more
marginally size, lead to increased oil carryover on vane compressors than on similar
piston compressors.
Full load efficiency of vane compressors is typically moderate, with
part load performance highly affected by control scheme.  Control methods for vane
compressors are largely the same as rotary screw compressors, with the exception of
variable displacement. Vane compressors do not use it.

Dynamic Compressor
Dynamic compressors are rotary continuous-flow machines in which the rapidly
rotating element accelerates the air as it passes through the element, converting the
velocity head into pressure, partially in the rotating element and partially in
stationary diffusers or blades. The capacity of a dynamic compressor varies
considerably with the working pressure

Centrifugal Compresssor
A centrifugal compressor
is a type of dynamic compressor, or
turbocompressor, with a radial design.
Unlike displacement compressors that
work at a constant flow, dynamic
compressors work at a constant
pressure and the performance is
affected by external conditions such as
changes in inlet temperatures.

Components of a Centrifugal
Compressor
A simple centrifugal compressor has four components: inlet, impeller/rotor, diffuser, and collector.
Inlet
The inlet to a centrifugal compressor is typically a simple pipe. It may include
features such as a valve, stationary vanes/airfoils (used to help swirl the flow) and both
pressure and temperature instrumentation.
Centrifugal impeller
The key component that makes a compressor centrifugal is the centrifugal
impeller which contains a rotating set of vanes (or blades) that gradually raises the
energy of the working gas. This is identical to an axial compressor with the exception
that the gases can reach higher velocities and energy levels through the impeller's
increasing radius. In many modern high-efficiency centrifugal compressors the gas
exiting the impeller is traveling near the speed of sound.
Impellers are designed in many configurations including "open" (visible blades),
"covered or shrouded", "with splitters" (every other inducer removed) and "w/o splitters"
(all full blades). Most modern high efficiency impellers use "backsweep" in the blade
shape.
Diffuser
The next key component to the simple centrifugal compressor is the diffuser.
Downstream of the impeller in the flow path, it is the diffuser's responsibility to convert
the kinetic energy (high velocity) of the gas into pressure by gradually slowing (diffusing)
the gas velocity. Diffusers can be vaneless, vaned or an alternating combination. High
efficiency vaned diffusers are also designed over a wide range of solidities from less
than 1 to over 4. Hybrid versions of vaned diffusers include: wedge, channel, and pipe
diffusers.
Collector
The collector of a centrifugal compressor can take many shapes and forms.When
the diffuser discharges into a large empty chamber, the collector may be termed
a Plenum. When the diffuser discharges into a device that looks somewhat like a snail
shell, bull's horn or a French horn, the collector is likely to be termed a volute or scroll.
As the name implies, a collector’s purpose is to gather the flow from the diffuser
discharge annulus and deliver this flow to a downstream pipe. Either the collector or the
pipe may also contain valves and instrumentation to control the compressor.
How Does Centrifugal Compressor Work?
Air is drawn into the center of a rotating impeller with radial blades and is pushed
toward the center by centrifugal force. This radial movement of air results in a pressure
rise and the generation of kinetic energy. Before the air is led into the center of the
impeller, the kinetic energy is also converted into pressure by passing through a diffuser
and volute.
 Each stage takes up a part of the overall pressure rise of the compressor unit.
Depending on the pressure required for the application, a number of stages can be
arranged in a series to achieve a higher pressure. This type of multi-stage application is
often used in the oil and gas and process industries. Alternately, in wastewater
treatment plants, low pressure, single-stage applications are used to achieve the
desired pressure ratio.
In modern configurations of centrifugal air compressors, ultra-high speed electric
motors are used to drive the impellers. This results in a compact compressor without a
gearbox and associated oil-lubrication system, thus making it oil-free and appropriate
for applications that require 100 percent oil-free air.

Application of a Centrifugal Compressor

 Used in gas turbines and auxiliary power units.
 Used in automotive engine and diesel engine turbochargers and superchargers.
 Used in pipeline compressors of natural gas to move the gas from the production
site to the consumer.
 Used in oil refineries, natural-gas processing, petrochemical and chemical plants.
 Used in Air-conditioning and refrigeration and HVAC: Centrifugal compressors
quite often supply the compression in water chillers cycles.
 Used in In industry and manufacturing to supply compressed air for all types
of pneumatic tools
 Used in In air separation plants to manufacture purified end product gases
 Used in In oil field re-injection of high pressure natural gas to improve oil
recovery
Advantages of a Centrifugal Compressor
 Wide Operating ranges
 Very high reliability
 Low maintenance costs
 Low initial cost
 Medium Capacity storage
 High efficiency

Disadvantages of a Centrifugal Compressor

 Very unstable when the flow is reduced.
 Sensitive to changes in gas compositions
 Limited compression ratios
 Limited turn downs
 Periodic replacement is necessary for proper functioning

Axial Compressor
 The axial compressor achieves the highest volumes of delivered air,
ranging from 8000 to 13 million cfm in industrial machines. Jet engines use
compressors of this kind to produce volumes over an even wider range. To a greater
extent than centrifugal
compressors, axial compressors
tend toward multi-stage
designs, owing to their relatively
low compression ratios. As with
centrifugal units, axial
compressors increase pressure
by first increasing the velocity of
the gas. Axial compressors then
slow the gas down by passing it
through curved, fixed blades,
which increases its pressure.

Calculating Power of a Centrifugal Compressor

If th e co mpression pro cess we re isentro pic and the gase s ide al,
the po wer nece ssary to co mpress the ga s fro m p1 to p2 , eq .1 which is
referred to a s the theo retical adiab atic powe r would be ne cessa ry to
u se. If power is required to compress ideal gases isothermally use eq. 2.

k p 2 (k−1)/k
Ptheo¿ k−1 Q 1 p 1 [ p 1
( ) −1] (1)

p2 ❑
P t h e o ¿Q 1 p 1 ln ( p ) (2)
1

Whe re
Q 1 = volu me flow rate in to the compre ssor
k = ratio of specific he at
p = pre ssu re
E XAMPLE:
De te rmi ne th e shaft po wer re qui red to op era te a co mpressor tha t
comp re sse s air at the ra te o f 1 m3 s fro m 10 0 kPa to 200 kPa . The
e fficien cy o f the comp re sso r is 65%.
P robl em Defi nition
Si tu ation : Co mp resso r co mpresses air at 1 m3 s fro m 10 0 kPa to 200
kPa .
Find : Re qui red shaft powe r (i n kW).
S ke tch:

Solution:
1. Theoretical power

k p 2 (k−1)/k
Ptheo = Q p [( ) −1]
k−1 1 1 p 1

= (3.5) (1m3/s)( 105 N/m2)[(2)0.286-1]

= 0.767 x 105 N.m/s
= 76.7 kW
2. Shaft power
76.7
Pshaft = kW =118 kW
0.65